CE-228: MECHANICS OF SOLIDS-II

MODULE-5

ANALYSIS OF COLUMNS

PROF. DR. MOHAMMAD ASHRAF

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UET PESHAWAR

CONTENTS
• Analysis of Concentric Columns
• Euler’s (Buckling) Formula for Long Columns
• Effect of Slenderness Ratio.
• Rankine Gordon Formula for Columns
• Codal Equations for Columns

• Analysis of Eccentric Columns

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INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
Ideally, column is any structural member which is subjected to axial compressive load only. In
civil engineering structure, any vertical element of a frame structure is known as column
wherein it is also subjected to shear and bending in addition to the axial compression. However,
the predominant action is axial compression.
Based on the failure modes, columns may be classified as:
• Short Columns also known as short compression members fail by crushing. The crushing load
resisted by a column is almost equal to the ultimate strength of the material. The ratio of length of
column to the least lateral dimension is small.
• Long Columns fail by buckling. The buckling load resisted by the columns is less that the strength of
the material. The ratio of length of column to the least lateral dimension is Large.
• Intermediate Columns fail by the combination of crushing and buckling. Most of the practical columns
fall in this category of the column

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LONG COLUMNS
Stability: In addition to strength and stiffness requirement for the structural design, stability
consideration is also a primary requirement for some structural systems. For example, a long
slender member under compression may fail by buckling at a much smaller load than the
ultimate strength of the material.
For stability of such member, the compressive load should be less than the buckling capacity.
Therefore, a structural member must be stable when subjected to loads. Some other examples
of instability are:
• Structural members made from thin sheets and subjected to axial compression.
• Buckling of thin compression flange of a beam when subjected to bending.
• Lateral torsion buckling of narrow beams.
• Thin-walled cylinders subjected to external pressure.

A compression member may buckle locally or globally. Buckling failure of a column is a sudden
failure.
Buckling is different from bending as the former is caused by the compression load and the later
is by lateral load.

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LONG COLUMNS (CONT..)
Critical (Buckling) Load: The maximum axial load that a column can support when it is on
the verge of buckling is called the critical or buckling load, Pcr . When the load on column
is less than the critical load, the column is said to be in stable equilibrium. On the other
hand, if the load exceeds the critical load the column will be in unstable equilibrium.
Consider a weightless rigid bar AB supported by hinge at A and a linear spring, having
spring constant k, at B. The column is subjected to an axial load P. When P is less than the
critical load of column, the bar will be vertical and the system will be in stable equilibrium.
To upset this equilibrium position the pin at A is displaced by a small amount Δ. The spring
will produce a restoring force equal to F = kΔ. The axial force P will produce a destabilizing
moment PΔ about A. The restoring force will produce a restoring moment FL = (kΔ)L about
A.
If PΔ < (kΔ)L, the bar will in stable equilibrium and if PΔ > (kΔ)L, the bar will in unstable
equilibrium, i.e.
P < kL Stablel equilibrium and P > kL (Unstablel equilibrium)

In other words, if this load is applied, and a slight displacement occurs at A, the bars will
tend to move out of equilibrium and not be restored to their original position.
At the verge of buckling: Pcr = kL, (Neutral equilibrium)

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LONG COLUMNS (CONT..)
Euler Formula: Originally the column buckling formula was developed by Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler in 1757. Consider a pin ended column AB subjected to axial load P as shown in the
figure. The column is made with isotropic, homogenous and linear elastic material and it is perfectly
straight before loading.
One would think that because the column is straight, theoretically the axial load P could be increased
until failure occurred either by fracture or yielding of the material. However, as we have discussed,
when the critical load is reached, the column will be on the verge of becoming unstable, so that a small
disturbance may result in buckling of the column.
Apply equilibrium condition to the deflected shape of the column as shown in the figure.
M = −Pcr 𝑣 −− −(1)

From bending theory:

d2 𝑣 d2 𝑣 d2 𝑣 Pcr
EI 2 = M ⇒ EI 2 = −Pcr 𝑣 ⇒ 2 + 𝑣=0
dx dx dx EI

d2 𝑣 Pcr
⇒ 2 + λ2 𝑣 = 0 −− −(2) where λ =
dx EI

The general solution of equation (2) is of the form:

𝑣 = C1 sin λx + C2 cos λx −− −(3)

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LONG COLUMNS (CONT..)
Where C1 and C2 are the integration constants. These constants can be determined from the
boundary conditions.
At x = 0, v = 0 Equation 3 ⇒ 0 = C1 sin 0 + C2 cos 0 ⇒ C2 = 0
At x = L, v = 0 Equation 3 ⇒ 0 = C1 sin λL + 0 ⇒ sin λL = 0

As we know that sine of any angle equal to nπ is equal to zero, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..

Pcr Pcr 2 2
n2 π2 EI
λL = nπ ⇒ 𝐿 = nπ ⇒ 𝐿 = nπ ⇒ Pcr =
EI EI L2

The value of n cannot be zero as it will result in zero load which is not possible. n = 1, 2, 3….
Correspond to buckling in first, 2nd , 3rd …. modes. Which is possible when the column is
laterally braced at zero, one, two, … locations along the length of column.
𝛑𝟐 𝐄𝐈
For n = 1 𝐏𝐜𝐫 = 𝟐 −− −(𝟒)
𝐋
This is the Euler’s buckling formula for critical load of long columns. The critical load of
column at buckling is directly proportional to the flexural rigidity (EI) and inversely
proportional to the square of column length.

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LONG COLUMNS (CONT..)
4π2 EI 9π2 EI
For n = 2: Pcr = For n = 3: Pcr =
L2 L2
Therefore we can say that the critical load of long column is increased by four times when a
single brace point is provided. Similarly the critical load is increased by 9 time when two
brace points are provided.
Support Conditions: The buckling load of a column depends upon the support conditions.
The buckling length, known as the effective length of column varies with the support
conditions. To account for different support conditions, the generalized Euler’s formula may
be written as:
π2 EI
Pcr = −− −(5)
Le 2
For different support conditions, the effective lengths are shown in the adjoining figure and
are given by:
Le = 1.0L for pin − pin column , Le = 0.7L for fix − pin column ,
Le = 0.5L for fix − fix column , Le = 2.0L for cantilever column ,

Ratio of effective length to the actual length of column is known as effective length factor.

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LONG COLUMNS (CONT..)
From equation (5):
π2 EI
For pin − pin column: Pcr =
L 2
π2 EI π2 EI
For fix − pin column: Pcr = =2 Two times of pin − pin column
0.7L 2 L 2
π2 EI π2 EI
For fix − fix column: Pcr = =4 (Four times of pin − pin column)
0.5L 2 L 2
π2 EI π2 EI
For cantilever column: Pcr = = 0.25 (One − forth of pin − pin column)
2L 2 L 2
Note that as the critical load is proportional to the moment of inertia, the column will buckle about the weak
principle axis, i.e. the axis about which the moment of inertia is minimum. However, if the support conditions about
the two orthogonal principle axis are different then the buckling load shall be taken as minimum of the two critical
load.
Critical Stress: The stress in column at the onset of buckling is called critical stress or buckling stress. As Moment
of inertia may be written as, I = Ar2, where r is the radius of gyration. Expression for critical stress may be obtained
as:
π2 EAr 2 Pcr π2 E π2 E
Pcr = ⇒ = ⇒ σcr = −− −(6)
Le 2 A Le /r 2 Le /r 2

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LONG COLUMNS (CONT..)
40
Where Le /r is known as slenderness ratio of column. Therefore, the
critical stress is inversely proportional to square of slenderness ratio. 35

A plot is drawn between the slenderness ratio and the critical stress. As 30
the buckling formula is developed for linearly elastic material, it is 25
applicable to up to the proportional stress. The minimum slenderness
20
ratio up to which the Euler’s formula is applicable is given by:
15
π2 E 10
Le /r min = −− −(7)
σP 5

Thus the minimum slenderness ratio depends upon the proportional 0

stress of the material and its modulus of elasticity. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

For steel having proportional stress equal to 30 ksi and E = 29000 ksi:

π2 E π2 29000
Le /r min = = = 98
σP 30

For aluminum (σP = 28 ksi and E = 10,000 ksi):

π2 E π2 10,000
Le /r min = = = 60
σP 28

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INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS
40
As already mentioned that Euler’s formula for critical load of column is
applicable when the critical stress in column is less than the proportional 35
stress of material, i.e. when the slenderness ratio of column is less than 30
the minimum slenderness ratio of material.
25
Similarly the formula for critical stress of short column (σcr = σy = Py /A) is
20
applicable when the column is sufficiently braced so that it can be
stressed up to yielding/crushing. From experimental observations, it is 15
known that a column can be stressed to yielding/crushing if the 10
slenderness ratio is less than 12, i.e. the critical stress of column remains
5
constant when Le /r ≤ 12
0
Columns with Le /r in the range from 12 to Le /r min are categorized as 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
intermediate columns. No mechanic based solution is available for
intermediate column. Theories exist to give relations for critical load of
intermediate columns. One such theory is tangent modulus theory in
which the modulus of elasticity is replaced with tangent modulus in the
Euler’s formula.
π2 Et
σcr =
Le /r 2
Some researchers proposed linear interpolation between the
yield/crushing stress and proportional stress.

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RANKINE-GORDON FORMULA
As already mentioned that the Euler’s formula for critical load of a column is applicable when the slenderness ratio
is more than the minimum slenderness ratio. We also know that the short column formula is applicable to column
with smaller slenderness ratio. The Euler’s and short column formula are not applicable to the intermediate columns.
Rankine-Gordon proposed a semi empirical formula which is used to calculate the capacity of a column with any
slenderness ratio. The formula was developed using the reciprocal theorem.
1 1 1
= +
PR Py PE

Where PR , Py and PE are the Rankine, Yield and Euler’s capacity of column. Writing the above equation in terms of
stresses:
1 1 1 σy σE σy σy σy
= + ⇒ σR = ⇒ σR = σy ⇒ σR = σy ⇒ σR = 2
−− −(8)
σR σy σE σE + σY 1+ 1 + 2 Le /r 2 1 + a Le /r
σE π E
σy
Where a = 2
π E
36 1 28 1
For steel a = 2 = and for Aluminum, a = 2 =
π 29000 7950 π 10,000 3525
The value proposed by Rankine-Gordon for mild steel is 1/7500 which is very closed to the calculated values.

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RANKINE-GORDON FORMULA(CONT..)
The Euler’s stress and Rankine stress are compared in the adjoining 40
figure.
35
Note that the for smaller slenderness ratio, the Rankine Stress is
very close to the yield strength of material and for higher 30
slenderness ratio the Rankine stress is very close to the Euler’s
stress. In the intermediate range the Rankine-Gordon formula gives 25
very conservative results, i.e. the Rankine stress is very less than
the Euler’s stress.
20
For example for mild steel with Le /r = 100
15
σy 36
σR = σy = = 15.94 ksi
2 36 2
1+ L /r 1+ 2 100 10
π2 E e π 29000
π2 E π2 29000 5
σE = 2
= = 28.62 ksi
Le /r 100 2
36 0
For Le /r = 10, σR = = 35.55 ksi ≈ σy 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
36 2
1+ 2 10
π 29000
36
For Le /r = 1000, σR = = 2.92 ksi ≈ σE
36 2
1+ 2 300
π 29000

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CODAL EQUATIONS FOR COLUMN DESIGN
The codal equations for design of concentric columns are based on the mechanics based
equations modified for experimental observations. These equations include sufficient factor of
safety.
AISC Equations for Steel Columns: AISC divides column in to two categories based on the
critical slenderness ratio given by:

2π2 E
Cc =
σyp

12π2 E Le
σw = 2
−− −(1) For > Cc (2)
23 Le /r r
Le /r 2 σyp Le
σw = 1 − −− −(2) For < Cc
2Cc2 FS r
(1)
3
5 3Le /r Le /r
Where: FS = + −
3 8Cc 8Cc3

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CODAL EQUATIONS FOR COLUMN DESIGN
Aluminum Association for Aluminum Columns: Aluminum Association divides column in to three
categories based on the slenderness of column.
Le
σw = 28 ksi For 0 ≤ ≤ 12
r
Le Le
σw = 30.7 − 0.23 ksi For 12 < < 55
r r
54,000 Le
σw = ksi For ≥ 55
Le /r 2 r
(1)
(2)

(3)

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ECCENTRIC COLUMNS
The formula for eccentrically loaded short column has already been discussed in the module-1,
reproduced here as:
P Pe P ec
σmax = + c= 1 + 2 −− −(1)
A I A r
Where e is the load eccentricity along any of the principle axis, r are the moment of inertia about that
principle axis, c is the outermost fiber distance from the principle axis and A is cross sectional area of
the column. Equation (1) neglects the secondary effect (P-Δ effect) produced due to the bending
deflection.
However, in case of columns with relatively large slenderness ratio, the secondary effect may cause
appreciable change in the maximum stress produced in the column and equation (1) may not be
applicable.
To derive an expression for maximum stress considering the secondary effect consider a pin ended
column of length (L) subjected to a load P at eccentricity (e) as shown in figure.
From bending theory:

d2 v d2 v d2 v P d2 v P
EI 2 = M ⇒ EI 2 = −Pv ⇒ 2 + v = 0 ⇒ 2 + λ2 v = 0 −− −(2) where λ =
dx dx dx EI dx EI

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ECCENTRIC COLUMNS (CONT..)
The general solution of equation (2) is of the form:
𝑣 = C1 sin λx + C2 cos λx −− −(3)

Where C1 and C2 are the integration constants. These constants can be determined from the boundary conditions.
At x = 0, v = e Equation 3 ⇒ e = C1 sin 0 + C2 cos 0 ⇒ C2 = e
1 − cos λL 2 sin2 λL/2
At x = L, v = e Equation 3 ⇒ e = C1 sin λL + e cos λL ⇒ C1 = 𝑒 =𝑒
sin λL 2 sin λL/2 cos λL/2
λL
C1 = 𝑒 tan
2
λL
Equation 3 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑒 tan sin λx + e cos λx −− −(4)
2
λL λL λL λL
For maximum 𝑣, 𝑣max = 𝑒 tan sin + e cos = e sec
2 2 2 2
λL
Therefore maximum M, Mmax = P𝑣max = Pe sec
2
λL
P Mmax P Pe sec 2 P ec λL
Therefore maximum Stress, σmax = + c= + c ⇒ σmax = 1 + 2 sec −−− −(5)
A I A I A r 2

Equation (5) is known as Secant Formula.

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ECCENTRIC COLUMNS (CONT..)

P ec λL P ec PL P ec P L
σmax = 1 + 2 sec = 1 + 2 sec ⇒ σmax = 1 + 2 sec −− −(6)
A r 2 A r EI 2 A r 4EA r

Equation (6) is another form of secant formula.

Example: For a steel column with A = 10.00 in2, e = 3.00 in, c = 2.00 in, r = 1.33 in, L/r = 10.0 and P = 100 kips

P ec P L 10 3 2 10
σmax = 1 + 2 sec = 1+ sec 10 = 1.0 1 + 3.375 1.000 = 4.38
A r 4EA r 10 1.332 4 29000 10

L 10 3 2 10
For = 200 σmax = 1+ sec 200 = 1.0 1 + 3.375 1.201 = 5.05 ksi
r 10 1.332 4 29000 10

For smaller L/r the secondary effect is negligible as shown by the secant term equal to 1.0 For larger L/r the effect is
significant.
Note that the term inside the secant is in radian. The value should be converted to degree before calculating secant
or the calculator shall be set to radian mode. To account for boundary condition effective length shall be used.

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ECCENTRIC COLUMNS (CONT..)

P/A ec/r2 Le/r P/A 40.00

ec
32.73 0.1 1 32.73 = 0.1 P ec P L
r2 = 36/ 1 + 2 sec
32.72 0.1 5 32.72 32.00 A r 4EA r
32.68 0.1 10 32.68 ec
32.55 0.1 20 32.55 = 0.5
r2
32.32 0.1 30 32.32 24.00

31.94 0.1 40 31.94

31.39 0.1 50 31.39
16.00
30.56 0.1 60 30.56
29.35 0.1 70 29.35 ec
= 1.0
27.62 0.1 80 27.63 r2
8.00
25.35 0.1 90 25.35
22.71 0.1 100 22.70
17.55 0.1 120 17.50 0.00
11.93 0.1 150 11.93 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

6.94 0.1 200 6.93

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