Course No.

: PATH 121
[Fundamentals of Plant Pathology]

Course teacher
Prof. J. S. suryawanshi
Assistant Professor
(Plant Pathology)
College of Agriculture, Dhule-424 004
 Chapter -1
Introduction
 Plants are the only higher organisms that can convert the energy of
sunlight into stored, usable chemical energy in carbohydrates,
proteins and fats. All animals including humans depends on these
plant substances for survival.

 Plants whether cultivated or wild grow and produce well as long as

the soil provides them with sufficient nutrients, moisture, sufficient
lights and temperature within a normal range.

 Plants however also goes sick, grow and exhibit various types of
symptoms and sometimes whole plant die. It is not known whether
diseased plant feel pain or discomfort. If a plant is looking different
from its community then it is equal to be diseased one. Any biotic or
abiotic agent which induce the disease in plant is referred as the
cause of diseases.

 The causative agents of disease in plants are pathogenic such as

fungi, bacteria. viruses, protozoa and nematodes and environmental
conditions such as lack or excess of nutrients, temperature, light etc.
presence of toxic chemical in air or soil.
Plant Pathology or Phytopathology :
It is a science that deals with the study of diseases of plants, their
development and control.

Phytopathology :
Phyton = Plants, Pathos= Disease, logos= Science.

Plant disease :
A malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation which
results in some suffering-producing symptoms. The continuous irritation
may be brought about by living and non living factors (environmental)
because of which the particular process in metabolic and catabolic activity
of plant cells is disrupted leading to development of symptoms as a
reaction to such suffering. These may be brought about by utilizing host
cell content, by death of tissue, excess production of enzymes, toxins,
growth regulators, loss of nutrition and interference in translocation of
food, minerals & water.
Diseases for plants have been known since ancient time.
Definitions.
Disease : is defined as a disturbance in the rhythmical equilibrium in the
activities of host in respect of structure or physiology or both, leading to the
death of a part or entire host, or reduce the economic value of the products.

OR
Disease : is a complex phenomenon, it is an interaction between the host,
the pathogen and the environment.

OR
Disease : is malfunctioning process caused by continuous irritation, which
results in some suffering producing symptoms.

Or
A structural abnormality or physiological disorder or both due to an
organism or unfavorable conditions that may affect the plant or its parts or
products or may reduce the economic value .
Plant diseases are caused by biotic agents like fungi, bacteria,
actinomycetes, phytoplasma, viruses, nematodes, flowering
parasites or by abiotic agents like unfavorable environmental
conditions or nutritional deficiencies. Study of plant pathology
includes the study of mycology, nematology, protozology,
phycology, unfavorable environmental factors, nutritional
deficiencies and flowering plant parasites.
 Branches of Plant Pathology :
Microbiology : Study of Micro organisms
Mycology: Study of Fungi
Bacteriology : Study of Bacteria
 Virology : Study of Viruses
Nematogy : Study of Nematodes
Protozoology : Study of Protozoa
Phycology : Study of Algae
 Objectives of Plant Pathology :
Plant Pathology or Phytopathology is one among the
branches of Agricultural sciences that deals with cause,
etiology, resulting the losses and management of plant
diseases with following four major objectives .

i. Study the disease (s) / disorders caused by biotic and

abiotic agents (s)
ii. Study the mechanism (s) of disease development by Plant
Pathogens.
iii. Study the interaction between plant and pathogen in
relation to overall environment.
iv. To develop suitable management strategies for
managing the diseases and losses caused by them.
 Economic importance of Plant diseases:
The plant diseases are very important because they causes enormous
losses to the cultivated crop. The losses due to plant diseases accounts
around 26% in field, storage and transportation.
1. Impact of plant diseases on population :
 The late blight of potato is a famous example in history of plant
pathology, the disease assume epidemic proportion in Ireland in 1845
devastating the whole potato crop. The potato being the staple food of
people & because of non availability of it, around 20 lakh people died due
to starvation & migration of population to other lands including North
American continent.
 Helminthosporium leaf spot of rice devasted rice crop in west Bengal in
India during 1942-43 & thousands of people died because of hunger &
migrated to other part of country.
2. Change in Agri Pattern :
The diseases like coffee rust in Ceylon had changed the economy of
country & shifting to other plantation crop like tea.
In 1885 there was epidemic of coffee rust in Ceylon which devasted the
entire coffee ,Due to the rust yield of coffee went down from 228 kg/
acre to 101 kg/acre by 1878 & because of which by 1893 the coffee
export of Ceylon reduced by 93% thus making huge loss. The coffee rust
became so Severe that Ceylon has to shift itself to cultivation of tea.
3. Food Poisoning :
The poisoning of food due to plant disease is another evil. There is death
of people & animal due to consumption of contaminated rye with ergot,
which produces toxin fetal to human beings & animals.
Also production of aflatoxin by Aspergillus flavus in foodstuff is also fetal
to human beings.
4. Impact on Industry : The certain agro industries are also affected due to
supply of the diseased raw material. e.g. The disease red rot of
sugarcane affects the sugar industries because of poor recovery of sugar
from such infested material which in turn increases the cost of
production.
5. Impact on science : The plant disease system had provided a great
scope for expanding the areas of human knowledge regarding, Micro-
organism, their taxonomy, ecology, physiology & biochemistry,genetic,
molecular & cellular biology & managements practices for control of crop
diseases.
6. Useful plant diseases : The man has commercially exploited the plant
disease for economic gain & aesthetic value for ex. Tulip breaking the
disease of flower of tulip which cause variegation in flower of tulip are
much prized & covered in west.
The fungus Cytosphaeria mangiferae infecting the Aquilaria agallocha in
Pakistan, produces a fragrant perfume known as ‘uttar’ in Indian
 Chapter No. 2
History of Plan Pathology

By studying the history of science, we get a better perspective of the

subject we come to know the contributions made in that fields the
problems that are encountered and the manner in which they are tackled.

The history of Plant pathology is divided into different five eras.

1. Ancient era : Ancient to 5th Century (476 A.D.)

2. Dark era : 5th to 16th Century (476 A.D. to 1600)
3. Premodern era : 17th Century to 1853 (1600 to 1853)
4. Modern era : 1853 to 1906
5. Present era : 1906 onwards
1) Ancient era : Ancient to 5th Century (476 A.D.)

1. Diseases in plant have been known since ancient times

2. Rust, blight, mildews, smuts were familiar to Hebrews,
Greeks, Romans, Chinese and Indians, Plant diseases
were recorded in Vedas (Rugveda, Atharveda) ad early as
1200 B. C.
3. Symptoms and control of disease have been mentioned in
“VRIKSHAYURVED” by Surapal in ancient India.
4 Definite mention of plant diseases has seen in Buddhist
literature of 500 B.C.
5.Theophrastus (300 B.C.) a great botanist noted occurrence
of crop diseases and suggested some remedies to control
them. he also wrote about plant diseases in this era.
Lord pliny 100 A.D . He described plant diseases and
suggested some remedies.He believed that disease
originates from the plants or from the environment.
 Plant pathology made very little progress during this era. Some Arabians
like
Ibnal-awan described symptoms and control measures for some plant
diseases

1440 : Printing was introduced in Europe and this reflected interest in learning
science.
3. Premodern era 18th century to 1853 (1600 to 1853)

Robert Hooke (1665)

The father of cell theory . He had developed or invented first compound
microscope. He reported that plant tissues are made up of minute units
called as cells.

Antony Van Leeuveen hoek (1676)

A Dutch worker from Holland. He invented first simple microscope with home
ground lenses between two plates. He described different types of protozoa
and bacteria as “Little animalcules”. All unicellular microorganisms (Protozoa,
algae and bacteria) were firstly recorded by him.

P.A. Micheli -1729

An Italian Botanist studied several fungi and described their morphology for
John Needham -1743
Reported plant parasitic nematodes in wheat galls.

Carlous Linnaeus -1753

Established Latin Binomial system of Nomenclature of plants and animals in
his book “Species Plant”.

Tillet -1755
Proved that Bunt of wheat is contagious disease and can be controlled by
seed treatment.

Prevost -1807
A French Botanist suggested CuSO4 seed treatment for Bunt of Wheat.
This is known as autogenic or physiologic period , since plant diseases were
distinctly physiologic with tendency towards the mycology. At the end of the
period it was clear the fungi were very closely associated with diseases.
In 1845 late blight of potato (lrish Potato Famine) was appeared in Ireland ,
over one million people get died and one and half millions get migrated and
the history entered the next era.
4.Modern era :1853 to 1906 .
This is known as pathogenic period which was devoted the study of role of
fungi causing plant diseases.
Anton de Bary 1853 : He Proved that late blight of potato was caused by
Phytophora infestans. Founder or Father of Plant Pathology.

T.J. Burril 1873 : American Plant Pathologist. He proved bacterial Nature of

Fire Blight of Apple and Pear (Envinia amylovara)

Robert Koch 1876 : Bacterial nature of Anthrax disease in animal (1881)

Gelatin is used as solidifying agent in culture media which is replaced
by Agar Agar . He described the theory called “KOCH’S POSTULATES” .

Steps in Koch`s postulate – i Association ii Isolation iii Inoculation

iv .Reisolation

P.A.Millardet 1882-85 : Use of Bordeaux mixture(CuSO4 + Lime) for control

of Downey mildew of grapes.
Adolf Mayer 1886 : Described TMV and proved that TMV should be
transmitted from diseased plant to healthy plants.

Jenson 1887 : Hot water treatment for loose smut of wheat.

E.F. Smith 1890: Father of Phytobactetriology. He worked on bacterial

wilt of cucurbit and crown gall diseases.

Iwanowski 1892:Demonstrated that Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) can

pass through bacteria proof filters and proved filterable nature of viruses.

Cragie 1827: Showed function of Puccinia in rust fungi.

Biffen 1905: Pioneers in Genetic of Plant disease resistance.

5. Present era : 1906 onwards.
The present or current era commencing from 1906 has since
remarkable discoveries.

J.C. Luthra 1931 : Solar heat treatment for loose smut of wheat.

W.M.Stanley 1935 :He proved crystalline nature of virus. He got Nobel

Prize.

F.C. Bowden & Pierie 1936:Nucleoproteinous nature of virus.

G.H. Flor 1955:Gene for gene theory hypothesis.

Doi & Asuyama :Discovered mycoplasma like organisms(MLO)

responsible for yellows type of disease.
Important Contribution of Indian Phytopathologists
E.J. Butler (1874-1943):Empirical mycologist at LARI, New Delhi Since
1905 to 1921 and trained many workers in Mycological and plant
pathological Research, he wrote a Book “Fungi and Diseases in Plants”
in 1918. He is called as the “Father of Modern Plant pathology in India”

K.C. Mehta (1892-1950) :Physiology & Epidemiology of cereal rusts in

country. Monograph on further studies on cereal rusts in India in 1940.

B.B. Mundkar (1896-1892):Worked on cotton wilt in Bombay state,

published ustilaginales in India. Pioneer in establishment of Indian
phylopathological society (IPS) in 1947 and Indian phylopathology in
1918. He worked on Smut Fungi. He wrote a book “Fungi and Plant
Diseases”.

J.F. Dastur :He worked on “Anthracnose of cotton”. Cotton wilt, pink disease
of citrus, foot rot of Betelvine. He published 36 original papers & 4
books.
B.N. Uppal:He worked on Downey mildew of maize ,bajara and showed
physiological specialization in Sclerospora graminicola. He worked on several
fungal and bacterial diseases.

G.S. Kulkarni: Downey mildew of Sorghum and Pearl millet. Sorghum Smut.

V.P. Bhide:Bacterial Diseases of plant.

M.J. Thirumalachar:500 research papers, 20 genera and 300 species of fungi. He

discovered antibiotic Aureofungin.

G. Rangaswami.:He worked on ,Nematode, bacterial and other diseases. Published

5 books of Microbiology and plant pathology and over 300 research papers.

P.N.Patel.: Bacterial diseases of Plants.

 Lecture No. 3 & 4 Terms and concepts .
1. Immunity : * The state of being immune .
 Freedom from a given disease due to lack
of quantities permitting infection or possession of
qualities that do not permit establishment of
infection .
 To develop resistance against infection

2. Immune :  Can not be infected by a pathogen .

 Exempt from disease.
3. Immunization : It is a process to make the host immune.
4. Infection : The establishment of parasite within the host .
5. Perpetuation : Survival of pathogen in absence of main host .
6. Incubation period : The period of time between penetration of a host
by a pathogen and the first appearance of
symptoms on the host.

7. Polygenic resistance : The resistance controlled by many genes .

8. Setae (Singular) : Bristle like structures found in some fungal
Seta (Plural) fruiting bodies .
9. Antherezoid : A motile male gamete.
10. Blastospores : A type of fungal spore produced asexually by
budding process.
11. Parasite An organism living on or in another living
organism (host) and obtaining food from it.
12. Saprophyte : An organism living on dead organic matter
13. Facultative parasite : Having a ability to be a parasite but it is
ordinarily saprophyte .
14. Facultative : An organism that is ordinarily parasite but under
saprophyte certain conditions may be saprophyte
15. Obligate parasite : A parasite that in nature can grow and
multiply only on or in living organism/ host .
16. Hyperparasite : A parasite parasitic on another parasite .
17. Homothallic : A fungi producing compatible male and female
gametes on the same mycelium .
18. Heterothallic : Fungi producing compatible male and female
gametes on the physiologically distinct
mycelium .
19. Holocarpic : An individual with thallus entirely converted in to
reproductive structure .
20. Eucarpic : An individual whose thallus is not entirely converted in to
reproductive structure .
21 Dikaryosis : Mycelium or spores containing sexually compatible
nuclei per cell. It common in basidiomycetes

22. Plamogamy : Fusion of protoplasm .

23. Karyogamy : Fusion of nuclei .
24. Spore :  A one to several celled body, set apart for reproduction
 A minute reproductive unit without a preformed embryo .
25 Haustoria (Haustorium) : Special branch of fungus hyphae, especially Intracellular
hypha , within the living cell to absorb nutrients. Also root
like absorbing organ connecting parasitic seed plant to the
vascular system of the host.
26 Apresoria (Apresorium) : Swollen or flat end of mycelium , derives the nutrients
from host .
27 Alternate host :  One of two kinds of plants on which a parasitic fungus
(e.g. rust) must develop for completion of its life cycle .
Wild host of other family than the host are called
as alternate host.
28 Collateral host : Wild host of same family of main host are
called as collateral host These are mainly
wild grasses e. g. Blast of paddy

29 Anamorph : The imperfect or asexual stage of a fungus.

30 Teliomorph : The sexual or so called perfect growth

stage in fungi.
31 Signs : Signs are the experimental or scientific
evidences of the diseases .

32 Symptoms : Symptoms are expression of diseased

condition
33 Chronic : Symptoms that appears over a long period of
symptoms time
34 Masked symptoms : Virus infected plant symptoms that are
absent under certain environmental condition
but can appeared when the host is exposed
to certain condition of light and temperature .
35 Symptomless : The infected plant showing no obvious
carrier symptoms, though its infected with pathogen.
36 Conjugation : A process of sexual reproduction involving
fusion of two gametes. Also in bacteria, the
transfer of genetic material from a donor cell
to a recipient cell through direct cell to cell
contact.
37 Horizontal : Partial resistance equally effective against all
resistance races of a pathogen
38 Vertical resistance : Complete resistance to some races of a
pathogen but not to others
39 Host : A plant that is invaded by a parasite and from
which the parasite obtain its nutrients
40 Pathogen : An entity, usually a microorganism that can
incite disease .
41 Hypersensitivity : Excessive sensitivity of plant tissue to certain
pathogens. Affected cells are killed quickly,
blocking in advance of obligate parasite
42 Inoculum : The pathogen or its parts that can cause infection.
The portion (propogule) of individual pathogen
that are brought in to contact with the host
43 Propagule : The part of an organism that can reproduce or
regenerate and can be disseminated .
44 Resistance : The ability of an individual to exclude or overcome ,
completely or in some degree, the effect of a
pathogen or other damaging factor.

45 Susceptibility : The plant without inherent capacity to resist the

attack by a pathogen or disease .
46 Tolerance : The ability of a plant to sustain the effects of a
disease without dying or suffering serious injury or
crop loss.
47 Non host resistance : Inability of a pathogens to infect a plant because
the plant is not a host of the pathogen due to lack
of something in the plant that the pathogen needs.
48 Paraphysis : A sterile hyphae present in some fruiting bodies of
fungi.
49. Periphysis : Hair like growth or projection lining the inner wall
of ostiole of stroma .
50. Pathogenicity : The capacity of a pathogen to cause disease .
51. Phytoalexin : Substance which inhibit the development of a
fungus on hypersensitive tissue, formed when host
plant cells come in contact with the fungus.

52 L. D. 50 (Lethal dose : The minimum concentration of toxic compound

50%) that kills 50% of the population, inhibition/
I..C.50( Inhibitory suppress 50% of spore germination or cause 50%
Concentration 50%) inhibition of growth

53 Anemochory : The dispersion of plant pathogen by means of

wind .
54 Hydrochory : The dispersion of plant pathogen propagules by
means of water .
55. Entomochory : The dispersion of plant pathogen propagules by
means of insect .
 Lecture No.5. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES
I. Classification of plant Diseases on the basis of causes: According
to causes diseases are classified as Non Infectious diseases & Infectious diseases.
A. Non infectious diseases :Are due to abiotic causes / factors :
These includes mainly the deficiencies or excesses of nutrients, light, moisture,
aeration , abnormalities in soil conditions, atmospheric impurities, etc
1. Due to unfavorable Soil conditions.
a. Physical composition:-Soil structure, soil moisture, soil aeration eg. Dieback and
wilts.
b. Chemical composion:- Excess or deficiency of elements e.g. Mango tip rot or fruit
necrosis, khaira disease of rice, Hollow and black heart of potato
2. Due to unfavourable climatic conditions:-
a. Temperature- High temperature effects- sunscald of vegetables &
Low Temp effects -freezing injury in apples..
b. Relative Humidity, rains and snow.
c. Wind and Hail
d. Light and lightening:- Etiolation of leaves.
3. Diseases due unfavourable practices, chemical and mechanical injury.
4. Diseases due to fumes, gases and smoke :-Hydrogen fluoride causes toxicity in tulip
& corns.
5. Diseases due to plant metabolic products and storage.eg Black Heart of potato.
 B. Infectious diseases/ Biotic causes / factors:
1. Mesobiotic causes / factors:
These are disease incitants which are neither living nor nonliving. They are
considered to be threshold of life.
1.Viruses –These are infectious agents made up of one type of nucleic acid (RNA or
DNA) enclosed in protein coat e. g. Potato leaf roll, leaf curl of tomato and Chilli mosaic .
2.Viroids – Naked infectious strands of nucleic acid e.g. spindle tuber of potato, citrus
exocortis, and tomato bunchy top.
2.Virusoids, Prions and others.
2. Biotic causes: This category includes diseases caused by living or animate or cellular
organisms.
1. Prokaryotes –A microorganism whose genetic material is not organized in to
membrane bound nucleus.
a. Mollicutes –These are wall less prokaryotes that includes Mycoplasma
like Organisms (MLO) and Spiro plasma, e. g. Grassy shoot of sugarcane, little leaf of
brinjal, Sandal spike and Papaya bunchy top caused by Mycoplasma. Citrus
stubborn and stunt disease – caused by Spiroplasma.
b. Rickettsia Like Bacteria (RLBs): These are very small, sometimes submicroscopic,
walled bacteria e. g. Citrus greening and pierce`s disease.

c. True bacteria – e. g. Brown rot or wilt of potato, soft rot of potato, and vegetables.
Leaf blight of rice, citrus canker, sugarcane ratoon stunting disease, Angular leaf spot
of cotton.
2. Eukaryotes –
a. Fungi- Nearly 70% of disease (major and minor) in any plant species of
economic important are caused by fungi e.g. Wart of potato, Cabbage club root ,
Potato late blight, Downy mildew, powdery mildew, rust and smut , red rot of
sugarcane .
b. Protozoa – Heart rot of coconut palm, phloem necrosis of coffee.
c. Algae – Red rust of mango, papaya etc.
d. Metazoan animals (Nematodes) - Root knot of vegetables, Molya disease of
wheat and barley, Ear cockle of wheat, citrus decline .
e. Flowering plant parasites – Besides microorganisms certain flowering plants
also parasitize the cultivated crop plants.
1.Cuscuta/Dodder- complete stem parasite of Onion, Alfaalfa Linseed etc
2. Loranthus/Giant Mistetoes-Partial stem parasite of Mango, Citrus etc.
3.Broomrape/Orobanche- Complete root parasite of Tobacco, Tomato etc
4.Striga/Witchweed-Partial root parasite of Jowar, maize etc.
II. Classification of Plant diseases on the basis of occurrence & severity :
1. Endemic disease : The word endemic means “prevalent in’ and confined to a
particular country or district” and applied to disease. A disease is classified as endemic
when it is constantly present in moderate to severe form and is confined to a particular
country or district. e.g . Club root disease of cabbage is endemic in Nilgiri district.
Alternaria leaf spot of Onion in Nasik district .
2. Epidemic or epiphytotic disease : A disease usually occurs widely but periodically in a
destructive form is referred as epidemic or Epiphytotic disease. e.g. Powdery mildew
disease in grapevine.
3. Sporadic disease: Sporadic disease is one which occur at irregular interval and
locations and relatively fewer instances. In reality, sporadic diseases belongings to the
epidemic group. e.g. Udubatta disease in rice , Angular leaf spot of cotton .
4. Pandemic diseases: These occurs all over the word and result in mass mortality. e.g.
Damping of disease of Tomato ,Late blight of potato.
III. Classification of Plant diseases on the basis of symptoms produced:
1.Hypoplasia: In these diseases there is under development of host tissue due to
infection of the pathogen e. g. Bunchy top of Banana, Yellow vein mosaic of Bhendi or
Okra.
2.Hyperplasia: In these diseases there is over development of host tissue due to
production of toxins or growth regulating substances e. g. Root gall, Leaf curl etc.
3.Terotological phenomenon: In this case where the plant parts lose their original
appearance & takes up different forms. This may be due to genetical or pathological
factors e.g. Smut of Jowar, Rust of Wheat.
4.Necrotic: Under such symptoms the host tissue is destroyed and killed e.g. Blight,
Wilt Rots, Cankers, Spots, Damping-off, scab.
 Chapter No.5
Concepts of Plant Disease and Diseases Triangle

Old concept of Plant disease:

Plant diseases were considered to be a curse and punishment to the
people by god for wrong and since they had committed religious belief
superstition .
The Greek philosopher Theophrasrus (300 B.C.) was the first to study and
write about diseases of trees, cereals and legumes. He wrote a book
named “Enquiry in to Plants”. In this book he mentioned his experiences
about plant diseases. His experience was not based on experimentation.
He being unable to explain diseases. He believed that God controlled the
weather that brought diseases. Plant diseases were a manifestation of the
worth of God. It is due to religious belief. , superstitions or it is the effect of
star moon and bad wind.
This was continued for almost 2000 years after Theophrastus. After
invention of compound microscope in the mid 1600 ,scientist enable to see
many microorganisms associated with diseased plants and they come to
believe that the mildews, rust and other symptoms observed on plants and
microorganism found on diseased plant. Plant parts were the natural
product of diseases than the cause and effect of diseases.
Louis Pasteur (1860-63) provided irrefusable evidence that
microorganisms arise only from pre-existing microorganisms and
fermentation is a biological phenomenon not just a chemical one.

New concept of Plant disease :

It is accepted that a plant is healthy or normal when it can carry out its
physiological functions to the best of its genetic potentials.
1. Cell division, differentiation and development.
2. Absorption of water and nutrients
3. Translocation of nutrients and water synthesis.
4. Photosynthesis.
5. Translocation and Metabolism or store the photosynthetic products.
6. Production of seed or reproductive organs or survival and
multiplication.

Whenever the ability of the cells of a plant or plant part to carryout

one or more of these essential functions is interfered other by a
pathogenic microorganism or adverse environmental factor. The
activities of the cells die or plants become diseased.
Pathogen may cause diseases in plant by :

1.Weakening the host by continuously absorbing food from the host cells
for their own use.

2.Killing or disturbing metabolism of host cells through toxins enzymes or

growth regulating substances, they secrete.

3.Blocking the transportation of food, mineral, nutrients and water through

the conductive tissues.

4.Consuming the contents of the host cells upon contact.

 Disease Triangle

Pathogen

Host Environment

Pathogen : Virulent , abundant and active

Host : Susceptibility, stage and density of crop

Environment : temperature, moisture and wind

velocity.
 Chapter 5
IMPORTANT PLANT PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Sr. Particulars Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
No
1. Group of organisms Bacteria and BGA Algae, protozoa, fungi,
plants and animal cells.
2. Size range < 1-2 x 1-4  m > 5  m in width or
diameter
3. Nucleus
i) Not bounded by Bounded by membrane
membrane
ii) One circular One or more linear
chromosome without chromosomes
histones containing histones
iii) No mitotic division Mitotic nuclear division
4. Sexuality Zygote is partially Zygote is diploid
diploid (merozygotic)
5. Mesosomes Present Absent
6. Ribosomes 70 S 80 S arrayed on
membrane as in
endoplasmic reticulum ,
70 S in mitochondria
and chloroplast
7. Mitochondria, golgi Absent May be present
structures,
chloroplasts,
endoplasmic reticulum
8. Cytoplasmic Generally does not Contains sterols
membrane contain sterols
9. Cell-wall Peptidoglycan present Peptidoglycan absent
1 Locomotion Simple fibril Multi-fibril
0
1 Metabolism Wide, anaerobic energy Glycolysis is the
1 yielding reactions. pathway for anaerobic
Some fix N2, some energy yielding
accumulate poly- mechanism.
hydroxybutyrate as
reserve material
 Groups of Microorganisms :
1) Bacteria :These are the unicellular, prokaryotic organisms or simple
associations of similar cells. Cell multiplication is usually by binary
fission.
2) Fungi: These are microbes devoid of chlorophyll, usually multicellular,
but are not differentiated into roots, stems and leaves. They range in
size from single celled microscopic yeasts to multicellular mushrooms
and puff balls. The fungi reproduce by fission, budding or by means of
spores borne on fruiting bodies.
3) Algae : These are relatively simple organisms; most primitive types are
unicellular. All algal cells are capable of photosynthesis and are found
most commonly in aquatic environments or in damp soils.
4) Protozoa : These are single celled, eukaryotic protists differentiated on
the basis of morphological, nutritional and physiological characteristics.
Some cause diseases in human beings and animals.
5) Viruses :They are very small parasites or pathogens of plants, animals
and bacteria as well as some other protists. They can be seen only
under electron microscope and can be cultivated only on living cells
(obligate parasites).
 1.BACTERIA
Bacteria are the microscopic, possess rigid cellwall,
unicellular, prokaryotic protists lacking chlorophyll and divide
chiefly by transverse binary fission. Among the major
characteristics of bacterial cells are their size, shape,
structure and arrangement, which constitute the morphology
of the cell.
MORPHOLOGY OF BACTERIA
I. Size: Size of a bacterium is measured in terms of micrometer (µ).
1/µm = 1000th of one mm
The bacteria are minute, single celled organisms, ranging in size 0.75
to 1.25 /µ in diameter of a spherical cell and 0.5 to 1.25 µ x 2.0 to
5.0 µ of a rod shaped cells.
II) Shape of bacteria: Bacteria exhibit various types of shape, which are
as
under :
1. Rod or cylindrical shaped – called as Bacilli.
2. Round or spherical shaped – called as Cocci.
3. Spiral shaped – called as Spirilla.
The short comma shaped cells are called “Vibrio”, short tightly coiled
rods are called “Spirillum” and the very long cells with several curves and
twists are called “Spirochete”.
4) Filamentous – Called as Trichobacteria : These are filamentous branched
or unbranched (branching true or false) bacteria also called as
Actinomycetes or ray fungi e.g. Streptomyces sp.
5) Involution forms or Bacteroides: These are unusual, abnormal or
irregularly shaped cells produced by certain bacteria under modified
conditions or in old cultures or in different habitat.
Morphology of Bacteria :
III. Cell Structure
 General structure of bacterial cell:
 A cell is surrounded by cell wall.
 Just underlying the cell wall there lies a thin membrane i.e.
cytoplasmic membrane.
 Inner cavity of the cell is filled up with a cytoplasm, nuclear material
and various bodies.
 The cell wall is surrounded with a mucilaginous slimy material called
as capsule. It is a secretary product of the cell and not common in all.
 In some of the bacteria an organ of locomotion called as flagellum. It
is very thin, slender and a whip like structure .
 The main components of a bacteria cell are :
(1)Capsule, (2) cell well (3) Cytoplasmic membrane (4)
Cytoplams, (5) Nuclear region (6) Flagellum. (7) Pilli
1. Capsule
 In many bacteria cells develop an enclosing cover of gummy material
forming a layer of considerable thickness. This layer is known as
capsule or slime layer.
 Capsule serves as reservoir of food and site for disposal of waste
substances.
 Chemically, it is polysaccharide in nature. It protects the bacterial cell
during adverse condition.

Functions of capsule :
1. Provide a protective covering to the cell wall against harmful influence.
2. Many capsulated stains of pathogenic bacteria are not readily
phagocytysed by the leucocytes (WBC) thus, capsule contributes to the
virulence of the organism.
3. Serve as a reservoir of stored food when the nutrients become limiting.
2. Cell wall:
 It is a thin, sharply defined, and relatively firm structure beneath the
capsule.
 Bacterial cell wall is rather stable and resistant to the action of most
substances except strong acids and alkalis.
 All the food material which enters in to the cell must diffuse through
the cell wall.
 It is composed of complex carbohydrates, cellulose, chitin, and other
polysaccharides.

Bacterial cell wall is rigid and gives definite shape to bacterial cell.
Peptidoglycan, a polymer present in the cell wall determine the shape
and offers rigidity to cell wall.
 Cell wall thickness ranges from 10 to 25 nm. Cell wall Constitutes 10 to
40 % dry
Bacterial cell wall has two functions.
It gives definite shape to bacterial cell.
It is essential for growth and division.
 Peptidoglycan is rigidly giving principle of cell wall. It is polymer of a)
DPA-diaminopimelic acid b) Muramic acid and c) Techoic acid
 In addition to this it is also contains amino acid, amino sugars ,
carbohydrates and lipids. Above chemicals join to form polymer of
Peptidoglycan.
 Major building blocks of Peptidoglycan are as below :
1. AGA ( Acetyl glucose amine)
2. AMA (Acetyl muramic acid )
3. Peptide : containing four or five types of acids.
 On the basis of structure and chemical composition of cell wall, bacteria
are divided in to two groups:
1) Gram + ve Bacteria :
 Cell wall of such bacteria contains an insoluble polymer called
Peptidoglycan.
 Peptidoglycan has major portion of techoic acid and unipartite layered
cell wall e.g. Bacillus subtilis .

2) Gram - ve Bacteria :
 In addition to Peptidoglycan such bacteria also have lipopolysaccharide
in their cell wall, which is endotoxin and determines antigenecity,
toxigenocity and sensitivity to bacteriophase.
 Chemically gram – ve bacteria cell wall being complex, contain higher
lipid portion and more amino acids.
 Under electron microscope cell wall shows tripartite structure e.g.
Escherchia coli.
Functions of cell wall :
1) Protection of protoplast.
2) Maintenance of elongate shape of bacilli.
3) Helps in flagellar motion.
4) Exerts selective permeability.
3. Cytoplasmic membrane or Plasma membrane:
Extremely thin but distinct membrane surrounding the cytoplasm. It
functions as selective membrane, controls passage of nutrients and
waste products. Responsible for gram staining reactions.
It is acidic in reaction due to the presence of RNA .
Functions of cytoplasmic membrane are as below .
1. Intake of nutrients
2. Elimination of byproduct of metabolism
3. Protection from harmful substance
4. Responsible for harmful substance
5. Semipermability
6. Responsible for gram and id fast reaction
7. Act as electron transport organelle
8. It is biochemically active because it contains enzymes.
4. Cytoplasm
 Inside the cytoplasmic membrane there is a colloidal substance
containing 70-90 percent water, known as cytoplasm.
 It is usually clear or watery or slightly viscous in consistency.

 Cytoplasmic inclusions consist of

1. Granules of stored food particles like carbohydrates.

2. Droplets of fat may be found distributed into cytoplasm.
3. Metachromatic granules of organic metaphosphate may also be present.
4. Elementary sulphur is also present in the cells of certain sulphur bacteria
in the form of drop lets. Cytoplasmic area – RNA and Nuclear area –
DNA.
5. Nucleus
 Presence of nucleus has been established with certainly only a few
years back.
 It has been shown that all bacteria contain intracellular bodies with
the chemical properties expected of DNA which divide in co –
ordination with the division of the cell.
 By following special staining methods with the help of electron
microscope, it has been possible to demonstrate the bacterial
nucleus.
 Although composition is still unsettled one.
 It is however shown that the nucleus consists of tiny granules of
chromatin scattered through out the cytoplasm.

1.Morphologically distinct from cytoplasm

2. composed of mainly nucleoprotein,
3.Bears the heriditary characters of cell.
4.Nucleus is capable of further multiplication.
6. Flagella

 They are the organs of locomotion.

 Most commonly bacterial motility is due to the presence of hair like
appendages known as flagella.
 The flagella vibrate actively and thus propel the organism forward.
7. Pilli (Fimbriae)
These are smaller, shorter, numerous, hair like structures as compared to
flagella. They can not produce regular waves. They are visible only with
electron microscope and are present in motile bacteria.
Pilli have following three functions:
1.They are helpful in adherence to host.

2 They make possible attachment of bacteriophage on bacterial surface.

3 Sex pilli serve as conjugation tube in sexual reproduction of bacteria

e.g. special ‘F’ pilus in E. coli.
Plasmid

In addition to chromosomal DNA many Bactria

contains extra chromosomal DNA in closed
circular double strand form. This unit of genetic
material is capable of independent replication is
called as Plasmid .
Arrangement and Grouping of bacterial cells:
The bacterial cells are surrounded by a thin (rarely thick) layer of
gelatinous material which tends to keep the cells together.
The grouping of cells largely depends upon the manner of
multiplication and the direction of the planes of division. It is a
general rule that the wall that divides bacterial cell into two daughter
cells is formed at right angles to the longer axis. Since Cocci have no
longest axis, cell division may occur in any direction.
Grouping in Cocci.
1.Micrococcus : When daughter cells separate out soon after their
formation.
2.Diplococcus : When the cells remain attached in pairs.
3.Streptococcus : Here successive planes of division are constantly
parallel
and thus results in a chain of cells.
4. tetrads : four cells, cling together forming a square.
5. Sarcina: cells clinging together in cubes made up of eight
or its multiple (Cell division in three )
6. Staphyllococcus : When the cells remain attached in irregular
masses resembling a bunch of grapes.
 Grouping in Bacillus
The rod shaped bacteria may be long or short, usually straight,
it may also be some what curved. It may have rounded ends
or may be even concave.
Grouping is possible in bacillus because of the division is only
in one plane.
1.Microbacillus : Separate rods.
2.Diplobacillus: Rods in pair.
3.Streptotacillus : Rods in chain
4.Pallisade: The cells form group in pallisade, like the
matchsticks filled in matchbox e.g Corynebacterium
diptheriae
this character much more readily than others e.g. Root nodule
bacteria.
 Diseases caused by bacteria

Examples of common bacterial diseases include blight,

soft rot, canker, wilt, hairy root, tumors and galls.
 Different morphological form of Bacteria :
i Micrococci ii Diplococci iii Streptococci
iv Staphylicocci v. Sarchina
vi Rod-shaped bacteria
vii Sprilla
viii Vibrios
 Grouping in spirillum
No grouping in spirillum. They may be thin, broad, short or long.
Trichobacterium: Consists of long threads which may be
branched or unbranched. Branching may be true or false.
Involution forms: Consistency of form is usually a marked
feature of bacteria during its early stages of growth, but in old
cultures and under certain conditions which are not favorable
for the growth, bacteria may attain abnormal or unusual shapes
such as thread like filaments, or club shape etc. these are
termed as involution forms . Certain species of bacteria show
 Types of flagella
Atrichous: Organisms without flagella.
Monotrichous: Organisms having a single flagellum at
one end
Amphitrichous : Bacteria with a single flagellum at
each end
Lophotrichous: Organisms with a cluster or tuft of
flagella at one or both ends.
Peritrichous: Flagella on all over the body
 Endospore Formation in Bacteria
Certain bacteria produce spores inside (within) the cell
called endospores. The spore is a metabolically dormant form
which, under appropriate conditions, can undergo germination
and outgrowth to form a vegetative cell. These structures are
unique to bacteria. These are thick-walled, highly retractile
bodies that are produced (only one per cell) by Bacillus,
Sporosarcina, Thermoactinomyces (all aerobic), Clostridium,
Desulfotomaculum (anaerobic) and a few other genera.
The shapes of endospores and also their location within the
cell vary depending on the species. Ex.
Bacillus cereus : Spores are elliptical and centrally
located.
Clostridium tetani : Spores are spherical and terminally
located.
Clostridium subterminale : Spores are ovoid and sub-terminally
located.
Endospore

Cortex

Spore wall
Cytoplasm
1. Bacteria :
Bacteria belong to kingdom prokaryotae
They are unicellular, microscopic, possess rigid cell wall
without chlorophyll, reproducing by transverse or binary fission.
Some possess organs of locomotion, which are called as
flagella. They have various types of shapes such as rod or
cylindrical, round or spherical, spiral, filamentous etc. The
average size of bacteria is 0.5 to 2.0/m. They grow well on
artificial medium, bacteria largely occur, in soil, air , milk etc.

They play an important role in the welfare of human beings.

Some are useful in dairy industry some of them are capable of
fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

Some cause diseases in plants and animals

Common genera are Bacillus, Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
Lactobacillus, Escherichia, Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas.
 Fungi:

1)Fungi:
Fungi :
Common saprophytic (Growing on dead plant tissues) fungi
are called mold. They are unicellular or multicellular,
chlorophyll less, microscopic, thallophytic (undifferentiated
into root, stem, branches, leaves, etc.) Fungi reproduce by
sexual, asexual or by vegetative spores. Their body consists of
filamentous or thread like structure, piece of such thread is
known as hypha, while a group of hyphae is known as
mycelium. Molds usually occur on slightly moist dead organic
matter such as wood, leather, food, milk etc.

Economically they carry out various useful and harmful

activities; they cause enormous loss to mankind by causing
diseases in plants. They are also responsible for spoilage of
paper, clothes, wood and food. At the same time they are
useful in different industries such as production of antibiotics
like penicillin. Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penicillium are
some of the important genera of fungi.
Viruses:
Viruses are highly infectious, ultra microscopic, crystalline in from, obligate
parasites, nucleoproteins, filterable in nature, reproduce by replication,
ranging from 10 to 300 mu (millimicron). They cause infectious diseases
in plants, animal and human beings. Viruses contains mostly RNA (Ribose
Nucleic acid) only few cases like cauliflower mosaic contains DNA
(Deoxyribose Nucleic acid). Infection of viruses is systemic in plants.
 Diseases caused by Viruses

Viruses causes diseases in human, animals and plants.

Diseases in human : Small pox, AIDS(HIV), Hepatitis,

Poliomyelitis (polio virus).

Diseases in animals : foot and mouth diseases (FMD).

Diseases in plants : Yellowing, Mosaic, Yellow mosaic, Yellow

vein mosaic. Mottling, Chlorosis, Bunchy top, Sterility mosaic
etc
 Phytoplasma
Ultramicroscopic
Filterable
Pleuomorphic organisms
Without cell wall
They can be grown on cultures media
 Various forms have been observed in the growth cycle viz.
budding form, chain bodies, elongated and filamentous
forms.
 They are susceptible to osmotic pressure and are able to
pass through bacteria proof filters.
 Their growth is very slow and can be inhibited by specific
anti sera.
Both RNA and DNA are present.
 Phytoplasma contd….

 They cause diseases like citrus greening, spike diseases

of sandal, sesame Phyllody, little leaf of Brinjal, papaya
bunchy top and several other yellowing type diseases.
 Phytoplasma infection mostly seen in phloem and
parenchyma.
 Phytoplasma reported to grow on artificial medium.
However, its growth is a slow, it is sensitive to antibiotic
like Tetracycline of oxytetracyclin.
Instead of cell wall it possess double layer membrane.
 Phytoplasma is a true prokaryotic microorganism.
Diseases caused by Phytoplasma :

They are known to cause “Yellows” diseases in plant.

 Economically important plant diseases caused by

mycoplasma are sandal spike, Aster yellows, Mulberry
dwarf, grassy shoot of sugarcane, citrus greening,
sesamum phyllody, little leaf of Brinjal etc.

 They causes diseases in human and animals e.g.

pneumonia (M. pmoniae)
 Spiroplasma
 Spiroplasma are helical prokaryotes lacking a rigid cell wall,
but bounded by until membrane 8-10 m in thickness, with
RNA (ribosomes) and DNA strand in the nuclear region.
 They vary in shape form spherical to slightly ovoid to
helical and branched non helical structure.

 Unilke phytoplasma, they can be cultured on artificial

media, colonies on agar have 0-2 mm diameter and
appears as granules but some have fried egg appearance.

 They do not have any flagella and reproduce by fission.

 They transmitted mostly by leaf hoppers.
 They are resistant to penicillin but inhibited by tetracycline.

Diseases Caused : Citrus stubborn (Spiroplasma citri), Leaf

roll, Yellow dwarf of rice, Pear decline, Corn stunt, etc.
 Protozoa

 These are single celled animal forms, motile by cilia, flagella

or possess pseudopodia. They multiply by fission and
sexual means. The size varies from 2 to 20 m. Some
cause diseases such as sleeping sickness, diarrhea etc. in
human beings and animals. Common genera are Verticella,
Paramocium, Amoeba etc. Plays important role in biological
equilibrium.