Spin notes

Antonio Ramos
Science Faculty
National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM)
[email protected]

Abstract
The following notes cover the main topics concerning the spin-1/2 formalism,
such as the spinors and Pauli matrices. These were made specially for my under-
graduate Physics students at the UNAM’s Science Faculty. I hope the content within
these notes motivates them to continue investigating the subject of spin in more depth
and provides them with sufficient material to understand it. The notes are divided
into two Sections: Section 1 provides a brief introduction to Spin while Section 2
covers the spin-1/2 formalism. Subsections 2.2 and 2.3 present the Pauli matrices
along with their properties and how to express any two-dimensional complex ma-
trix in terms of them, respectively; the notes are mainly made from Refs. [1–5]. I
strongly recommend students consult these references for more information.

1 Spin
So far, many of the problems we have encountered in Quantum Mechanics (QM) have
been "completely" solved by means of considering particles as mass points and assuming
that their states can be entirely described through a wave function ψ depending on the
spatial variables x, y, and z, without further degrees of freedom. Along with the latter, we
have also postulated that the three dynamic variables constitute a complete set. Nonethe-
less, we must emphasize that the completeness of a set of dynamic variables needs to be
understood regarding the model of a physical situation. In other words, it would be pre-
sumptuous and unsafe to attribute completeness in any other sense to the mathematical
description of a physical system.
The wave mechanical description we have been using is indeed complete concern-
ing the simple model of a point particle, and it is remarkable the number of fundamental
problems we can solve using such a picture. Sadly, this description is unable to account
for many fine details. A wide number of quantum properties of matter can be understood
based on the discovery that many particles possess an additional degree of freedom called
the spin Ŝ, which cannot be described solely by the dynamic variables; in fact, all empir-
ical evidence points out the necessity for considering the spin of the particles in addition
to their orbital angular momentum L̂. The notion of spin will be a key concept in the
construction of multiparticle wave functions.

1
 Within QM, the spin complies with the same commutation relations obeyed by the
angular momentum h i
L̂i , L̂j = iℏεijk L̂k , (1)

but without a classical counterpart. Since Ŝx , Ŝy , and Ŝz obey Eq. (1), we can understand
Ŝ in very similar terms to L̂; in other words, we also call the spin an angular momentum.
In fact, elementary particles carry intrinsict angular momentum Ŝ in addition to their
extrinsic algular momentum L̂.
Hence, we can also write that
2
Ŝ |s, m⟩ = ℏ2 s (s + 1) |s, m⟩, (2)

Ŝz |s, m⟩ = mℏ|s, m⟩, (3)

and p
Ŝ± |s, m⟩ = ℏ (s ± m + 1) (s ∓ m)|s, m ± 1⟩, (4)
such that
1 3
s = 0, , 1, , 2, . . . and m = −s, −s + 1, . . . , s − 1, s. (5)
2 2
Since elementary particles possess a specific and immutable value of spin, integer or half-
integer, s can take either value. Let us analyze when s = 1/2, which is perhaps the most
important case of all, for this is the spin of the particles that make up ordinary matter
(protons, neutrons, and electrons), as well as quarks and leptons.

2 Spin-1/2
2.1 State kets and spinors
For s = 1/2, we have only got two m-values, m = 1/2 and m = −1/2. Therefore, there
are only two states:
1. Spin up: |+⟩ = | ↑⟩ ≡ | 12 , 21 ⟩;

2. Spin down: |−⟩ = | ↓⟩ ≡ | 12 , − 12 ⟩.

Now, let us make the following observations:

2
i) The spin is a physical observable; thus, both Ŝ and Ŝz are Hermitian operators.

ii) The set {| ↑⟩, | ↓⟩} form an orthonormal basis. That is, ⟨↑ | ↓⟩ = δ↑,↓ .

Applying operators of Eqs. (2)-(4) to the spin up and spin down states we obtain:
2 3 2 3
Ŝ | ↑⟩ = ℏ2 | ↑⟩, Ŝ | ↓⟩ = ℏ2 | ↓⟩; (6)
4 4
ℏ ℏ
Ŝz | ↑⟩ = | ↑⟩, Ŝz | ↓⟩ = − | ↓⟩; (7)
2 2

2
 Ŝ+ | ↑⟩ = 0, Ŝ+ | ↓⟩ = ℏ| ↑⟩; (8)
Ŝ− | ↑⟩ = ℏ| ↓⟩, Ŝ− | ↓⟩ = 0. (9)
Since the set {| ↑⟩, | ↓⟩} form a basis, we can write a general spin-1/2 state |α⟩ as

|α⟩ = 1̂s1/2 |α⟩ = (| ↑⟩⟨↑ | + | ↓⟩⟨↓ |) |α⟩ = α+ | ↑⟩ + α− | ↓⟩, (10)

such that α± ∈ C. Normalizing it (⟨α|α⟩ = 1), we get that ∥α+ ∥2 + ∥α− ∥2 = 1; in other
words, our construction is consistent with all our previous background.
Manipulations with the state kets of spin-1/2 systems can be conveniently carried out
using the Pauli two-component formalism introduced in 1926. Within this formalism, we
express our base kets as
   
1 0
| ↑⟩ = χ+ ≡ and | ↓⟩ = χ− ≡ , (11)
0 1

such that  
α+
|α⟩ = χ ≡ = α+ χ+ + α− χ− (12)
α−
is known as a two-component Spinor. The reader can easily verify that χ+ χ†+ + χ− χ†− =
Id2 , where Id2 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix.
Following the Pauli two-component spinor formalism, it results convenient to express
all spin operators as 2 × 2 complex matrices as follows:
 
2 a b
1. Let us write S = and use that S 2 χ+ = 34 ℏ2 χ+ and S 2 χ− = 34 ℏ2 χ− :
c d
    
a b 1 3 2 1 3
= ℏ ⇒ a = ℏ2 and c = 0;
c d 0 4 0 4
    
a b 0 3 2 0 3
= ℏ ⇒ d = ℏ2 and b = 0.
c d 1 4 1 4
 
3 1 0
∴ S 2 = ℏ2 (13)
4 0 1
 
a+ b+
2. Analogously, let us denote S + = and appeal to the fact that S + χ+ = 0
c+ d+
and S + χ− = ℏχ+ :
    
a+ b + 1 0
= ⇒ a+ = 0 = c + ;
c+ d + 0 0
    
a+ b + 0 1
=ℏ ⇒ b+ = ℏ and d+ = 0.
c+ d+ 1 0
 
0 1
∴ S+ = ℏ . (14)
0 0

3
 3. As with the S + matrix, we obtain that
 
0 0
∴ S− = ℏ . (15)
1 0
 
1
4. Recalling that Ŝ± = Ŝx ± iŜy , we obtain that Ŝx = 2
Ŝ+ + Ŝ− and Ŝy =
 
1
2i
Ŝ+ − Ŝ− . Hence,

   
ℏ 0 1 ℏ 0 −i
Sx = and S y = . (16)
2 1 0 2 i 0
 
az b z ℏ
5. Finally, let us express S z = and use the fact that S z χ+ = χ
2 +
and
cz d z
S z χ− = − ℏ2 χ− :
    
az b z 1 ℏ 1 ℏ
= ⇒ az = and cz = 0;
cz d z 0 2 0 2
    
az b z 0 ℏ 0 ℏ
=− ⇒ dz = − and bz = 0.
cz d z 1 2 1 2
 
ℏ 1 0
∴ Sz = . (17)
2 0 −1

We note that all matrices S x , S y , and S z carry out the same prefactor ℏ/2. Hence, it
turns out convenient to write them all as S i = ℏ2 σ i (i = x, y, z), such that
     
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx = , σy = , and σ z = (18)
1 0 i 0 0 −1

are the well-known Pauli matrices. In general, these matrices are building blocks for the
description of any quantum system with a two-dimensional state space.

2.2 Pauli matrices

Having defined the Pauli matrices σ x , σ y , and σ z , let us now list their properties.
The Pauli matrices are:

1. Hermitian (σ †i = σ i ∀i = x, y, z):
 ∗  

∗ 0 1 0 1
σ †x = σT
x = = = σx.
1 0 1 0

Analogue for the remaining matrices.

4
2. Involutory (σ −1
i = σ i ∀i = x, y, z):
 T
1 0 −1
σ −1
x = T
C = −1 = σx,
det σ x σx −1 0

where the symbol Cσx denotes the cofactor matrix. The procedure is the same for
the remaining matrices.

3. Unitary (σ †i σ i = σ i σ †i = Id2 ⇒ σ †i = σ −1
i ∀i = x, y, z):

We have from 1 and 2 that σ i = σ †i = σ −1

i ∀i = x, y, z.

4. The determinant for all Pauli’s matrices is −1.

5. Pauli matrices trace is zero.

These last two properties can be easily verified by the reader.

6. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors:

σ x x = λx ⇒ det (σ x − λId2 ) = 0 ⇐⇒ λ = ±1.

i) λ = 1:         
0 1 u u v u
= ⇒ = .
1 0 v v u v
   
1 √1
1
Let u be 1; then, x = . Normalizing the vector we obtain x̂ = .
1 2 1
ii) λ = −1:    ′  ′  ′   ′
0 1 u −u v −u
= ⇒ = .
1 0 v′ −v ′ u′ −v ′
 
1 1
Let u be 1; then, x̂′ = √2 .
−1
Performing an analogous procedure to σ y and σ z , we obtain that in both cases the
eigenvalues are also 1 and −1. On the other hand, the eigenvectors are
   
1 1 ′
1 1
ŷ = √ , ŷ = √ ;
2 i 2 −i
and    
1 ′ 0
ẑ = , ẑ =
0 1
for σ y and σ z , respectively.

7. Commutation relations:

(a)  
1 0
[σ x , σ y ] = σ x σ y − σ y σ x = 2i = 2iσ z ;
0 −1

5
 (b)  
0 −i
[σ z , σ x ] = σ z σ x − σ x σ z = 2i = 2iσ y ;
i 0
(c)  
0 1
[σ y , σ z ] = σ y σ z − σ z σ y = 2i = 2iσ x .
1 0

∴ [σ i , σ j ] = 2iεijk σ k . (19)
n o 
8. Anticommutation relations Â, B̂ = ÂB̂ + B̂ Â .
Following an analogous procedure to the commutation relations we obtain that
{σ i , σ j } = 2δij Id2 , for i, j = x, y, z.

9. The square of Pauli’s matrices is equal to the identity matrix.

    
2 0 1 0 1 1 0
σx = = ;
1 0 1 0 0 1

analogous for σ y and σ z .

2.3 The Pauli matrices as a basis

As we know, states and operators are described within a vector space called state space.
While the latter is generally of infinite dimensions, two-dimensional spaces play a central
role in quantum problems. For instance, we require them to describe any two-state quan-
tum system; the operators associated with these systems can be written in terms of 2 × 2
complex matrices. This subsection aims to show that we can express any 2 × 2 complex
matrix (A ∈ M2×2 (C)) in terms of the identity matrix Id2 plus the Pauli matrices.
In other words, we need to prove that the set {σ 0 ≡ Id2 , σ x , σ y , σ z } forms a basis in
the space of 2 × 2 complex matrices. Then, we need to demonstrate that: i) the elements
are linearly independent and ii) any A ∈ M2×2 (C) can be written in terms of them. In
order to facilitate the following developments, let us change the notation of x, y, and z
subscript to 1, 2, and 3.
P3
i) Let us consider the linear combination Ω = ℓ=0 dℓ σ ℓ , with dℓ ∈ C ∀ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3,
and prove that Ω = 0 ⇐⇒ dℓ = 0.
    (
d0 + d3 d1 − id2 0 0 d0 + d3 = 0, d0 − d3 = 0
= ⇐⇒
d1 + id2 d0 − d3 0 0 d1 + id2 = 0, d1 − id2 = 0
⇐⇒ dℓ = 0 ∀ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3.

P3
ii) We ought to prove now that A = ℓ=0 dℓ σ ℓ , ∀A ∈ M2×2 (C). Let us commence

6
  
A11 A12
writing A = such that Aij ∈ C ∀i, j ∈ {1, 2}; then,
A21 A22
    (
A11 A12 d0 + d3 d1 − id2 A11 = d0 + d3 , A22 = d0 − d3
= ⇐⇒
A21 A22 d1 + id2 d0 − d3 A12 = d1 − id2 , A21 = d1 + id2
1 1
⇒ d0 = (A11 + A22 ) , d1 = (A12 + A21 ) ,
2 2
i 1
d2 = (A12 − A21 ) , and d3 = (A11 − A22 ) .
2 2

Hence, we have demonstrated that the set {σ ℓ }ℓ=0,...,3 forms a basis for the 2 × 2 com-
plex matrices. This result is advantageous since the Pauli matrices represent a very con-
venient set of matrices to work in several quantum problems involving a two-dimensional
set space.
Now, we can write any operator acting on a two-dimensional state space as a linear
combination of the Pauli matrices plus the identity matrix, especially the Hermitian oper-
ators which we know represent physical observables. Then, let us see what happens with
these operators in terms of the d coefficients.
(
A∗11 = A11 , A∗22 = A22
A† = A ⇐⇒
A∗12 = A21 , A∗21 = A12 ,

1 1
⇒ d0 = (A11 + A22 ) , d3 = (A11 − A22 ) ∈ R,
2 2
and
1 ∗ i
d1 = (A21 + A21 ) = ReA21 , d2 = (A∗21 − A21 ) = ImA21 ∈ R.
2 2
Hence, while for any 2 × 2 complex matrix, the set {dℓ }ℓ=0,...,3 ∈ C, for a Hermitian
matrix {dℓ }ℓ=0,...,3 ∈ R.

References
[1] E. Merzbacher, Quantum Mechanics, 3rd Ed. Wiley India Pvt. Limited.

[2] D. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

[3] L. Ballentine, Quantum Mechanics: A Modern Development (2nd Edition). World

Scientific Publishing Company, 2014.

[4] F. Schwabl, Quantum Mechanics. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007.

[5] J. Sakurai and J. Napolitano, Modern Quantum Mechanics. Cambridge University

Press, 2017.