INTRODUCTION

This series of instructional modules is aimed at providing basic instruction on the operation of AC
and DC machines.

The series covers single phase, three phase and DC motors and generators. Each module has been
designed to be able to "stand alone", i.e. trainees may select any module according to requirement.

It is assumed that learners have a working knowledge of both AC and DC operating

principles.

COURSE OUTCOME,
After completing this course, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the characteristics of different types of DC Generator.

2. Determine the effects of DC excitation upon the power delivered by an alternator.
3. Demonstrate how to synchronize an alternator to the electric power utility system.
4. Demonstrate the basic wiring connection of different types of Generator and Alternator.

COURSE CONTENT
This module is composed of five modules with 20 lessons. It is
structured as follows:

Module I - DC Generator
Lesson 1. History
Lesson 2 Principle of DC Generator
Lesson 3 Parts and functions
Lesson 4 Classification of DC Generator

Module II - DC Motors
Lesson 1 History
Lesson 2 Characteristics of DC Motor
Lesson 3 DC Motor Principle
Lesson 4 Classification of DC Motor
Lesson 5 Speed regulation and control.

Module III – AC Generator

Lesson 1 History
Lesson 2 Principle and Parts of AC Generator
Lesson 3 Alternator Regulation
Lesson 4 Parallel Operation

Module IV - Transformer
Lesson 1 History
Lesson 2 Parts and Construction
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 Lesson 3 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Lesson 4 Open and Short Circuit test of Transformer

Module V- SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Lesson 1 Types of Synchronous Motor
Lesson 2 Construction of Synchronous Motor
LESSON 3 Torque Equation of DC Motor

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MODULE 1: DC GENERATOR
Discussion:

Lesson 1

DIRECT CURRENT

The flow of electric charge that does not change direction. Direct current is produced
by batteries, fuel cells, rectifiers, and generators with commutators.

DC GENERATOR

A generator that only generates current which flows through one direction. A dc
generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity.

HISTORY of DC GENERATOR

The generator as we know it today evolved from the work of Michael Faraday and
Joseph Henry in the 1830s. There is the existence of “Faraday’s Law”.

1831–1832 -He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk; a type
of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe
magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.

1832- One of the first dynamos was built by Hippolyte Pixii.

1844- The Woolrich Electrical Generator now in think tank, Birmingham Science Museum, is
the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process.

1860s and 1870s- many inventors sought ways of using Faraday’s induction principle to
generate electricity mechanically.

1866- German Werner von Siemens, who designed improved DC generators and called them
dynamos.

1867- even better generator was introduced by French Zénobe-Théophile Gramme., which
produced

substantially higher voltages than previous attempts.

1871- he demonstrated a working model, and with Hippolyte Fontaine began

manufacturing them.

Gramme’s dynamos generated AC current and were widely used in arc lighting systems.

1872- von Siemens reemerged and invented what is essentially the modern type

of dynamo, referred to as the drum armature type of machine, which was a more efficient
design.

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Lesson 2:

WORKING PRINCIPLE of DC GENERATOR

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 Fleming’s right-hand rule

Lenz’s Law

The direction of the current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that
the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field
which produced it. The direction of this current flow is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

E = -N (dΦ/dt) (volts)

As the armature rotates, voltage generates in its coils, in generator, the emf rotation is called
“generated emf” or “armature emf”.

E=,
P= Number of poles of the machine

= Flux per pole in weber

Z= Total number of armature conductors

N/S= Speed of armature in revolution per minute

A= Number of parallel paths in the armature winding

DC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

A DC motor is comprised of a wound armature, commutator, brushes and magnets—all within

a totally-enclosed housing.

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 Rotation occurs when the magnetic field of the motor—created by the permanent
magnets in the housing—interacts with the commutator through graphite or carbon brushes.

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

“When we put a conductor in a varying magnet field an induced EMF will generate and
this EMF will equal the rate of change of flux linkages”

First Law:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced across the
conductor (called as induced emf), and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced
current flows through it.

Magnetic field can be varied by various methods by moving magnet, by moving the coil and by
rotating the coil relative to magnetic field

Second Law:

The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with the coil.
The flux linkages are the product of number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.

Lesson 3:
Parts and Functions

1.Magnetic Field System of DC Generator

It is the stationary or fixed part of the machine. It produces the main magnetic flux.

Magnetic Frame or Yoke

The outer hollow cylinder frame to which main poles and inter-poles are fixed by means of
which the machine is fixed to the foundation is known as yoke.

Purposes:

It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the
machines.

It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

Field or Exciting Coils

Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings) placed over it to produce a magnetic
field. The enameled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils.

Pole Core and Pole Shoes

These are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke bolts. Since the pole, projects inwards they
are called salient poles.

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Purposes:

It supports the field and exciting coils.

They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.

It increases the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit.

2. Commutator of DC Generator

Cylindrical in shape, and rotates with the armature.

Commutation of DC Generator

Process that converts the induced alternating current in the armature conductor into
unidirectional current in the external load circuits in DC Generator action by reversing each
half turn.

3. Brushes

Carbon brushes are placed or mounted on the commutator and with the help of 2 or more
carbon brushes current is collected from the armature winding.

4. Bearing and Shaft

Bearings- the ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housing. The function of the
bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine.

Shaft- used to transfer mechanical power from or the machine. The rotating parts like
armature core, commutator cooling fans, etc. Are keyed to the shaft.

5. Armature

The rotating part of the DC machine or DC generator is called Armature. The armature
consists of a shaft upon which a laminated cylinder called Armature Core is placed.

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Cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery of the armature
has grooves or slots which accommodate the armature winding. The heart of the DC machine.
Place where conversion of power takes place.

Purposes:

It houses the conductors in the slots.

It provides an easy path for the magnetic flux.

The windings are classified into two types named as:

1. Lap Winding- The number of parallel paths are equal to the number of poles. Also, the
number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel paths.

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 2. Simplex Lap Winding

In simplex lap winding, the terminating end of one coil is joined to the commutator segment
and the starting end of the next coil is placed under the same pole. Also, the number of
parallel paths is similar to the number of poles of the windings.

3. Duplex Lap Winding

In duplex winding the number of parallel paths between the pole is twice the number of
poles. The duplex lap winding is mainly used for heavy current applications. Such type of
winding is obtained by placing the two similar winding on the same armature and connecting
the even number commutator bars to one winding and the odd number to the second winding.

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 Progressive and Retrogressive Lap Winding

4. Wave Winding

The conductors are so connected that they are divided into two parallel paths irrespective of
the number of the poles of the machine.

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 Formulas:

Lap Winding Wave Winding

a=Pxm a=2xm

m = Multiplicity Factor m = Multiplicity Factor

Types of Winding m

Simplex 1

Duplex 2

Triplex 3

Lesson 4:

Classification of dc Generator

1. SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Those whose field magnets are energized from an independent external source of DC current.
When generator is switched off, a small magnetism is developed in rotor iron which induced
electromotive force in the armature due to which current is produced in the field windings.

Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator

A separate source of DC power is connected to the field winding. This source can be a
battery, a diode rectifier, another DC Generator or a controlled rectifier.

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field
excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose
speeds are to be controlled for various applications.

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2. Self-Excited DC Generator

Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by
the generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils mat be connected in parallel
with the armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel
with the armature windings.

5. SHUNT-WOUND GENERATOR

The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and have
the full voltage of the generator applied across them.

6. SERIES-WOUND GENERATOR

The field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors As they carry full
load current, they consist of relatively few turn of thick wire or strips. Such generators
are rarely used except for special purposes

COMPOUND WOUND DC GENERATORS

It has two sets of field windings.

low-resistance windings and is connected in series with the armature circuit.

high-resistance wire and is connected in parallel with the armature circuit.

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Types of Compound Wound Generator

1. Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator- the shunt field winding is parallel with both
armature and series field winding

2. Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator- the shunt field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature winding.

Derivation of Formulas

1. Separately Excited DC Generator

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + VL

Pg= Eg Ia

Pg= Ia2Ra + IL2RL

PT = EgIa + Ia2Ra + VLRL

Po= VLRL

%n

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Under Self Excited Dc Generator

2. Series Generator

It is a series circuit therefore currents are equal.

Ia= Ise =IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + IseRse + VL

Eg= Ia (Ra + Rse )+ VL

Pg= Pa+Pse+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+Pse+PL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pse

Po= VLRL

%n

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3. Shunt Genererator

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KCL @Node 1

Ia= If +IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + ILRL

Eg= IaRa + VL

KVL@ Loop 2

VL- Vf = 0

VL= Vf

If

Pg= Pa+Pf+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+Pf+PL

PT =EgIa+ Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Po= VLRL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pf

%n

Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

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KCL @Node 1

Ia= Ise

Ia= If +IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + IseRse+ VL

Eg= Ia (Ra + Rse) + VL

KVL@ Loop 2

VL= Vf

If

Pg= Pa+Pse+Pf+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse + If2Rf+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+ Pse +Pf+PL

PT =EgIa+ Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Po= VLRL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pse +Pf

%n

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Short Compound Wound Generator

KCL @Node 1

Ise=IL

Ia= If +IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + IseRse+ VL

KVL@ Loop 2

-VL+ Vf – Vse =0

Vf= Vse + VL

If

If

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 If

If

Pg= Pa+Pse+Pf+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse + If2Rf+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+ Pse +Pf+PL

PT =EgIa+ Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Po= VLRL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pse +Pf

%n

SERIES GENERATOR BEHAVIOR UNDER LOAD

Load Test AND Characteristics

LOAD TEST

The load test is conducted to draw internal and external characteristics

Load-test

To know the values of voltage generated with respect to the load current in order to draw the
curves vary the input voltage to the rated value and note the respective values.

Characteristics

The characteristics are generally considered to know the performance characteristics of the
machine. The internal and external characteristics of the dc series generator are drawn
between the voltage generated and load current and terminal voltage and load current. The
magnetization curve is drawn between the no-load voltage and the load current.

The three Characteristics of dc series generator

1. Open Circuit or No Load

2. Internal
3. External

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Open Circuit or No-Load CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC

Internal AND External characteristic

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