Galindo 1

Esau Galindo
Dr. Rowell
MATH 220-903
2 April 2014
The Development of Calculus
Calculus is a branch in mathematics that focuses on the study of change and motion. In
order to facilitate this study, calculus defines and deals with limits, derivatives and integrals of
functions. Calculus introduces the notion of infinity which becomes a key ingredient to
completing calculus and lays the foundation for derivatives and integrals. Calculus is usually
divided into two parts: differential calculus, which deals with derivatives rates of change and
tangents, and integral calculus which deals with integrals, areas and volumes (Harding). From
these methods many other disciplines grew such as multivariable calculus, differential equations,
calculus of variations and many others. Calculus evolved through several centuries of
development which can be described through three periods of evolution: the Anticipation,
Development and Reorganization stage which all enabled the creation of the structured and
formalized discipline of calculus that has been accepted in the application of many fields
today(Tomforde).
In the Anticipation stage, techniques were used by mathematicians that involved infinite
processes to find areas under curves and maximize quantities (Tomforde). The main ideas of
calculus were developed very long ago by Greek mathematicians. The Greek method of
exhaustion is one of the first known important contributions to the field of calculus today.
Leucippus, Democritus and Antiphon all made contributions to the method of exhaustion;

Galindo 2

however, Archimedes effectively used and developed this method. Archimedes used this process
to approximate areas of unmeasurable shapes by using the areas of shapes which he could
calculate. One example is when he approximated the area of a circle by increasing the sides of an
inscribed polygon in order to obtain this approximation. By doing this Archimedes discovered
that the radius squared was proportional to a constant which is known today as pi. With this
method Archimedes went on to find the volume and surface area of many other shapes as well as
the first known summation of infinite series (Harding). His contributions were evidence of the
first methods of integration, but were restricted to the applications of the method of exhaustion.
In the 16th century there were many other contributors to the Anticipation stage of calculus.
Kepler made one of the most useful discoveries which is used often in astronomy. In his work on
planetary motion, Kepler discovered a method to find the area of sectors of an ellipse (Bose).
Another form of integration was seen here, but unlike the method of exhaustion used by
Archimedes, Keplers method consisted of the sums of lines which by chance was able to obtain
correct results after making several errors (Field). Through attempts at integration, Cavalieri
developed the method of indivisibles, which were very small numbers close to zero, but not zero,
although at times were used with the same properties as zero. In the same time frame Fermat,
Torricelli, and Barrow were working on methods of differentiation (O'Connor and Robertson).
Fermat developed the process used today to find the maxima and minima by calculating when
the derivative of the function was zero. Torricelli and Barrow worked on differentiation in
respect to motion. Through their work they discovered that the derivative of the distance is
velocity and the inverse operation results in the distance (Bose). This was the closest attempt yet
seen to the discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Barrow was fully aware that these
two were inverses of each other, but never fully developed this conclusion. Through the work of

Galindo 3

these mathematicians and many others not included, the foundation and many techniques were
developed that prepared the path for the discovery of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
By the Development stage, many techniques and the foundations of calculus had already
been discovered, but it was up to Newton and Leibniz to put all of these ideas together
(Tomforde). The first thought might be that these two mathematicians worked together to
develop these results, since they both made the discoveries around the same time. However, their
discoveries brought forth a great controversy as to who should be named the father of calculus.
In reality, Newton first made his discovery in 1669 which he called the method of fluxions.
Although he began his work early on, Newton kept his findings mostly to himself and did not
publish until 1711. On the other hand, it is thought that Leibniz discovered his version of
calculus by 1673 and published his findings in the year 1684 by the name of Calculus
Summatorius. As a result, Leibniz received full credit for the discovery of calculus and was
named the father of calculus. Determined to show that Leibniz had plagiarized, Newton made a
case to reveal Leibniz didnt actually draw these conclusions on his own. During this time
Newton gained popularity through other works and was inducted as a member of Britains Royal
Society. Still bitter towards Leibniz, Newton used his position to influence the argument of
Leibnizs charge of plagiarism. Due to the mutual friends of Leibniz and Newton, many believe
that some of Newtons unpublished manuscripts may have gotten into Leibnizs hands before he
made his discovery in 1673. Another debate was due to the fact that they frequently
corresponded by mail and thus, Newtons methods of the binomial theorem, fluxions and
tangents first appeared in letters written to Leibniz (Boyer). Newton personally chaired the board
that investigated the charges on Leibniz and published his findings under another name. When
this information was disclosed, Leibniz lost much of his credibility and Newton was named the

Galindo 4

sole of calculus by the British Royal Society in 1715. Although Leibniz died with a ruined
reputation, later investigation on this case revealed that a difference existed in their methods and
process of discovery. This concluded that these two men reached the same conclusions
independently and were both then considered the fathers of calculus (Ball). Newton approached
calculus as an application of motion and velocity by considering variables changing over time. In
contrast, Leibniz took a geometrical approach by considering variables x, y as ranging over
sequences of infinitely close values (Harding). Due to Leibnizs cautious notation the notations d
and were kept and used in modern calculus (Weisstein). On the other hand, Newton wrote more
for himself and used whatever notation he thought of that day. As a result, Leibnizian analytical
calculus became more popular and evolved through the Reorganization stage.
Although Newton and Leibniz effectively developed the fundamentals of calculus, their
methods did not always logically correlate and as a result it took mathematicians until the 19th
being the Reorganizing process (Tomforde). The main criticism in the work of Newton and
Leibniz was their use of infinitesimals. Due to their strange properties, of being zero at times and
non-zero at others, many mathematicians refused to fully accept their methods (Bogomolny).
Regardless of the shaky ground that infinitesimals were based on, the methods of Newton and
Leibniz were proved correct by contributions of Cauchy and Weierstrass. Through his work,
Cauchy developed the limit (notion of quantities being close to others), which he recognized as
the backbone of firm logical explanation of continuity, convergence, the derivative, and the
integral. A few years later, Weierstrass further developed the methods of Cauchy by replacing
Cauchys vague definitions and theorems with clear-cut definitions of a limit, using the terms of
epsilon and delta used in modern calculus today (Botazzini). With the development of a limit the
illogical notion of infinitely small and sometimes nonexistent infinitesimals was discarded. With

Galindo 5

these discoveries the derivative and integral were both reformulated in terms of limits which
established a firm mathematical notion of calculus. Through these fundamentals, Integration was
defined as calculating areas between two bounds which is based on the principles first developed
by Archimedes work. This is done by considering a set of rectangles under a curve that can
approximate the area by taking the sum of the rectangles as the number of rectangles approaches
infinity. In three dimensional space Integration is used to calculate the volume bounded by
surfaces, a method possible through the work of the contributions of all previous founders. In
contrast, Differentiation is normally described as the slope of tangents, and is often best
described geometrically. The simple method of finding the slope of a function by using rise over
run is essentially a form of derivative. While it seems as the development of a more rigorous
calculus was in some sense pointless due to the functionality of earlier works, this development
was vital (Tomforde). The application of calculus before the time of Cauchy wasnt fully
extended due to the uncertainty of in the use of infinitesimals. With the developments made by
after Cauchy, Calculus was put on a logical foundation, enabling mathematicians to better
understand and accept the methods of calculus for further development and application in many
fields.
Today, due to the development of calculus, we have the ability to find the effects of
changing conditions of a system (WyzAnt). This allows us to model and control systems giving
us astonishing power in the material world. Physics, chemistry, engineering, economics,
statistics, medicine, computer science, and many more are among the disciplines that use
calculus. Most of these fields use calculus to derive mathematical models to better develop
optimal solutions for the problems at hand. In physics, for example, calculus is used in a vast
majority of its concepts. These areas of physics include motion, electricity, heat, light,

Galindo 6

harmonics, acoustics, astronomy, and dynamics. In regards to application, a physicist may use
calculus to find the center of mass in a vehicle in order to design appropriate safety features. In
chemistry, calculus is often used to predict functions of reaction rates and radioactive decay.
Depending on the type of engineering, calculus can help predict trajectories which may be
influenced by gravity and other factors. For example, Space flight engineers frequently use
calculus when planning missions that do just that, taking into consideration the gravitational
influences objects in space may have. In computer science, graphic designers use calculus to
determine how three-dimensional models will behave with rapidly changing conditions which
create a realistic environment in video games (teAchnology). These are just a few examples of
the impact of calculus on different fields today. Despite the complexity of this branch of
mathematics, calculus has made huge contributions to the world we live in today.
The study of calculus is often taught in the inverse order of its history of development,
which is best explained by analyzing the different stages of its creation, from the methods of
Archimedes to the discipline that is exercised today(Tomforde). Granted, the idea was
discovered long ago, but a concrete foundation wasnt establish until the time of Cauchy. For this
reason, Calculus is usually taught beginning with the concept of a limit, which in history would
replace the methods of the first calculus mathematicians that began with infinitesimals.
Following the limit, the concept of derivatives and integrals is defined, since modern calculus
basis these two methods on the notion of a limit. Through many centuries of development and
controversy, calculus was formed through the stages of Anticipation, Development, and
Reorganization, becoming the foundation to many scientific fields that enrich the world around
us today.

Galindo 7

Sources Cited
Ball , W. W. Rouse A Short Account of the History of Mathematics 4th Edition. (1908). Web.
31 Mar. 2014.
Bogomolny, Alexander. What is Calculus?Interactive Mathematics Miscellany.(19962014).Web. 28 Mar.2014.
Bose, Adam. Did You Know: The History of Calculus. Arindams Blog. (2014). Web.28 Mar.
2014.
Botazzini, Umberto. The higher calculus, a history of real and complex analysis from Euler to
Weierstrass. New York: Springer-Verlag.(1986). Text. 08 Mar. 2014
Boyer, Carl B. The history of the Calculus and its conceptual development. New York,
Dover.(1959). Text. 20 Feb. 2014.
Field, J. V. Johannes Kepler JOC. (April 1999). EFR. Web. 31 Mar. 2014.
Harding, Simon, and Paul Scott. "The History Of The Calculus." Australian Mathematics
Teacher 61.2 (2004): 2-5. ERIC. Web. 31 Mar. 2014.
O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F. A History of the Calculus. (Feb 1996). JOC/EFR. Web. 31
Mar. 2014.
teAchnology. What is Calculus? When Do You Use it In the Real World?Teachnology Inc.
(2014). Web. 31 Mar.2014.
Tomforde, Mark. The History of Calculus. University of Iowa (Jan 2000). Web. 28 Mar. 2014.

Galindo 8

Weisstein, Eric W. Leibniz, Gottfried (1646-1716). Mathematica. 1996-2007. Web. 1 Apr