Chapter

8 Ultrasonics

Introduction
The frequency of sound waves audible to human ear ranges from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The sound waves having frequencies greater than 20 kHz are called ultrasonics or supersonics. The term supersonic is generally used nowadays for sound waves having velocities greater than that of sound. Sound waves of frequencies less than 20 Hz are called infrasonics.

Production of Ultrasonics
There are different methods for the production of ultrasonics. However, the most commonly used methods are as under: 1. Mechanical method. 2. Piezoelectric generator. 3. Magnetostriction generator

Mechanical Method
This is one of the earliest methods for producing ultrasonic waves of frequencies up to 100 kHz with the help of Galtons whistle. The mechanical method is rarely used due to its limited frequency range.

Piezoelectric Generator
This method of generation of ultrasonic waves is based on piezoelectric effect and was developed by Langevin in 1917. The piezoelectric effect is then described here first before describing the piezoelectric generator. Piezoelectric Effect: It was discovered by brothers J. and P. Curie in the year 1880. They discovered that when mechanical pressures are applied to the opposite faces of certain crystal slices cut suitably, then equal and opposite electric charges are developed on other faces resulting a difference of potential. The magnitude of the potential difference so developed is proportional to the applied pressure. However, when pressure is replaced by tension, the sign of the charges is reversed. This phenomena is called piezoelectric effect. The converse effect is also possible i.e., if a potential difference is applied to the opposite faces of a crystal, then a change in dimension (i.e., a mechanical contraction or expansion) in the other faces would take place according to the direction of potential difference. The example of crystals in which this effect was best observed are Quartz, Tourmaline, Roche salt etc.
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The Piezoelectric Effect is used in piezoelectric generator for generating ultrasonics. Langevin used an oscillatory circuit to provide e.m.f. and the tuning is achieved by a variable condenser.

L2 A H.T. B Q

C1

L1

Fig. 8.1.

In Fig. 8.1 above, Q. is a crystal slice placed between metal plates A and B. This combination forms a parallel plate condenser with crystal as dielectric. The metal plates are connected to the primary of a transformer which is coupled to the oscillatory circuit of a triode valve. If the natural frequency of the oscillatory circuit of triode valve coincides with the crystal frequency, resonance will occur and the crystal is set into mechanical vibrations due to piezoelectric effect. With a quartz crystal, ultrasonics of frequencies5,40,000 Hz can be produced. To produce higher frequencies, the plate has to be very thin and strong so that it may stand the strain. Tourmaline crystal may be used to generate frequencies, 1.5 108 Hz.

Magnetostriction Generator
The principle of magnetostriction effect is utilised in this generator for production of ultrasonics. According to this effect, a bar of ferromagnetic material like iron or nickel changes in its length when it is placed in a strong magnetic field applied parallel to its length. A nickel rod placed in a rapidly varying magnetic field alternately expands and contracts with twice the frequency of the applied magnetic field. This change in length of the ferromagnetic material is independent of the polarity of applied magnetic field. The longitudinal expansion and contraction in ferromagnetic rod produces ultrasonic sound waves in the medium surrounding the nickel rod. The frequency of the ultrasonics so produced ranges from 8,000 Hz to 20,000 Hz. However, the range of frequencies depend on the mode of vibration of the ferromagnetic material and may vary from few hundred to 3,00,000 Hz. Since, the rod vibrates longitudinally, the frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration can be used as

n=

1 2l

where is the Young's modulus of the material and its density. Experimental Arrangement: To generate ultrasonics, the following circuit (Fig. 8.2) devised by G.W. Pierce is used. The specimen rod AB normally invar (36% Ni and 64% Fe) is placed inside a solenoid parallel to its axis. A high frequency current is passed through the solenoid and consequently the rod is magnetised and demagnetised with the varying current. The length of the rod, as a result of magnetostriction effect, varies and its free ends produce ultrasonics.

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A A2 C

H.T.

A1 B mA +

Fig. 8.2.

If the length of the rod is such that the frequency of its vibration is equal to the frequency of the applied current, resonance occurs and thereby the amplitude of vibration is increased. As shown in the Fig. 8.2, two co-axial coils A1 and A2 are wound on the same rod. The coil A1 is connected to the grid and the coil A2 is connected to the plate of the triode valve. The variable condenser C is so adjusted that it should produce high frequency oscillating current in the plate circuit. This current passes through the coil A2 wound on bar AB and hence produce a periodically varying magnetic field in it. This change in length of the rod, change in magnetisation of the specimen occurs i.e., the magnetic flux changes in the coil A1 which is connected to the grid. As a result of change in magnetic flux, an induced e.m.f. is produced in the coil A1 fed to the grid. This change in e.m.f. in grid circuit produce large oscillatory current in plate circuit and hence it increases the magnetostriction effect in the specimen rod and so ultrasonics is produced.

Detection of Ultrasonics
In order to detect ultrasonic waves, the following methods are used: 1. Kundts Tube Method: Ordinary sound waves are detected by this method. Likewise ultrasonic may also be detected by using Kundts tube. 2. Sensitive Flame Method: Very high frequency sound waves will change the intensity of the flame; therefore by observing the change in intensity of flame, ultrasonics may be detected. 3. Thermal Detectors: The most common type of thermal detector frequently used is a probe made of thin platinum wire. When this probe is placed in the region of ultrasonics, compressions and rarefactions take place very rapidly at nodes and it cause adiabatic changes. As a result of this, platinum probe is alternatively heated and cooled and hence its resistance changes alternatively which may be detected by suitable resistance bridge. However, no such change occurs at an antinode. This change in resistance at nodes enables one to detect ultrasonics. 4. Piezoelectric Detectors: When ultrasonic waves are allowed to fall on a pair of faces of a piezoelectric crystal like quartz, opposite charges are developed on other pair of faces perpendicular to the first. These changes are amplified by an amplifier and then detected by suitable method.

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Applications of Ultrasonics
The ultrasonic waves find its wide range of applications. However, few common applications are described below: 1. Velocity in Liquid and Gases: The stationary wave method is applied to find the velocity of ultrasonics in liquid and gases. The velocity of ultrasonics in the medium can be calculated from the relation v = n, where n is the frequency and is the wavelength of ultrasonic waves. This method is more suitable for finding the velocity of ultrasonics in liquid and gases, which are available in small quantity. 2. Velocity of Ultrasonics by Acoustic Grating: In the year 1925, Brillouin gave an alternative method for finding the velocity of ultrasonics. A liquid or solid, through which ultrasonic travel, act like an acoustic grating. The density and refractive index of the medium varies periodically. The points of compression are nodal points and the points of rarefaction are the antinodal points. The space between any two consecutive nodal points constitute the grating element. If a beam of light is allowed to pass perpendicular to the direction of ultrasonic wave, the liquid behaves as an accoustic grating. The grating element is equal to half of the wavelength of ultrasonic wave (u) u and thus the grating element d = . In analogy with the phenomena of diffraction of 2 light by plane transmission grating, we can use the similar relation d sin = n ...(1) Substituting the value of d as

or u sin = 2 n ...(2) If v be the velocity of ultrasonic wave and its frequency, then v = u ...(3) Substituting the value of u from eqn. (2) in eqn. (3), we get v = 2 n/sin ...(4) Thus, knowing , and , the velocity of ultrasonic wave can be determined. 3. Elastic Symmetry of Crystals: The phenomena of acoustic grating is used to study the elastic symmetry of crystals. If a ultrasound wave is passed through a solid or liquid and a beam of light is allowed to travel in a direction perpendicular to it, then the ultrasonic wave system will act as acoustic grating. The compressions will act like opacities and rarefactions as transparencies. If ultrasonics are allowed to pass on an isotropic crystal, we get interference fringes from which the elastic symmetry of the crystal may be studied. 4. Depth Sounding: Ultrasonics are used to find the depth of sea, to detect the position of submerged rocks, submarines etc. A strong beam of ultrasonics is transmitted and then received from the submerged object. By noting the time of travel, the depth of the sea or position of submerged object can be found from the relation

F u I sin H2K

u in equation (1), we get 2

= n

2d v where v is the velocity of sound and d is the depth of the sea.

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5. Sound Signalling: Ultrasonic waves are used for directional signalling due to their small wavelength. Since, the frequency of ultrasonic waves is very high, these waves can be sent out in the form of a beam. It is thus possible to radiate out a large amount of energy to a distance point. 6. Detection of Flaws in Metals: Ultrasonic waves are allowed to be reflected from metals. If there is any fine crack in the metal, then the asymmetry is observed in the reflected ultrasonic wave, which is indicative of any crack in the metal. 7. Alloy Formation: Metals such as iron-lead, zinc-lead, copper-lead and aluminiumcadmium cannot be alloyed in their liquid state. When ultrasonic waves of high intensity are passed through them, then they can be alloyed. 8. Metal Soldering: Metals can be soldered by putting them in ultrasonic vibrations. 9. Formation of Emulsions: When intense ultrasonic waves are passed through immiscible liquids such as water and mercury or water and oil, they are transformed into highly stable emulsions. 10. Industrial Applications: Ultrasonic waves are used for washing clothes mainly silken fabrics, in cleaning of watches and metals. A glass bar oscillating with ultrasonic frequency can bore a hole in a piece of glass or a piece of steel. 11. Biological Effects: Small animals like fish, frog etc. can be killed when exposed to ultrasonics. Ultrasonics are very useful in medical sciences. These waves have been found to be very useful for neuro patients where other conventional methods like electric shock, physiotherapy etc. fail. Ultrasonics are also used to locate eye tumour. Experimental Determination of Velocity of Sound in a Liquid: The velocity of sound in a liquid can be determined by using ultrasonics. A quartz crystal is mounted between two metal plates. These plates are connected to an audio-frequency oscillator and its frequency is so adjusted that the crystal vibrates in resonance with the oscillator. The vibration of crystal produces ultrasonics and these waves are reflected by a reflector as shown in Fig. 8.3.
To audio freq oscillator Quartz crystal S

Reflector

Fig. 8.3.

Due to superposition of forward and reflected waves, longitudinal stationary waves are formed. The density is maximum at nodes and minimum at antinodes. The arrangement is called acoustic grating. The acoustic grating is mounted on the prism table of a spectrometer. A parallel beam of sodium light (S) is allowed to incident normally on acoustic grating and diffracted light is viewed through the telescope and diffraction pattern consisting of many principal maxima is observed. The position of principal maxima is given by d sin n = n Where = wavelength of sodium light. d = grating element i.e., the distance between two nodal points

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n = angle of diffraction for nth order n = order of spectrum. It u be the wavelength of ultrasonic through the medium, then
u 2 If the resonant frequency of piezoelectric crystal be , the velocity of ultrasonic wave v = or v = 2 n/sinn This method is useful for determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves through liquid and gases at various temperature.

d =

Example 1. A quartz crystal of thickness 0.001 m is vibrating at resonance. Calculate the fundamental frequency. Given : Young modulus for quartz is 7.9 1010 Nm2 and density of quartz is 2.65 103 kg/m3. Sol. The velocity of longitudinal wave is given by v =

...(1)

Substituting the values of Y and , we get

7.9 1010 2.65 10 3 = 5460 m/sec. For the fundamental mode of vibration, thickness is given by /2 or /2 = 0.001 or = 2 0.001 m = 0.002 m. Therefore, frequency
v = =

...(2)

v 5460 = 0.002 = 2730 Hz.

EXERCISES
1. What are ultrasonics ? How are they produced ? Give their applications. 2. Write an essay on generation, detection and uses of ultrasonics. 3. What is piezoelectric effect ? Describe a method for producing ultrasonic waves using the piezoelectric effect. 4. What is magnetostriction effect ? How this effect is utilized for the production of ultrasonic waves ? 5. What is the construction of an accoustic grating ? How is this grating used to find the velocity of ultrasonic waves ? 6. Describe a laboratory method for the determination of the speed of ultrasonic waves. 7. Outline some of the special applications of ultrasonic waves which are not covered by usual sound waves.