CHAPTER TWO

LITTERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study the review on the use and development of Electronic
Component Tester using microcontrollers, similar product done by others, and the
various faults that may exist in digital ICs.

2.1 SOME EXISTING DOCUMENTARIES ON INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TESTER

Anindya Bhattacharya, posted a research through “International Journal of Emerging
Technology and Advanced Engineering(IEJETAE), on A Digital Integrated Circuit Tester
Using AT89s51 microcontroller capable of testing 14 pins integrated circuits of 7400
series in June 2013

Figure 2. 1: block diagram of IC tester using AT89s51.

Yousif Taha Yousif Elamin posted through the International Journal for Engineering
and Research and Applications issues, Vol. 5, Issue 2 (part-2), 1 st February 2015 which
implemented a microcontroller based circuit integrated tester for the 74 series to test
three samples (NAND, NOR, NOT), using AT mega 32 microcontroller of the ATMEL
FAMILY. These results help in importing better quality IC’s from supplies. Vol 6, issue
1, January 2016.

Figure 2. 2: block diagram of the hardware circuit by Yousif

Joe Farr posted through “Everyday Practical Electronics”, a method of implementing a

Digital IC tester using PIC16F877 to test 74 TTL and CMOS series in October 2012.
This IC tester could be operated in PC mode or stand-alone mode, in PC mode, makes
use of RS232 protocol to interface to a serial port on a PC.
file:///C:/Users/afika/Downloads/Digital%20IC-Tester.pdf

2.2. EXISTING Electronic Circuit Components Tester

This section focuses on the literature review of similar product done by others. As a
result of growth in this market, the consolidation of competitor is an ongoing process.
Comparing the different tester in the market is important in order to define what feature
and device are needed by users, and the quality of the tester can be improved as well.
General summarize on different ways has been tried to implement the system, and
compare their achievements then construct a unique components tester for users.

2.2.1. SU-300 IC Tester

SU-300 (from Leaptronix Company) is a tester which can works in stand-alone or PC-
Based mode. The tester is because of its modular design (SU- 300) is able to work
with different types of IC through various cartridges or adaptors. Figure 2.3 is the
feature for SU-300.

Figure 2. 3: SU-300

Features
 Supports different IC families and IC packages through various cartridges and
Adaptors.
 Each module has protection function for sale, stable, and fast programming.
 Graphic design lets programming status clear.
 Support low voltage “green” IC.
 User friendly and process programming by pressing ↑, ↓, Enter and ESC buttons
 Auto detect function: wrong device insertion, bad pin connecting, etc.
 With auto-search FLASH/EPROM brand and serial number function.
2.2.2. Model 570A Analogue IC Tester.
The Model 570A Analogue and Model 575A Digital handheld IC Testers from B&K
Precision are compact, hand held, and battery powered testers offer advanced
Functionality and ease of use. See figure 2.4. The 2-line x 16-character dot matrix LCD
shows the result of the test as a PASS or FAIL, together with individual pin diagnostics,
test made, and possible equivalents.

Figure 2. 4: Linear IC Tester Model 570A.

The Model 570A Analogue IC Tester’s built-in test library includes common Analogue
ICs including op-amps, comparators, voltage regulators, voltage references, analogue
switches & multiplexes, opto-isolators & couplers, and audio ICs. Besides that, this
Model 575A Digital IC Tester’s built-in test library includes broad range of TTL, CMOS,
memory, LSI, interface and other devices of up to 40 pins.

Features of Linear IC Tester Model 570A

 Auto identification mode
 Functional test unit emulates passive circuitry to implement a comprehensive test
in a variety of configurations and gain settings
 Displays diagnostic information down to individual component pins
 Rugged, hand held, battery operated
 Built-in membrane keypad, 2 x 16 dot matrix alphanumeric LCD, and high quality
16 pin ZIF socket.

2.3 REVIEW OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT.

An integrated circuit, or an IC is a tiny small chip that can function as an amplifier,
oscillator, timer, microprocessor, or even computer memory. An IC is a small wafer,
usually made of silicon, that can hold anywhere from hundreds to millions of transistors,
resistors, and capacitors. Furthermore, by comparing it to standard printed circuits
board which use discrete components, ICs are of extremely small physical size, of very
small weight, reduced cost, high reliability, low power consumption, increased response
time and speed, easy replacement and higher yield.
2.3.1 FAULTS AND TESTING METHODS
Analog circuits deal with continuous signals while digital circuits deal with discrete
signals known as digits. In digital circuit, discrete signals in the form of either pulse or
voltage levels are manipulated as a discrete quantity. These discrete quantities are the
representation of logic high or low. In digital test, we are dealing with either logic high or
logic low at the input and expecting similar responses at the output of such circuit.

2.3.2 REASONS FOR TESTING THE COMPONENT

Testing is a critical part of the manufacturing process included for a digital circuit device.
The purpose of testing is for measurement of defects and quality level and Each
integrated circuit that leaves the factory must be thoroughly checked in order to verify it
will function as designed. Therefore, both the development of fault testing strategies and
testing algorithm must be done as efficiently as possible so that it will provide a high
probability of detecting any faulty circuit. A fault can be defined as any condition that
causes a device to function improperly. The two primary objectives of testing are fault
detection and fault location. Fault detection testing is the process of determining
whether a fault is present in the tested circuit. Fault Detection Test Set (FDTS) is a set
of inputs to a logic circuit that can be used to detect faults. FDTS is used to test a circuit
to make sure it is fault free. Another one is Fault Location Test Set (FLTS) is a set of
inputs that can be used to locate a fault. Fault coverage is defined as the percentage of
all potential faults that are detected or located by the test. This configuration test set
model is shown
in Figure 2.6. Normally applying test vectors of a FDTS or FLTS to its inputs stimulates
the circuit under test. Then capturing the responses to the test vectors from the outputs
and comparing them to the expected results evaluate the function of the circuit. If the
results are as expected, then the circuit is determined as a fault free circuit. In the
automatic testing equipment (ATE), test vectors are stored in a memory from which they
are retrieved and applied to the circuit under test by a microcontroller (Sameer D.,
2017). This operation is depicted clearly as in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2. 5: Example setup of an Automatic Test Equipment (ATE)

For Built-In Self-Test (BITS), special circuit generates test patterns automatically. In an
automatic testing equipment, expected value of results are retrieved from the memory
as each test vector is applied on the circuit's inputs and comparing the results to the
corresponding circuit output (Sameer D., 2017). The model for Built-In Self-Test is
depicts in Figure 2.6.
 Figure 2. 6: Example setup of Built in Self-Test (BIST)

A fault, defined as any condition that can cause the circuit to function improperly can be
verified using test vectors or pattern. They can be used to detect the faulty circuit and by
then they will be called Fault Detection Test Set (FDTS) or locate and they will be called
Fault Location Test Set (FLTS). In any case, we apply the test vectors to the input,
collect to the output and compare it with the expected results and decide. So, this logic
is applied to ATE and all testers that use the BIST. So, our tester will follow those
characteristics.

2.3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF FAULT TYPES

Faults is classified here into parametric, static and dynamic. The following subsections
gives explanation of each type.

Parametric and Functional Failures: Those failures can affect only the parametric
behavior of the circuit. In other words, the circuit realizes its function but with
performances less than those expected. The detection of such failures can be tedious
and requires specific tests. The other type of defect causes a catastrophic failure. This
failure can range from the malfunctioning for a particular configuration of data {which
might be complex in detecting) to a serious crash independent of data and which is
easily detected. The parametric failure or non-logical failure consists of the defect of
some parameters of the ICs (current, voltage, time, temperature). On the other hand,
the functional failure of the digital IC deals with logic state at each stages of the circuit.
In this section, we will try to enumerate the different types of fault that can occur in
digital logic
circuit. There are many possible causes of fault in a digital circuit. Faults in the digital
ICs are generally classified into two groups: static and dynamic faults.

Static Faults: Static faults are characterized by an erroneous output that is constant for
a given input condition, for the duration of a circuit state. The faulty condition does not
change with time. The faulty output is maintained as long as the corresponding input
held constant. It's also known as a permanent fault. Like a permanent open or short
circuit

Dynamic Faults: Dynamic faults are characterized by an erroneous output that exists
for a very short period of time. These transient errors can be difficult to detect, requiring
the use-of high-speed storage equipment. These faults appear and disappear with time.
It's also known as intermittent fault, for instance, the sudden variation of the output
current and voltage.

2.3.3. PROBABLE FAULTS CONDITION

The most difficult aspect of fault analysis is discovering exactly where the fault had
occurred. Fault may not be determined at the first glance as a single fault can causes
other malfunctions. Static faults are most commonly found in IC package. Types of
static faults are discussed next.

Bridge Faults: Most digital circuits are assembled on fiberglass cards containing
printed circuit on wire-wrap connections. Such cards usually support a multitude of
interconnected IC packages. Adjacent terminals or printed circuit leads can become
accidentally shorted together. This is known as bridge faults. This will affect the logic
values of the shorted lines. If the two lines have different logic value, a conflict will be
there. The resulting logic value may differ depending on the type of electronic logic that
is being used.

Figure 2. 7: Bridge Fault within a 7408 AND gate package

In the case of TTL devices, a bridge between two opposing signals results in a valid
logic '0' voltage. Figure 2.7 shows a bridge fault at the output of two AND gate inside
the 7408 IC package. For TTL devices, the value on the bridge line will be only '1' if both
of the outputs are '1

Broken or missing conductor: Manufacturing defects of wiring errors can result in an

open circuit where there should be a solid connection between two points. Thus, signals
driven onto this line at the source never reach their destination.
 Figure 2. 8: Example of missing conductor
This fault resembles the stuck input and output faults, where the input or output remains
constant. Figure 2.8 shows a missing connection inside a 7408 AND IC package.

2.3.4. Types of test

This section will emphasize on some types and method of test. Types of test are directly
link to the types of fault. It is for this reason that for the parametric fault one has the
parametric test and functional test for the functional failure.

(a) Parametric Test

The parametric test or test of characterization on many circuits' sets, and prototypes for
determining the circuit operating limits is performed at each new design or new
manufacturing process under different conditions.

(b) Functioning Test

In the functional test the exhaustive and random method is used.
Exhaustive Method: Exhaustive method is a test method where all possible
combination inputs are applied on the inputs of the circuit under test. For example, to
test a dual inputs AND logic, the test set will be (00, 01, 10, 11). The responses will be
captured from the output of the circuit and compared with the table of results according
to each input applied on the input of the circuit. This test method is-easy to generate
and is a straightforward procedure. It provides 100% fault coverage and it is efficient to
test a small and simple digital integrated circuit. But it will be impractical to test complex
combination logic circuit and digital integrated circuit with High Fan-in. If exhaustive
method is implemented on a 30 inputs digital integrated circuit, it will take up to 30
minutes to test all input patterns in order to make sure the circuit is fault free. Besides
that, exhaustive test may not be complete enough for sequential circuit where test
vector order matters
Random Method: The random method is easy to use and can be applied with a low
cost tester, to any type of circuit. Also, it enables to save necessary calculations to
elaborate an input sequence as well as requires less storage place to stock it. The use
of random test method presents the inconvenience of not giving any probabilistic nor
deterministic indication on the state of the circuit under test (at least in the case where
they obtained responses are similar to the reference's response).

2.3.5. TEST PATTERN GENERATION

A test pattern is a couple made up of a set of imposed input values and a set of
expected output values. The test pattern generation consists of defining a program
which will enable to describe the specific test's vectors for detecting the set of given
faults in an aim of having optimum quality test and a test's application cost. The test
pattern generation of a digital system consists of determining the stimuli to apply at the
input of a circuit to underline a potential breakdown. The test pattern generation can be
performed at different levels of the modeling at the level of the circuit description as well
as the faults taken into account. There are many techniques to achieve this aim.

(a) Manual test pattern generation

The test vectors are written manually by the test's engineer. It uses a faults' simulation
and do not require an algorithm of generation. However, it is very difficult to reach a
higher coverage rate this way.

(b) Pseudo random test pattern generation

In this case, test vectors are chosen randomly, by using a faults' simulation for
determining the coverage rate, but does not detect difficult faults, this makes these
generation techniques not to have an important industrial interest.

(c) Exhaustive test pattern generation

This type of generation applies all possible test vectors without having to use faults'
simulation (no faults' model). It detects all faults detectable of all faults models.
However, with a high number of vectors, it is very costly and unusable for circuits with a
great number of inputs

(d) Automatic test pattern generation (ATPG).

The ATPG uses a fault' simulation and deterministic test vector, for each fault none
detected, a test vector which detect it is generated. It enables to reach a maximum
coverage rate at a minimum cost.

2.3.6 TESTING TRANSISTORS

Transistor is an active electronic part. An active electronic part is something can
perform amplifications or signal processing. Transistors are basic elements on power
amplifiers, audio amplifiers, switching converters, power supplies and so on. A transistor
term is somewhat generic. It could be a BJT, MOSFET of JFET. But for common people
(electronic hobbyist), it is commonly referring to a BJT.
http://electronicsbeliever.com/how-to-know-if-a-transistor-defective/. So, for the purpose
of this project work we will concentrate on how to know if a transistor defective that
refers to a BJT. There are several different ways of testing transistors. They can be
tested while in the circuit, by the substitution method, or with a transistor tester or
ohmmeter. With most transistor testers, it is possible to test the transistor in or out of the
circuit. There are four basic tests required for transistors in practical troubleshooting:
gain, leakage, breakdown, and switching time. For maintenance and repair, however, a
check of two or three parameters is usually sufficient to determine whether a transistor
needs to be replaced. Since it is impractical to cover all the different types of transistor
testers and since each tester comes with its own operator's manual, we will move on to
something you will use more frequently for testing transistors; the electronic component
tester. https://ecstudiosystems.com/discover/textbooks/basic-electronics/bipolar-
junction-transistors/transistor-testing/. When testing PNP or NPN transistors, typical
forward and reverse resistances are insignificant. The best indicator for showing
whether a transistor is good or bad is the ratio of forward-to-reverse resistance. The
electronic component tester does the comparison of the resistances and gives an output
readout the represents the state of the transistor.