Power Quality Solutions

POWER QUALITY SOLUTIONS
ABOUT US
Larsen & Toubro is a technology-driven company
Switchgear Factory, Navi Mumbai that infuses engineering with imagination. The
Company offers a wide range of advanced
solutions in the field of Engineering,
Construction, Electrical & Automation, Machinery
and Information Technology.
L&T Switchgear, a part of the Electrical &

Automation business, is India's largest
manufacturer of low voltage switchgear, with the
scale, sophistication and range to meet global
benchmarks. With over five decades of
experience in this field, the Company today
enjoys a leadership position in the Indian market
with a growing international presence.
It offers a complete range of products including

powergear, controlgear, industrial automation,
Switchgear Factory, Ahmednagar building electricals & automation, reactive power
management, energy meters, and protective
relays. These products conform to Indian and
International Standards.
Switchgear Factory, Vadodara

Page No.
CONTENTS
Products of Power Quality
Power Factor Correction

Benefits of using LT Capacitors over HT Capacitors
¶
¶
Capacitor Technology
¶
Life of Power Capacitors
¶
Capacitor Power Loss Calculation
¶
Discharge Resistors
¶
Voltage Selection of Power Capacitors
1
4
5
7
9
10
11
12
¶
Standard Duty Capacitors 13
¶
Heavy Duty Capacitors 15
¶
LTXL - Ultra Heavy Duty Capacitors 18
Harmonics 22
¶
Harmonic Amplification 23
¶
Harmonic Resonance 24
¶
Interpretation of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) 26
¶
Understanding Current & Voltage Harmonics 27
Triplen Harmonic Mitigation
¶ 31
¶
Harmonic Mitigation 33
¶
Detuned Filters 34
¶
Importance of using the right Detuned Reactor 36
¶
Linearity of Reactor 38
¶
Q-factor 39
¶
Reactors - Harmonic Filters 40
¶
Basics of Active Harmonic Filters 43
¶
Active Harmonic Filters 47
Capacitor Switching in APFC Panel 52

¶
Capacitor Duty Contactors – Type MO C 53
¶
Dynamic Power Factor Correction 58
¶
Thyristor Switching Modules 62
etaCON - APFC Controller 66
Selection of Capacitor 74
¶ Motor Power Factor Compensation 79
¶ Transformer Compensation 81
¶ Reactive Power Compensation of DG Sets 82
etaSYS - Standard APFC Panels 84

¶ Capacitor Step Size Selection Guidelines in APFC Panels 91
¶
Fuse Selection for APFC Panels 94
¶
MCCB Selection for APFC Panels 95
¶
Cable Selection for Capacitors 96
¶
Thermal Design of APFC Panels 97
etaPRO V2.2 - Multi-utility Software Package 101

1 PRODUCTS OF POWER QUALITY
POWER
CAPACITORS
Cylindrical Box
Type Type
Standard Duty Heavy Duty Standard Duty Heavy Duty LTXL:

1-25 kVAr Gas Filled 1-30 kVAr 5-50 kVAr Ultra Heavy Duty
3-25 kVAr 5-50 kVAr
MPP Advanced APP
HARMONIC
FILTERING
Detuned Harmonic Filter Reactor Active Harmonic Filter

5-100 kVAr 30-600A
Copper and Aluminium 3Ph 3Wire/4 Wire
7% and 14%
2
CAPACITOR
SWITCHING
Thyristor Switching Modules Capacitor Duty Contactors -

10, 25 & 50 kVAr Type MO C
5 – 80 kVAr
POWER
FACTOR
CONTROLLER
etaCON L series APFC relay

3, 5, 7, 8 and 12-step
REACTIVE
POWER
MANAGEMENT
SOLUTIONS
etaSYS APFC Panels

35 - 500 kVAr
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 4
Principles of Power Factor Correction

A vast majority of electrical loads in low voltage industrial installations are inductive in nature. Typical
examples are motors and transformers, which consume both active and reactive power. The active power is
used by the load to meet its actual work requirements whereas reactive power is used by the load to meet its
magnetic field requirements. The reactive power (inductive) is always 900 lagging with respect to active power
as shown in figure1. Figure 2 & 3 show the flow of kW, kVAr and kVA in a network.
Supply Bus Supply Bus

Active Power
kVA kVA
kVAr
kW kVAr kW
Reactive
Power
LOAD LOAD
Capacitor
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3:

Phase relationship Network without Capacitor Network with Capacitor
between Active and
Reactive Power
Flow of active and reactive power always takes place in electrical installations. This means that the supply
system has to be capable of supplying both active and reactive power. The supply of reactive power from the
system results in reduced installation efficiency due to:
Increased current flow for a given load
n
Higher voltage drops in the system
n
Increase in losses of transformers, switchgear and cables
n
Higher kVA demand from supply system as given in figure 2
n
Higher electricity cost due to levy of penalties / loss of incentives
n
It is therefore necessary to reduce & manage the flow of reactive power to achieve higher efficiency of the
electrical system and reduction in cost of electricity consumed.
The most cost effective method of reducing and managing reactive power is power factor improvement
through Power Capacitors. The concept of reduction in kVA demand from the system is shown in figure 3.
Benefits of Power Factor Correction

Reduction in
line current
Reduction in n Reduction in
kVA demand power loss
Reduction in nReduction in n Reduction in
kVAr demand transformer cable size
Power factor rating n Reduction in
correction switchgear
rating
No penalties
n Reduced
n electrical Reduced
n energy
Cost benefits Incentive
n equipment cost charges
BENEFITS OF USING LT CAPACITORS OVER
5 HT CAPACITORS
Power factor compensation can be provided on either LT or HT side of the distribution transformer. Often,
compensation is done on the HT side as the electricity board measures power factor on HT side for penalty
calculation. Also, HT capacitors involve low initial investment as compared to LT capacitors. However,
compensation achieved by HT capacitors does not provide the benefits offered by the use of LT capacitors, as
discussed in this article.
Consider two cases with compensation provided on HT and LT side respectively as shown in figure 1 and 2.
Supply Supply
kVAr
kW kW kVAr
Distribution HT Capacitor Distribution

Transformer Transformer
kVAr
CB CB
kVAr
kW kW
LT Capacitor
Load Load
Fig 1: Compensation on HT Side Fig 2: Compensation on LT Side
As seen in fig 1, with the capacitor connected on the HT side, the compensated reactive power flow through
the transformer does not reduce and hence there is no change in current flow. Although the HT side power
factor is improved, the LT side power factor remains same. However, as seen in fig 2, connecting capacitor on
LT side reduces the reactive power flow through the transformer and we get improved power factor and
reduced current flow on both LT and HT sides.
Reduction in Transformer Copper Losses

Consider a load of 1200 kW connected to a transformer of 2000 kVA. The typical full-load copper losses in a
2000 kVA transformer are 25000 W.
When compensation is provided on HT side, operating power factor of the transformer is 0.75 (same as
uncompensated), denoted by cosø1.
When compensation is provided on LT side, operating power factor of the transformer is 0.98 (compensated),
denoted by cosø2.
6
Power Saving (in W) = 25000*0.6*(1/.75-1/.98) = 4694 W

Monthly Energy Savings (in kWh) = 4694 *24*30/1000 = 3380 kWh
Typical Energy Charge (in Rs / kWh) = Rs. 6 per kWh
Monthly Cost Saving (in Rs) = 6*3380 = Rs. 20278/-
Yearly Cost Savings (in Rs) = 20278*12 = Rs. 243330/-
Thus, LT compensation provides monthly savings of Rs. 20,278/- for a 2000 kVA transformer. Additionally, the
operating temperature of the transformer is relatively less because of reduced copper losses. Hence, apart from
monetary benefits, LT compensation also ensures longer life of the transformer.
Capacity Release in Transformer

Consider a 2000 kVA transformer connected to a load.
Cast 1: When compensation is provided on HT side, operating PF of transformer = 0.75

Maximum load that can be connected = 2000*0.75 = 1500 kW
Cast 2: When compensation is provided on LT side, operating PF of transformer = 0.98

Maximum Load that can be connected = 2000*0.98 = 1960 kW
Additional load that can be connected under the same transformer = 460 kW
LT compensation allows release of capacity of 460 kW with the same transformer. Thus, additional load can be
easily connected to the system without any additional investments in new transformers.
Optimized Main Incomer Switchgear Rating

LT side capacitor, when connected after the main incomer reduces the current drawn by the same set of loads.
Hence incomer switchgear rating can be optimized and the investment cost of the main incomer can be
reduced.
Apart from those mentioned above, LT compensation also offers other advantages, such as
• Maintenance of LT capacitors and panels is easier and does not require complex safety measures
• Spares and accessories for the same are easily available and relatively cheaper
Thus, for a factory with all LT loads, power factor compensation with LT capacitors proves to be a better option,
with its relatively smaller payback period.
7 CAPACITOR TECHNOLOGY
MPP (Metalized Poly-Propylene)

Capacitors are used in diverse applications, and hence different capacitor technologies are available. In low
voltage applications, LT cylindrical capacitors which are made in accordance with metalized polypropylene
technology, have proved to be the most appropriate and the most cost effective amongst all technologies.
Depending on the nominal voltage of the capacitor, the thickness of the polypropylene film differs.
Electrodes (metalized)
Poly-propylene Film
Electric Contact

Non-metallized Edge
Design of LT Capacitor
Self - Healing
At the end of service life, or due to inadmissible electrical or thermal overload, an insulation breakdown may
occur. This breakdown causes a small arc which evaporates the metal layer around the point of breakdown and
hence re-establishes the insulation at the place of perforation. After electric breakdown, the capacitor can still
be used. The decrease of capacitance caused by a self-healing process is less than 100 pF. The self-healing
process lasts for a few microseconds only and the energy necessary for healing can be measured only by means
of sensitive instruments.
Polypropylene Film Electrodes (metallized)
Point of Breakdown
Top View
Non-conductive Insulating Area
Self - Healing Breakdown
Impregnation
Our LT-type capacitors are impregnated to safeguard from environmental influences and to guarantee
reliable, long-term operation. Vacuum impregnation eliminates air and moisture, improves “self-healing” and
reduces thermal resistance.
8
Over Pressure Tear - Off Fuse
At the end of service life or after several self-healing operations or due to inadmissible electrical or thermal
overload, over pressure builds up and causes an expansion of the cover. Expansion over a certain limit causes
the tear-off of the internal fuses. The active capacitor elements are thus cut-off from the source of supply. The
pressure within the casing separates the breaking point so rapidly that no harmful arc occurs.
Operating Condition
Torn - off Condition
Construction Details
Cylindrical capacitors consist of three units of single phase capacitors connected in delta kept inside an
aluminium can. Technologically similar to cylindrical capacitors, box type capacitors consist of three or six
single phase cylindrical capacitor cells. The individual cells are wired together and mounted on a steel frame.
The steel frame together with the cells is housed in a common sheet steel casing. The enclosure is powder
coated and is designed to protect the capacitor cells from dust and moisture. Ease of mounting is ensured by 4
drillings at the bottom of the container.
This design ensures highest safety by:
n Self healing technology
n Over pressure tear - off fuse
n Robust steel container
n Massive connection studs
MPP capacitors are manufactured in two different types such as Standard duty and Heavy duty. The Standard
duty capacitors are manufactured using standard thickness of dielectric material with heavy edge
metalization. Heavy duty capacitors are manufactured using thicker material and in lower width which
increases current handling capacity as well as reduces temperature rise.
9 LIFE OF POWER CAPACITORS
The life of a capacitor is influenced by the following three parameters:
• Temperature
• Voltage
• Current
Temperature
For a capacitor, the temperature depends upon the following parameters:
< Ambient temperature in which capacitor is being operated
< Amount of over current that flows through the capacitor
< Power loss of the capacitor (dielectric power loss and resistive power loss)
The increase in temperature results in faster degradation of the dielectric. For every 10°C rise in temperature,
the life of the capacitor is halved. Faster the degradation of the dielectric, lower will be the life of the capacitor.
Increase in temperature beyond a certain limit may result in expansion of impregnation and dielectric material.
This may result in bulging of capacitors. In worst case, capacitor may even burst, if it does not have an over-
pressure disconnector.
The capacitor must thus be operated at rated ambient temperature for a long operating life.
Voltage
The increase in system voltage has the following effects on the capacitor:
< Dielectric degradation
If the voltage increases beyond a certain limit, the dielectric material will breakdown. This critical voltage
is called the dielectric breakdown voltage. Breakdown can result in an internal short circuit causing the
capacitor to fail permanently
< Increase in current flow through the capacitor
As capacitors are linear in nature, with increase in voltage, the capacitor current also increases because
XC remains constant (IC =V/XC). This results in overloading of the capacitor, which may reduce the life of
the capacitor. Over-voltage limits of the capacitors are +10% for 12 hrs in 24 hrs, +15% for 30 min in
24h, +20% for 5 min in 24 hrs and +30% for 1 min in 24 hrs
Current
The parameters that are related to current, which affect the life of the capacitor are:
< Inrush current
Inrush current (100 times rated current) is like a momentary short circuit. Frequent switching of the
capacitor without proper inrush current limiting devices will affect the life of the capacitor as it is heavily
stressed during each switching operation. Switching frequency thus limits the life of the capacitor
< Over-load current
Continuous overload of capacitor is mainly because of harmonics and continuous over voltage. Overloading
results in local hot spots and may lead to an internal short circuit
A generally accepted formula for estimating variation in life of capacitor is:
Where:
L = operating life under stated temperature and voltage.
7 LR = life at rated temperature and voltage.
æ
ER ö( D
LR ç
L= ç x2 T / 10 )
÷
÷ ER = rated voltage limit.
E0 ø
è EO = operating voltage.
T = difference between rated operating temperature
and capacitor core temperature in OC.
To conclude, all the above parameters should be within the rated value in order to exploit the maximum life of
the capacitor.
CAPACITOR POWER LOSS CALCULATION 10
A capacitor is a passive device which has two conductors separated by a dielectric of infinite resistance, ideally.
Hence, it should offer only capacitive reactance, with zero resistance and zero inductance values. But
practically, the dielectric of the capacitor will offer a finite resistance along with the capacitance. This finite
resistance is called as Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR), and its equivalent circuit can be represented as
below:
The ESR in the capacitor causes the leakage current to flow through the dielectric of the capacitor. This results
2
in real power loss (I *ESR) called as dielectric loss. Higher the ESR, higher is the power loss, and hence the heat
generated by the capacitor is also more. The heat generated should be dissipated properly; otherwise it may
result in significant temperature rise. A good quality capacitor has very low ESR value.
In a lossless (ideal) capacitor, the current leads the voltage exactly by 90°. But there is always a small shortfall in
the lead angle from 90°, because of the dielectric loss. The difference in angle is called loss angle (d ). The
following diagram represents loss angle (d )in the impedance plane.
The tangent of the loss angle (loss tangent) is defined as the ratio of the capacitor's equivalent series resistance
(ESR) to the capacitive reactance (XC ).
Impedance plane
ESR
-jXC
Where, Q is the reactive power rating of the capacitor (in VAr).
Typically, for good quality power capacitors, tan d value is less than 0.0002. Power loss of any capacitor can be
computed if tan d value is known as explained in the example below:
For a 10 kVAr capacitor, consider the value of tan d
as 0.0002.
Normally, the tan d

value is available in the routine test certificate of the power capacitor.
The life of a power capacitor is largely dependent upon temperature. Hence, it is a good practice to do the
thermal design of APFC panel after computing the capacitor power loss.
11 DISCHARGE RESISTORS
Typically, power factor correction capacitors are fitted with discharge
resistors connected directly across the terminals (two resistors between three
phases). These resistors are mandatory safety requirement recommended by
the capacitor standards, to discharge the residual voltage that remains in the
capacitor, once it is switched off.
As per IS 13340 (MPP capacitors) and IS 13585 (APP capacitors) the capacitor
should discharge to 50 V or below, within 60 seconds, as soon as the
capacitor is switched off this is to protect human beings from the risk of Cylindrical capacitor's
electric shock and also for safe re-switching of the same capacitor in APFC terminal block
panel. with discharge resistor
If the capacitor is re-switched without discharging

sufficiently, there is a possibility that the voltage
difference across the contactor may shoot up to
1000 V. More over, this results in very high peak
inrush current as the rate of change of voltage is very
high (IC = C dV/dt). Such frequent switchings reduce
the life of the capacitor and/or the contactor, and
may cause premature failures. Hence while re-
switching the capacitor (either in manual mode or
auto mode) it is mandatory to discharge the
capacitor to its 10% rated voltage.
In order to ensure the sufficient discharge, it should be ensured that the capacitor is re-switched only after 45
to 60 seconds. This time delay (for re-switching the same capacitor bank) can be set in APFC relay. In case, any
application demands frequent switching of capacitors by contactors, time delay can be reduced by faster dis-
charge of the residual voltage. Faster discharging can be achieved by replacing the existing resistors with new
resistors of lesser resistance.
Formula to calculate the resistance is:
2Vn
The above formula is valid for resistors assembly in the delta connected capacitor (two resistors between three
terminals), as shown in the figure.
However, opting for lower resistance for faster discharge will increase
the power loss. At the same time, appropriate power rating (wattage)
of the resistor should be chosen to ensure sufficient current carrying R R
capacity of the resistor.
Here, the resistor should withstand the initial peak discharge current even if the capacitor is switched off at the
instant of 30% over voltage.
VOLTAGE SELECTION OF POWER CAPACITORS 12
The name plate of a capacitor usually has three kVAr ratings
at three different voltages. kVAr rating of the capacitor is
directly proportional to square of the applied voltage.
This is evident from the below formula:
V2
kVAr =
XC
As capacitance (C in uF) remains same for a capacitor,
XC will remain constant.
For example, if a capacitor is rated for 30 kVAr at 480 V,

and if the applied voltage is 440 V, the kVAr output can be
calculated as follows:
(Applied voltage)2
kVAr output = Rated kVAr x
(Rated voltage)2
(440)2
= 30 x 2
(480)
= 25.2 kVAr at 440 V
Similarly, if we apply 500 V for the same capacitor, the kVAr output will be 32.5 kVAr. In this case, we are applying
voltage more than the rated value and the capacitor will deliver kVAr output more than its rated value. Hence the
life of the capacitor may reduce drastically, because of over-voltage and over-current.
To summarize, the product label of a capacitor (for e.g. 30 kVAr, 480 V) has the following details:
Similarly, for 25 kVAr and 440 V capacitor, the name plate contains the respective kVAr ratings and current
ratings at 440 V, 415 V and 400 V.
Selection of Capacitors when System Voltage is 415 V

Before deciding the voltage of the capacitor, it is important to understand the percentage impedance of the
transformer (% Z). The percentage impedance is the voltage drop on full load due to the winding resistance and
leakage reactance of the transformer. This is expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. For example, if the
secondary of the transformer is rated for 433 V and %Z is 4%, the voltage available at the load end, during full
load conditions, would be 415 V only. When the load decreases, the voltage drop decreases and hence the
voltage at the load end increases. During no-load conditions, the voltage can reach a maximum of 433 V.
If a capacitor is selected with 415 V (in the above case), it would be subjected to over-voltage during partial load
or no-load conditions. This would impact the capacitor life drastically. For a normal capacitor, following are the
over-voltage limits permitted as per IS:
• 10% over-voltage for 12 hours in every 24 hours

• 15% over-voltage for 30 minutes in every 24 hours
• 20% over-voltage for 5 minutes in every 24 hours
• 30% over-voltage for 1 minute in every 24 hours
Hence, the capacitor should be rated for 440 V, even though the voltage at the load end is measured as 415 V. In
general, it is a better practice to select capacitor voltage greater than the rated secondary voltage of the
transformer and hence, avoid prolonged over-voltage conditions.
13 STANDARD DUTY CAPACITORS
L&T Standard Duty Capacitors are metalized polypropylene
capacitors from 1 - 25 kVAr in cylindrical configuration and 1-
30 kVAr in box type configuration. These capacitors come
with a stacked winding and are impregnated with a
biodegradable soft resin. These capacitors are self healing
type. The Capacitors come with an over pressure disconnector
and finger proof terminals. They can be used to provide
effective power factor correction in industrial and semi
industrial applications.
For Selection and Application details please refer page no. 74
Technical Details
Standard Duty
Box Cylindrical
LTBCF (1 to 6 kVAr) and LTCCF (1 to 6 kVAr) and
Series
LTBCD (7.5 kVAr and above) LTCCD (7.5 kVAr and above)
Range 1 - 30 kVAr 1 - 25 kVAr
IS 13340-2012, IS 13341-1992, IS 13340-2012, IS 13341-1992,

Standards
IEC 60831-1+2 IEC 60831-1+2
Rated Frequency 50Hz 50Hz
Rated Voltage 415 / 440 V 415 / 440 V
+10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h), +10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h),

Over Voltage
+20% (5m/24hrs), +30% (1m/24hrs) +20% (5m/24hrs), +30% (1m/24hrs)
Overcurrent 1.5 x In 1.5 x In
Peak Inrush Current 200 x In 200 x In
Operating Losses (Dielectric) < 0.2 W/kVAr < 0.2 W/kVAr
Operating Losses (Total) < 0.45 W/kVAr < 0.45 W/kVAr
Tolerance on Capacitance -5 / +10% as per IS -5 / +10% as per IS
Test Voltage (Terminal-Terminal) 2.15 Times rated voltage for 10 sec 2.15 Times rated voltage for 10 sec
Test Voltage (Terminal-Casing) 3 kV (AC) for 1 minute 3 kV (AC) for 1 minute
Degree of Protection IP20, Indoor mounting (IP54 optional) IP20, Indoor mounting (IP54 optional)
-25 / D -25 / D
Max temperature = +55˚C Max temperature = +55˚C
Ambient Temperature
Max mean temperature (24 h) = +45˚C Max mean temperature (24 h) = +45˚C
Max mean temperature (1 year) = +35˚C Max mean temperature (1 year) = +35˚C
Cooling Natural or forced air cooling Natural or forced air cooling
Permissible Relative Humidity Max 95% Max 95%
Maximum Operating Altitude 4000m above sea level 4000m above sea level
Mounting Upright Upright
Overpressure disconnector, Self-healing, Overpressure disconnector, Self-healing,
Safety Features
Finger-proof terminals Finger-proof terminals
Impregnation Non-PCB biodegradable resin Non-PCB biodegradable resin
Casing MS Sheet metal Aluminum extruded can
Dielectric Composition Metalized polypropylene Metalized polypropylene
Wire (1 - 6 kVAr) Wire (1 - 6 kVAr)
Terminals
Ceramic bushing (7.5 kVAr and above) Finger-proof clamptite (7.5 kVAr and above)
Discharge resistors fitted, Discharge resistors fitted,
Discharge Resistors / Time Standard discharge time 60 seconds, Standard discharge time 60 seconds,
Other discharge times on request Other discharge times on request
Switching Operations (maximum) 5000 Switchings per year 5000 Switchings per year
14
Standard Duty Capacitors - Overall Dimensions
Cylindrical Type
Finger proof terminal
Power rating Dimensions

Sr. Voltage (kVAr) Capacitance Rated current in (mm)
No. (uF) (A) Cat. Nos.
50 Hz 60 Hz H D
1 440 V 1 1 16.44 1.31 130 45 LTCCF301B2
Expansion to h ± 3+a
h + 40
2 440 V 2 2 32.88 2.62 130 50 LTCCF302B2
Marking
h±3
3 440 V 3 4 49.32 3.94 165 50 LTCCF303B2
4 440 V 4 5 65.77 5.25 165 63.5 LTCCF304B2
5 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 225 63.5 LTCCF305B2 d
6 440 V 6 7 98.65 7.87 225 63.5 LTCCF306B2
16 ± 1
7 440 V 7.5 9 123.31 9.84 195 75 LTCCD307B2 Torque T - 10 Nm
M 12
Toothed locked washer
8 440 V 8.33 10 136.96 10.93 195 75 LTCCD308B2
DIN 6798
Hexagon nut
9 440 V 10 12 164.42 13.12 195 85 LTCCD310B2 DIN 934-M 12
Tightening torque
T= 1.2 Nm
10 440 V 12.5 15 205.52 16.40 270 85 LTCCD312B2
11 440 V 15 18 246.62 19.68 270 85 LTCCD315B2
19.6 ± 0.5
12 440 V 20 24 328.83 26.24 345 85 LTCCD320B2 16.8 ± 0.5
13 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 345 90 LTCCD325B2

Note :- 1) Seaming adds 4mm. In diameter
Box Type
7.5 kVAr to 15 kVAr
Capacitance Rated
2 Slot 8x10
Sr. Voltage (kVAr) current in (mm)
(uF) Cat. Nos.
No. (A)
50 Hz 60 Hz H W D W±5
1 440 V 1 1 16.44 1.31 125 140 40 LTBCF301B2 D±5
2 440 V 2 2 32.88 2.62 125 140 40 LTBCF302B2
3 440 V 3 4 49.32 3.94 145 170 50 LTBCF303B2

H±5
4 440 V 4 5 65.77 5.25 145 170 50 LTBCF304B2

EMBOSSING
5 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 175 170 50 LTBCF305B2
6 440 V 6 7 98.65 7.87 175 170 50 LTBCF306B2
7 440 V 7.5 9 123.31 9.84 300 240 80 LTBCD307B2

20 kVAr to 30 kVAr
8 440 V 8.33 10 136.96 10.93 300 240 80 LTBCD308B2 4 Slot 8x15
75 ±1
9 440 V 10 12 164.42 13.12 300 240 80 LTBCD310B2
10 440 V 12.5 15 205.52 16.40 300 240 80 LTBCD312B2

W±5 D±5
11 440 V 15 18 246.62 19.68 300 240 80 LTBCD315B2 Hole Ø30 mm
for cable entry
12 440 V 20 24 328.83 26.24 300 240 160 LTBCD320B2
13 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 300 240 160 LTBCD325B2

H±5
14 440 V 30 36 493.25 39.37 300 240 160 LTBCD330B2 EMBOSSING

15 HEAVY DUTY CAPACITORS
L&T Heavy Duty Capacitors are metalized polypropylene capacitors
available from 3-25 kVAr in cylindrical and from 5-50 kVAr in box
type construction. These capacitors have an inrush current
withstand of 300 In and an overload withstand capacity of 1.8 In.
These capacitors have all the features of standard capacitors like
over pressure disconnector and self healing.
The cylindrical Capacitors are subjected to an extended period of
drying after which the casing is filled with an inert gas to prevent
corrosion of the winding elements and inner electrical contacts.
Compact design ensures space saving. Heavy Duty capacitors have
a long life of 150000 hours.
For Selection and Application details please refer page no. 74
Technical Details
Heavy Duty
Box Cylindrical
Series LTBCH LTCCN
Range 5 - 50 kVAr 3 - 25 kVAr
IS 13340-1993, IS 13341-1992, IS 13340-1993, IS 13341-1992,

Standards
IEC 60831-1+2 IEC 60831-1+2
Rated Frequency 50Hz 50Hz

Rated Voltage 415 / 440 / 480 / 525 V 415 / 440 / 480 / 525 / 690 V
+10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h), +10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h),
Over Voltage
+20% (5m/24hrs), +30% (1m/24hrs) +20% (5m/24hrs), +30% (1m/24hrs)
Overcurrent 1.8 x In 1.8 x In

Peak Inrush Current 300 x In 250 x In
Operating Losses (Dielectric) < 0.2 W/kVAr < 0.2 W/kVAr
Operating Losses (Total) < 0.35 W/kVAr < 0.35 W/kVAr
Tolerance on Capacitance -5 / +10% as per IS -5 / +10% as per IS
Test Voltage (Terminal-Terminal) 2.15 times rated voltage for 10 sec 2.15 times rated voltage for 10 sec
Test Voltage (Terminal-Casing) 3 kV (AC) for 1 minute 3 kV (AC) for 1 minute
IP20, indoor mounting IP20, indoor mounting
Degree of Protection
(IP54 optional) (IP54 optional)
-25 / D -40 / D
Max temperature = +55˚C Max temperature = +55˚C
Ambient Temperature
Max mean temperature (24 h) = +45˚C Max mean temperature (24 h) = +45˚C
Max mean temperature (1 year) = +35˚C Max mean temperature (1 year) = +35˚C
Cooling Natural or forced air cooling Natural or forced air cooling
Permissible Relative Humidity Max 95% Max 95%
Maximum Operating Altitude 4000m above sea level 4000m above sea level
Mounting Upright Upright or horizontal
Overpressure disconnector, Dry type (gas filled), Overpressure
Safety Features
Self-healing disconnector, Self-healing
Impregnation Non PCB Oil, Biodegradable oil Inert gas

Casing MS Sheet metal Aluminum extruded can
Dielectric Composition Metalized polypropylene Metalized polypropylene
Terminals Ceramic bushing Finger-proof clamptite
Discharge resistors fitted, Discharge resistors fitted,

Discharge Resistors / Time Standard discharge time 60 seconds, Standard discharge time 60 seconds,
Other discharge times on request Other discharge times on request
Switching Operations (maximum) 8000 Switchings per year 8000 Switchings per year
Heavy Duty Capacitors - Overall Dimensions
16
Cylindrical Type
Marking
5 ± 0.5
h + 40
h
d
16 + 1
Torque
M12 T = 10 Nm
Impregnating hole
Torque
T = 1.2 Nm
19.6 ± 0.5
d + d1
d1= 2 ... 6 mm (depending on the capacitor type;

for details please refer to the data sheet)
16.8 ± 0.5
Creepage distance 12.7 mm min. Clearance 9.6 mm min.

(uF) (A) Cat. Nos.
No.
50 Hz 60 Hz H D
1 440 V 3 4 49.32 3.94 130 64 LTCCN303B2
2 440 V 4 5 65.77 5.25 190 64 LTCCN304B2
3 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 190 64 LTCCN305B2
4 440 V 7.5 9 123.31 9.84 190 64 LTCCN307B2
5 440 V 8.33 10 136.96 10.93 190 64 LTCCN308B2
6 440 V 10 12 164.42 13.12 265 64 LTCCN310B2
7 440 V 12.5 15 205.52 16.40 265 64 LTCCN312B2
8 440 V 15 18 246.62 19.68 190 84.4 LTCCN315B2
9 440 V 20 24 328.83 26.24 265 84.4 LTCCN320B2
10 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 265 84.4 LTCCN325B2
11 480 V 7.5 9 103.62 9.02 190 64 LTCCN307C2
12 480 V 10 12 138.16 12.03 190 84 LTCCN310C2
13 480 V 12.5 15 172.69 15.04 190 84 LTCCN312C2
14 480 V 15 18 207.23 18.04 265 84 LTCCN315C2
15 480 V 20 24 276.31 24.06 265 84 LTCCN320C2
16 480 V 25 30 345.39 30.07 265 84 LTCCN325C2
17 480 V 30 36 414.47 36.09 230 116 LTCCN330C2
18 525 V 7.5 9 86.61 8.25 190 64 LTCCN307M2
19 525 V 8.33 10 96.20 9.16 190 64 LTCCN308M2
20 525 V 10 12 115.49 11.00 265 65 LTCCN310M2
21 525 V 12.5 15 144.36 13.75 265 65 LTCCN312M2
22 525 V 15 18 173.23 16.50 265 65 LTCCN315M2
23 525 V 20 24 230.97 21.99 265 84 LTCCN320M2
24 525 V 25 30 288.72 27.49 265 84 LTCCN325M2
25 525 V 30 36 346.46 32.99 230 116 LTCCN330M2
17 Heavy Duty Capacitors - Overall Dimensions
Box Type
5 to 12.5 kVAr 15 to 50 kVAr
D1 ± 1
2 slot 8 x 10
4 slot 8 x 15
Hole Ø22 mm,
Hole Ø30 mm,
for cable entry
W±5 for cable entry
D±5 W±5
D±5
1
1
H±5
H±5
2
Embossing 2
Embossing

(uF) (A) Cat. Nos.
No.
50 Hz 60 Hz W D D1 H
1 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 240 80 - 300 LTBCH305B2
2 440 V 7.5 9 123.31 9.84 240 80 - 300 LTBCH307B2
3 440 V 8.33 10 136.96 10.93 240 80 - 300 LTBCH308B2
4 440 V 10 12 164.42 13.12 240 80 - 300 LTBCH310B2
5 440 V 12.5 15 205.52 16.40 240 80 - 300 LTBCH312B2
6 440 V 15 18 246.62 19.68 240 80 75 300 LTBCH315B2
7 440 V 20 24 328.83 26.24 240 160 75 300 LTBCH320B2
8 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 240 160 75 300 LTBCH325B2
9 440 V 30 36 493.25 39.37 240 160 75 300 LTBCH330B2
10 440 V 50 60 822.08 65.61 240 320 150 350 LTBCH350B2
11 480 V 7.5 9 103.62 9.02 240 80 - 300 LTBCH307C2
12 480 V 10 12 138.16 12.03 240 80 - 300 LTBCH310C2
13 480 V 12.5 15 172.69 15.04 240 80 - 300 LTBCH312C2
14 480 V 15 18 207.23 18.04 240 80 75 300 LTBCH315C2
15 480 V 20 24 276.31 24.06 240 160 75 300 LTBCH320C2
16 480 V 25 30 345.39 30.07 240 160 75 300 LTBCH325C2
17 480 V 30 36 414.47 36.09 240 160 75 300 LTBCH330C2
18 525 V 7.5 9 86.61 8.25 240 80 - 300 LTBCH307M2
19 525 V 10 12 115.49 11.00 240 80 - 300 LTBCH310M2
20 525 V 12.5 15 144.36 13.75 240 80 - 300 LTBCH312M2
21 525 V 15 18 173.23 16.50 240 80 75 300 LTBCH315M2
22 525 V 20 24 230.97 21.99 240 160 75 300 LTBCH320M2
23 525 V 25 30 288.72 27.49 240 160 75 300 LTBCH325M2
24 525 V 30 36 346.46 32.99 240 160 75 300 LTBCH330M2
25 525 V 33.1 40 382.26 36.40 240 160 75 300 LTBCH333M2
LTXL: ULTRA HEAVY DUTY CAPACITOR 18
APP (Aluminium Poly-Propylene)
The LTXL range of capacitors are designed for Ultra heavy duty
applications and can withstand heavy load fluctuations, high
inrush current and harmonics.
Applications
Applications such as welding, steel rolling, etc., with heavy
n
load fluctuations and high thermal loading

Systems with high harmonic distortion levels
n
(non linear load >15%)

Systems with high inrush current
n
Best suited for detuned harmonic filter

n
Features
Long life expectancy (upto 300000 hrs)
n
Maximum inrush current withstand capability (upto 500 times IR)
n
Low power loss (0.35 W/kVAr)
n
Protection with internal fuse
n
The life of a capacitor largely depends upon its operating temperature. LTXL box type capacitors use advanced
APP technology. By employing thicker aluminum foil, thicker hazy polypropylene film and special impregnates,
LTXL box type capacitor is able to operate at lower temperatures and hence achieve a longer life. These
capacitors are thus able to withstand stringent operating conditions. The higher surface area and special epoxy
based coating also ensures better heat dissipation. The capacitor is designed to operate at case temperature up
to 70oC.
In LTXL box, two polypropylene films and two Al

1. Al Film films are grouped together as shown in the figure.
2. Polypropylene Film The wave-cut and heavy edge metalized films are
3. Electric Contact (schooping) then rolled to form a capacitor element. Many such
4. Bare PP Film Edge
capacitor elements are pressed and stacked
together and are internally connected in parallel.
1
Depending upon the rating of the capacitor, the
number of stacks differ. These stacks are placed
inside a case and are vacuum impregnated with
non-PCB, biodegradable oil (PXE).
3 4 2 4 3
Each capacitor element is protected by an internal

Design of LT Capacitor
fuse as shown in the figure. If there is an internal
short circuit in any of the capacitor element, the
fuse of that corresponding capacitor element
blows.
Fuse Capacitor For Selection and Application details please refer

element
page no. 74
Blown fuse
19
Technical Details
LTXL - Ultra Heavy Duty Box
Series LTBCU
Range 5 - 50 kVAr
Standards IS 13585 (Part 1)-2012, IEC 60931-1 1996
Rated Frequency 50 Hz
Rated Voltage 415 / 440 / 480 / 525 / 690 / 850 / 1000 V
Over Voltage +10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h), +20% (5m/24hrs), +30% (1m/24hrs)
Overcurrent Upto 3 x In
Peak Inrush Current Upto 500 x In
Operating Losses (Dielectric) < 0.2 W/kVAr
Operating Losses (Total) < 0.35 W/kVAr
Tolerance on Capacitance -5 / +10% as per IS
Test Voltage (Terminal-Terminal) 2.15 times rated voltage for 10 sec
Test Voltage (Terminal-Casing) 3 kV (AC) for 1 minute
Degree of Protection IP20, Indoor mounting (IP54 optional)
Ambient Temperature -25 / D (Case temperature 70˚C)
Cooling Natural or forced air cooling
Permissible Relative Humidity Max 95%
Maximum Operating Altitude 4000m above sea level
Mounting Upright
Safety Features Internal fuse
Impregnation Non PCB Oil, Biodegradable oil
Casing MS sheet metal
Dielectric Composition Biaxially oriented polypropylene film with aluminium foil electrode
Terminals Ceramic bushing
Discharge resistors fitted, Standard discharge time 60 seconds,

Discharge Resistors / Time
Other discharge times on request
Switching operations (maximum) 20000 Switchings per year

20
LTXL: Ultra Heavy Duty Capacitors - Overall Dimensions
Box Type
M-10 Threaded
brass terminal
60 60
7
10
65
5
Top cover 4
250 125
H
115
6 3
Ø30 mm Hole
2
Elevation End View
1
L w
L1
End View
Elevation
Power rating Rated Dimensions

Sr. Voltage (kVAr) Capacitance in (mm)
(uF) current Cat. Nos.
No. (A)
50 Hz 60 Hz L L1 W H
1 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 240 270 115 115 LTBCU305B2
2 440 V 7.5 9 123.31 9.84 240 270 115 150 LTBCU307B2
3 440 V 8.33 10 136.96 10.93 240 270 115 150 LTBCU308B2
4 440 V 10 12 164.42 13.12 240 270 115 175 LTBCU310B2
5 440 V 12.5 15 205.52 16.40 240 270 115 200 LTBCU312B2
6 440 V 15 18 246.62 19.68 240 270 115 225 LTBCU315B2
7 440 V 20 24 328.83 26.24 240 270 115 275 LTBCU320B2
8 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 240 270 115 325 LTBCU325B2
9 440 V 30 36 493.25 39.37 240 270 115 375 LTBCU330B2
10 440 V 50 60 822.08 65.61 240 270 115 575 LTBCU350B2
11 480 V 7.5 9 103.62 9.02 240 270 115 150 LTBCU307C2
12 480 V 10 12 138.16 12.03 240 270 115 150 LTBCU310C2
13 480 V 12.5 15 172.69 15.04 240 270 115 175 LTBCU312C2
14 480 V 15 18 207.23 18.04 240 270 115 200 LTBCU315C2
15 480 V 20 24 276.31 24.06 240 270 115 250 LTBCU320C2
16 480 V 25 30 345.39 30.07 240 270 115 300 LTBCU325C2
17 480 V 30 36 414.47 36.09 240 270 115 325 LTBCU330C2
18 525 V 7.5 9 86.61 8.25 340 370 115 115 LTBCU307M2
19 525 V 10 12 115.49 11.00 340 370 115 125 LTBCU310M2
20 525 V 12.5 15 144.36 13.75 340 370 115 150 LTBCU312M2
21 525 V 15 18 173.23 16.50 340 370 115 175 LTBCU315M2
22 525 V 20 24 230.97 21.99 340 370 115 200 LTBCU320M2
23 525 V 25 30 288.72 27.49 340 370 115 250 LTBCU325M2
24 525 V 30 36 346.46 32.99 340 370 115 275 LTBCU330M2
25 525 V 33.1 40 382.26 36.40 340 365 115 325 LTBCU333M2
HARMONICS 22
Harmonics is defined as a component of periodic wave (or a signal) whose frequency is integral multiple of
the fundamental frequency. Non linear loads such as rectifiers, inverters, variable speed drives, furnaces,
etc. create harmonics.
These currents consist of a fundamental frequency component rated at 50 Hz, plus a series of overlapping
currents, with frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency. The result is deformation of the
current (and, as a consequence, voltage) that has a series of associated secondary effects.
+ + +... =
Fundamental Harmonic wave of Harmonic wave of Distorted wave
Wave 50 Hz 5th order 250 Hz 7th order 350 Hz
Types of Harmonic Loads

Type of Load Wave Shape Harmonic Spectrum THD I
%Magnitude wrt fundamental

100
80
• 6 Pulse and 12 Pulse drive* 60

(VFD & UPS) 0.0
• Three-phase / Single-phase rectifiers 40
• Arc / Induction furnace 0.0

20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Harmonic number
%Magnitude wrt fundamental
100
• Discharge lamps / CFL 80
• Single-phase converters 60
• Computer, IT loads 0.0

40
• SMPs
• TVs 20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Harmonic number
* Harmonics are inversely proportional to (n±1) for an n-pulse drive
Effects of Harmonics
Type of Equipment Effect of Harmonics
Increased power losses, over heating due to skin effect as higher

Rotating Machines frequency current flows on cable periphery increasing cable resistance,
pulsating torque due to negative phase sequence harmonics
Transformer, Switch-gear, Power Cables Over-heating, increased power consumption
Protective Relays Mal-operation, nuisance tripping
Power Electronics Mal-operation, failure
Power Capacitors High currents & failure due to overload
The above malfunctions are not always felt immediately after the system is installed, but the effects may be felt
in the long term and are difficult to distinguish from the natural ageing of equipment. Hence it is important to
have some basic knowledge about harmonics and find solutions for the same.
23 HARMONIC AMPLIFICATION
Harmonic amplification is an undesired increase in the magnitude of harmonics beyond the level that is being
generated in the system. This in turn amplifies the ill effects of the harmonics. The article briefs how the
amplification happens in the network and solutions to avoid this amplification.
Power capacitors are added to the network for improving the power factor. The addition of capacitors results
in reduction of system impedance. Capacitive impedance is inversely proportional to frequency (as shown in
the figure 1).
Hence the capacitor offers lower impedance for high frequency

(250 Hz, 350 Hz, 550 Hz and so on). This results in increase in the
magnitude of harmonic currents. This can be practically seen by
measuring harmonics at a particular location in the electrical
network with and without power factor correction capacitors
(APFC panels).
Following are the snapshots of harmonic measurement done at the
main incomer, with and without capacitors.
Figure 2: Measurement with APFC Panel OFF
In this case, the power factor,

obviously, will be poor. But the
harmonic contents are very
much within the limit (overall I-
THD around 3.5% and 5th
harmonic around 2%)
Figure 3: Measurement with APFC Panel ON
As soon as the power factor

correction capacitors are
connected, the THD value
shoots up. The overall I-THD
increased from 3.5% to 22%
and 5th harmonic increased
from 2% to 17%. The absolute
magnitude of 5th harmonic
amplified from 16 A to 144 A.
The distortions in the waveform
also indicate the same.
In the above equation (1), for the same set of harmonic frequencies, on adding more capacitors for PF
improvement, the capacitive impedance (X) will drop further. Again this will result in amplification of the
harmonics. If the power factor goes to leading, the amplification will be worse. The unnecessary amplification
of harmonics damages power capacitors and over heats switchgear, cables and busbars.
The solutions to prevent harmonic amplification are:
• By connecting a series inductor, so as to form a detuned filter (series LC), the impedance increases, when the
frequency increases (as XL = 2p fL). The impedance will be high for high frequency harmonics and no
amplification will happen. Hence, the THD (with reactor + capacitor) will be less than or equal to the earlier
THD levels with no capacitors
• By strictly avoiding leading power factor, the excess addition of capacitors can be prevented and hence
the amplification because of this can also be avoided. The optimum power factor of 0.97 to 0.99 should
always be maintained always
HARMONIC RESONANCE 24
Many industries may not generate high harmonics. Sometimes harmonic resonance occurring between power
capacitors and transformers causes very high magnification of harmonics. This causes increased rate of failures
and over-heating of electrical equipments. This article briefs about the basics of harmonic resonance, a
practical case study and solution to avoid resonance.
In a system with inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC ) impedances, resonance can happen at one particular
frequency (resonant frequency, FR). At this point XL is equal to XC and the net impedance is very low. Hence, at
resonance point, the magnitude of the current (with frequency FR) will be maximum and only inherent
resistance in the network would limit the current.
In practical network, the resonance is possible because of one of the

following reasons:
• Parallel resonance within a given electrical system, involving internally
generated harmonics (in the load) and resonance between local
capacitors and the predominantly inductive supply (transformers)
• Series resonance involving external harmonics (in the supply system)
and resonance between capacitors within electrical system
• Interactive resonance between different harmonics filters within a
given electrical network
Typically, the inductance (L, of the transformer)in the system remains almost constant, but the capacitance(C)
is varied (in steps) as per the requirement to maintain higher power factor. So, when the capacitance increases
the resonant frequency (FR) drops, as FR is inversely proportional to square root of capacitance.
The lower resonant frequency is dangerous, as it may match with any of the predominant harmonics and cause
more damage. Let us see a practical case study of resonance happening between variable PFC capacitors (C)
and transformer.
Consider an industry with 1000 kVA transformer of %Z = 5.67% and 750 kVAr APFC panel. The resonant
frequency can be calculated from the formula:
kVASC
Resonant frequency = FS x
kVAr
Where FS is the System frequency = 50 Hz
1000
kVASC is the short circuit power of the transformer = kVA = = 17636kVA
%z
100 0.0567
kVAr is the power rating of the capacitor connected under the transformer for power factor correction.
Case 1: When 145 kVAr is connected to the system,
Resonant frequency = 50 x 17636 = 550Hz

145
25
This frequency exactly matches with 11th harmonic (550 Hz) and results in resonance. Following is the
harmonics measurement that depicts the 11th harmonic resonance, where it increases from less than 5% to
25%. This huge amplification will damage the capacitor and other equipments.
Figure 1: Measurement with APFC Panel OFF Figure 2: Measurement with APFC PanelON
Case 2: When 250 kVAr of capacitor is switched on in the same industry,
17636
Resonant frequency = 50 x = 420Hz
250
In this case, no resonance will happen; hence the amplification level will be less than the case1. If harmonics
study is carried at this particular moment, the system would reveal relatively lesser harmonics level (%I-THD)
Case 3: When 700 kVAr is connected to the system,
17636
Resonant frequency = 50 x = 250Hz
700
Once again, this frequency perfectly matches with 5th harmonic. Typically 5th harmonic is the least order
harmonic with higher magnitude (6 pulse drives). Resonance at this harmonic order would result in even worse
damage than the case 1.
From the above cases it is evident that any peculiar problem like frequent failure of capacitors, nuisance tripping
of MCCBs, frequent blowing of fuses and over-heating of busbars is, may be because of harmonic resonance.
Resonance or worst case THD may not be revealed at the moment of harmonic measurement or troubleshooting.
Hence at times, finding the root cause of any such failures is very difficult.
Solution for harmonic resonance is to detune, by using a reactor in series with each capacitor. This detuned filter
will forcefully create one resonant frequency, so that the combination offers higher impedance for high
frequency harmonics. For example, installation of 7% reactor with each capacitor in APFC panel, will create
tuning frequency at 189 Hz. Hence, resonance at harmonic frequencies (5th harmonics and above) can be
avoided. Moreover, all the harmonics having frequency above 189 Hz (i.e., from 5th harmonics onwards) will lie
in inductive region, where the impedance increases when the frequency increases (XL = 2p fL). One important
point to note is that all the capacitors in the industry must have similar series inductor; else the overall tuning
frequency may not be at 189 Hz.
INTERPRETATION OF TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD) 26
It's a known fact that harmonics cause over loading of power capacitors and consequently reduce the life of
power capacitors. Normally lot of emphasis is given only to %THD for assessing the harmonics level while the
frequency spectrum (5th, 7th, 11th, 13th and so on) of the harmonics are not given due importance.
The over-current (and hence the stress on the capacitors) will not only depend on the %THD value but also on the
magnitude of individual harmonics, which can be clearly seen in the frequency spectrum. Following calculations
prove the above statement.
Case 1:
Assumptions:
1. VTHD : 25%
th th
2. Harmonic frequencies considered: 5 (250 Hz), 7 (350 Hz)
3. V5 =20%V1 and V7 =15%V1
4. All other harmonic frequencies are negligible
5. The capacitors are delta connected hence will not provide a path for the third harmonic to flow
Important Formulae:
where XC is the capacitive reactance, f is the frequency, C is the capacitance IC =VC / XC, where IC is the capacitive current,
VC is the voltage across the capacitor and XC is the capacitive reactance
S
(Vi ) / V1), where I =3 to 99
Calculations:
Using the superposition theorem, we can calculate the current contribution of individual harmonic voltages.
I5 =V5 / Xc5 =0.2V1/[1/(2 x p

x 5 x f x C)] =0.2 x 5 x V1/Xc1 =1 x V1/Xc1 =I1
Similarly,
I7 =1.05I1
The total current I will be a vector sum of I1, I5 and I7
Thus I = I12 + I 52 + I 27 = 1+1+1.1025)

x I1
Net current, I =1.8 I1 -----------------------> (1)
Case 2:
Assumptions:
1. VTHD: 25%
2. Harmonic frequencies considered: 5th (250 Hz), 7th (350 Hz), 11th (550 Hz), 13th (650 Hz)
3. V5 =18%V1 , V7 =15%V1 , V11 =8%V1 and V13 =4%V1
Calculation:
I5 =V5 / Xc5 =0.18V1 / [1/(2 x p
x 5 x f x C)] = 0.18 x 5 x V1 / Xc1 =0.9 x V1 / Xc1 =0.9I1
Similarly,
I7 =1.05I1 I11 =0.88I1 and I13 =0.52I1
The total current I will be a vector sum of I1, I5, I7, I11 and I13
Thus I =I 12 + 152 + I 27 + I 11
2 2
+ I13 = 2 2 2 2 2
1 +0.9 +1.05 +0.88 +0.52 x I1
Net current, I =2 I1 ----------------------->(2)
Thus, in the above two cases, even the THD value remains same (25%), the over current (ref. Eq 1 and Eq 2)
value is different depending upon the spectral values.
Hence THD value and detailed information of the frequency spectrum are necessary to predict the capacitor
over-current. Harmonics study is the best way to get the frequency spectrum details and hence the exact over
current value can be calculated.
27 UNDERSTANDING CURRENT & VOLTAGE HARMONICS
Current and voltage harmonics are often used interchangeably. At most places, only harmonics is quoted and
whether the values pertain to current or voltage is not mentioned. The differentiation can be done on the basis
of their origin.
Understanding Total Harmonic Distortion

The current and voltage harmonics in a system are often expressed as Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The
total harmonic distortion, or THD, of a quantity is a measurement of the harmonic distortion present and is the
ratio of all harmonic components to the fundamental component. It is given by the formula as under:
Y1 is the rms value of fundamental

Where,
Yh is the rms value of hth harmonic
Hence, current THD is the ratio of the root-mean-square value of the harmonic currents to the fundamental
current.
Where do Current & Voltage Harmonics originate?

Harmonics always originate as current harmonics and voltage harmonics are the results of current harmonics.
Current harmonics originate because of the presence of non-linear loads like variable speed drives, inverters,
UPS, television sets, PCs, semiconductors circuits, welding sets, arc furnaces in the system. They act as
harmonic current sources. The resulting current waveform can be quite complex depending on the type of
load and its interaction with other components of the system.
Linear load
Non-linear load
Fig 1: Linear & Non-Linear Loads
The distorted current waveforms can be represented as the sum of current waveform of fundamental
frequency and of its multiples (harmonics):
8
2 4
ƒ(t) = å
h=1
1
1
Where,
ch - Magnitude of nth order harmonics
0
- Phase angle of nth order harmonics
90 180 270 360
2
-1 Fig 2: Current waveform as sum of
3
fundamental frequency component
-2 and its multiples
28
Voltage harmonics do not originate directly from non-linear loads. The current harmonics (distorted
waveform) flow through system impedance (source and line impedances) and cause harmonic voltage drop
across the impedances. This will distort the supply voltage waveform. Thus voltage harmonics are generated.
Long cable runs, high impedance transformers, etc. contribute to higher source impedance and hence, higher
voltage harmonics.
A typical power system has the following impedances as indicated in the line diagram:
Grid Z Gh
Transformer Z Th
lh
Z Th Z Ch
Cable Z Ch
Non-Linear
Load
lh Z Sh
Sinusoidal Vthd @ Vthd @ Vthd @

Non-Linear Load Voltage Grid Transformer Load
Source
Harmonic
Current
Source
Fig 2: Impedance in a power system
In the above diagram,

Vh = hth harmonic voltage
Ih =hth harmonic current
Zh =Impedance at hth harmonic
Vthd =Voltage total harmonic distortion
At load, Vh=Ih x (ZCh +Zth +ZGh)

At transformer, Vh=Ih x (ZTh +ZGh)
At grid, Vh=Ih x (Zgh)
Usually, grid impedances are very low and hence, the harmonic voltage distortions are also low there.
However, they may be unacceptably higher on the load side as they are subjected to full system impedance
there. Hence, it becomes important where the harmonics measurements are done.
However, in case of DG sets, the source impedance is large resulting in high voltage harmonics despite small
current harmonics. Thus, a clear distinction between current and voltage harmonics becomes important here.
29
An industry, say industry A, that has large non-linear loads will generate huge current harmonics in its system.
A nearby industry, say industry B, connected to the same grid may not have non-linear loads, yet, it may be
subjected to high voltage harmonics. These voltage harmonics are the result of high current harmonics of
industry A and impedance of grid & transformer. Thus, industry B despite small current harmonics, has high
voltage harmonics. However, if industry B goes for power factor correction, then, due to the presence of
capacitors, current harmonics may also appear in the system, magnifying voltage hamrmonics further.
How do Current & Voltage Harmonics affect the system?

Current harmonics increase the rms current flowing in the circuit and thereby, increase the power losses.
Current harmonics affect the entire distribution all the way down to the loads. They may cause increased eddy
current and hysteresis losses in motor and transformers resulting in over-heating, overloading in neutral
conductors, nuisance tripping of circuit breakers, over-stressing of power factor correction capacitors,
interference with communication etc. They can even lead to over-heating and saturation of reactors.
Voltage harmonics affect the entire system irrespective of the type of load. They affect sensitive equipment
throughout the facility like those that work on zero-voltage crossing as they introduce voltage distortions.
Understanding IEEE 519 Guidelines

The purpose of harmonic limits in a system is to limit the harmonic injection from individual customers to the
grid so that they do not cause unacceptable voltage distortion in the grid. IEEE 519 specifies the harmonic
limits on Total Demand Distortion (TDD) and not Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). TDD represents the amount
of harmonics with respect to the maximum load current over a considerable period of time (not the maximum
demand current). Whereas, THD represents the harmonics content with respect to the actual load current at
the time of measurement.
It is important to note here that a small load current may have a high THD value but may not be significant
threat to the system as the magnitude of harmonics is quite low. This is quite common during light load
conditions.
TDD limits are based on the ratio of system's short circuit current to load current (ISC/ IL). This is used to
differentiate a system and its impact on voltage distortion of the entire power system. The short circuit
capacity is a measure of the impedance of the system. Higher the system impedance, lower will be the short
circuit capacity and vice versa.
The Guidelines IEEE – 519-1992 at PCC Level are as under
Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120 V Through 69 kV)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in % IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
Isc / IL <11 11≤ h<17 17 ≤ h<23 23 ≤ h< 35 35≤h TDD
<20 4.0% 2.0% 1.5% 0.6% 0.3% 5.0%
20 - 50 7.0% 3.5% 2.5% 1.0% 0.5% 8.0%
50 - 100 10.0% 4.5% 4.0% 1.5% 0.7% 12.0%
100 - 1000 12.0 % 5.5% 5.0% 2.0% 1.0% 15.0 %
>1000 15.0% 7.0% 6.0% 2.5% 1.4% 20.0%
where
Isc = maximum short-circuit current at PCC [Can be calculated as MVA/(%Z x V)]
IL = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC
30
Systems with higher ISC/ IL have smaller impedances and thus they contribute less in the overall voltage
distortion of the power system to which they are connected. Thus, the TDD limits become less stringent for
systems with higher ISC/ IL values. In other words, higher the rating of transformer used for the same amount of
load, higher will be the allowable current distortion limits.
Voltage Distortion Limits

Bus Voltage at PCC Individual Voltage Distortion VTHD
≤ 69 kV 3.0% 5.0%
69 kV < V ≤ 160 kV 1.5% 2.5%
> 160 kV 1.0% 1.5%
The limits on voltage are set at 5% for total harmonic distortion and 3% of fundamental for any single
harmonic at PCC level. Harmonics levels above this may lead to erratic functioning of equipment. In critical
applications like hospitals and airports, the limits are more stringent (less than 3% VTHD) as erroneous operation
may have severe consequences. As discussed already, the harmonic voltage will be higher downstream in the
system.
Solutions for Current & Voltage Harmonics

Current Harmonics Voltage Harmonics
(VTHD) Recommended Solutions**
(ITHD)
High Detuned Harmonic Filter with 480 V Capacitors and/or

Low (£
5%)
Active Harmonic Filter
High High (>5%) Active Harmonic Filter and 525 V MPP Capacitors
Grid may be polluted with imported voltage harmonics. It may not be

Low High (>5%)
possible to reduce them at the load side. Check with utility to rectify
**These are typical solutions. However the actual solution may vary depending up on the actual harmonic content in the system.
31 TRIPLEN HARMONIC MITIGATION
Triplen harmonics have frequencies in multiples of 3, i.e., 3rd harmonic (150 Hz), 9th harmonic (450 Hz), 15th
harmonic (750 Hz) and so on. These harmonics have some peculiar characteristics, which make them very
difficult to handle and mitigate. This article explains about the basics, sources, effects and mitigation
techniques of triplen harmonics.
Sources of Triplen Harmonics

Triplen harmonics are usually generated by single phase non-linear loads that share a common neutral. Some
of them are,
• SMPS in computers, televisions, etc.,

• CFL lamps
• Electronic dimmers and so on
These types of loads are common in IT parks, office, hospital and other commercial buildings. Following are the
typical current harmonic spectra of SMPS and CFL lamps, where third harmonic is predominantly high.
Y R
Y
B
B
Positive sequence Zero sequence
Neutral current is the vector sum of all the three phase (120o phase displaced) and the sum is zero, if the loads
are balanced in all the three phase. But the presence of triplen harmonics will result in the flow of neutral
current, even if the loads are balanced. This phenomenon explained below:
% Magnitude wrt fundamental
% Magnitude wrt fundamental
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Harmonic number Harmonic number
SMPS CFL
All the triplen harmonics are zero sequence in nature and they are exactly in-phase in all the three phases,
where as the fundamental component (50 Hz), has positive phase sequence, displaced by 120o between the
three phases.
32
The accumulated neutral current, because of the additive triplen current, can go up to 200% of the phase
current.
Three Phase System
Time R- Phase
Wave forms of balanced three phase
fundamental currents.
Time
Y- Phase
R-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time B- Phase
Y-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time Addition of third harmonics in neutral conductor
B-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time Third harmonic current of R,Y & B Phases

are in-phase with each other and hence
adds up, without cancellation in the
neutral conductor.
Reaching maximum at the same time
Ill Effects of Triplen Harmonics

• The harmonics accumulate in neutral and cause hot neutral or neutral burning due to neutral over-
loading. Thus, we need to use a higher sized cable for neutral
• Distribution transformer over heating
• Busbars and cable overheating due to skin effect
• Eddy current losses (as eddy current is proportional to square of the frequency)
• Reduced life of electrical equipments like transformers, power capacitors, switchgear, etc.
Triplen Harmonic Mitigation

Most commonly used passive filter for triplen harmonics is 14% detuned filter. This filter has the tuning
frequency of 133 Hz, which is below the 3rd harmonic (150 Hz). This filter is very effective in averting the
harmonic amplification of 3rd harmonics & above and thereby protecting power capacitors and other
equipments. But detuned filter does not eliminate the harmonics completely. In order to achieve that, active
harmonic filters with three-phase four-wire configuration should be used.
33 HARMONIC MITIGATION
Benefits of Harmonics Mitigation
Reduction
n in operating expenses
Harmonic mitigation contributes to reduced power losses in transformers, cables, switchgear.
Harmonic mitigation helps in reducing the energy losses
Reduction
n in capital expenditure
Harmonic mitigation reduces the r.m.s. value of the current and it eliminates the need to oversize
transformers and hence switchgear, cables and busbars
Improved
n business performance
Harmonics are responsible for increased line currents, resulting in additional power losses and
increased temperature in transformers, cables, motors, capacitors. The consequence may be the
unwanted tripping of circuit breakers or protection relays. This might cause significant financial losses
linked to a process interruption
Solutions for Harmonic Mitigation

For any electrical system, which is expected to be harmonics rich, it is recommended to study the harmonics
level, analyze and then a proper solution should be employed.
The different solutions employed are as follows:
Harmonic
Filters
Passive Hybrid
Active
Detuned Tuned Active: IGBT-based power

converter that reduces harmonic
distortion
Hybrid: Combination of passive

7% 14% Mitigates harmonics by acting
and active filters
as a sink
Merits:
Merits:
Series LC combination helps in üReduces THD within IEEE limits
üReduces %THD
avoiding harmonic resonance üDynamic correction of THD is
and amplification possible
Demerits:
üImproves Distortion PF
û Tuning efficiency is
Merits: üLoad balancing and
susceptible to system
üSimple and economical Displacement PF improvement
frequency & load variations
possible
leading to overheating &
Demerits: üModular – Can be expanded
failure of filter
û Marginal reduction of %THD along with the load
û Extensive harmonic
û High VTHD will affect the audit is mandatory
performance before installation
DETUNED FILTERS 34
Detuned Filters are a combination of series inductors and power factor correction capacitors that are meant to:
1. Prevent resonance.
2. Prevent harmonic amplification.
3. Protect power factor correction capacitors from overload.
Typically a detuned filter has a series connected capacitor and reactor. The capacitor terminal voltage varies
with respect to the tuning factor (%p) of the reactor. Tuning factor (%p) is the ratio of inductive impedance to
the capacitive impedance (X / X ). Common tuning factors of detuned filters are 7% and 14%.
Every series LC combination behaves capacitive below its tuning frequency [ft = 1 / (2p (LC)] and inductive
above. The inductive element of the detuned filter is selected such that the tuning frequency of the filter is
significantly lower than the lowest order harmonic frequency present in the system. The filter is thus ‘detuned'.
The ratio of inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC) is defined as the tuning factor.
Eg : A tuning factor of 7% implies XL / XC = 0.07.
The tuning frequency using tuning factor can be calculated as
fs Where,
ft = fs = Supply Frequency = 50 Hz
p/100 For tuning factor of 7%,ft = 189 Hz.
Impedance (Z)
As can be seen from the above graph, for all frequencies above the
tuning frequency (ft), the combination will provide increasing
impedance. The combination will not provide a low impedance path
for harmonics that the capacitor did earlier, thus preventing
harmonic amplification. Further as the tuning frequency of the
combination is lower than the lowest order harmonic in the system,
there is no question of resonance. At 50 Hz the combination behaves
capacitive and power factor correction is achieved
ft Frequency
I
The voltage that appears across the terminals of a
capacitor increases the moment you connect an
VL
inductor in series with it. This can be illustrated by
the below phasor: VL I
VS : System Voltage; VC : Voltage across the capacitor;
VL : Voltage across the inductor; I : current.
VS VS
As can be seen VC > VS by an amount VL. Thus if
reactors are to be added to an existing APFC panel, VC VC = VS + VL
the capacitors will have to be replaced with those VC
capable of withstanding higher voltages. More over,
the output of the capacitors will have to compensate
for the reactive power that will be consumed by the
reactor.
Secondly reactors are a major source of heat. The existing panel may not have sufficient space or cooling
arrangement to handle the heat generated by the newly installed reactors. For these reasons, it is not
advisable to add detuned reactors to existing APFC panels.
Hence, it is difficult to solve harmonics related problems, once the power factor correcting capacitors are
installed. It is thus important to incorporate harmonic mitigation techniques in the system design stage
itself.
35
Selection of Capacitor - Reactor Combination for Detuned Harmonics Filters
Typically a detuned filter has a series connected capacitor and reactor. The capacitor terminal voltage varies
with respect to the tuning factor (%p) of the reactor. Tuning factor (%p) is the ratio of inductive impedance to
the capacitive impedance (XL / XC). Common tuning factors of detuned filters are 7% and 14%.
The voltage that appears across the terminals of a capacitor increases the moment an inductor is connected in
series.
The actual amount of voltage increase can be calculated using the following formula:
VS
VC =
%p
(1 - )
100

For example, the capacitor terminal voltage with 7% detuned reactor shall be calculated using the above
formula:
440
VC =
7
(1 - )
100 VC = 473 V
Hence the rated voltage of the capacitor should be selected as 480 V when used along with 7% reactor.
Sometimes, the voltage variations, as per the electricity board voltage limits, may cause the supply voltage to
exceed 480 V. Also, due to harmonics, both peak and rms voltage may go beyond 480 V. In such cases, a 525 V
capacitor should be used along with 7% detuned reactor. Selection for both 480 V and 525 V capacitor with
7% reactor is given in the table.

When 14% reactor is used along with the capacitor, the capacitor terminal voltage,
440
VC =
14
(1 - )
100 VC = 512 V
Here the capacitor should be rated for 525 V when used along with 14% reactor.
Capacitor voltage and kVAr selection for both 7% and 14% reactors are given below:
With 7% detuned reactor With 14% detuned reactor

Effective
kVAr Reactor Reactor
output (440 V) Capacitor (480 V)** Capacitor (525 V)** (440 V) Capacitors (525 V)**
5 kVAr 5 kVAr 7.5 kVAr 480 V 7.5 kVAr 525 V 5 kVAr 7.5 kVAr 525 V
10 kVAr 10 kVAr 12.5 kVAr 480 V 12.5kVAr 525 V 10 kVAr 12.5 kVAr 525 V
12.5 kVAr 12.5 kVAr 15 kVAr 480 V 15 kVAr 525 V 12.5 kVAr 15 kVAr 525 V
15 kVAr 15 kVAr 20 kVAr 480 V 20 kVAr 525 V 15 kVAr 20 kVAr 525 V
20 kVAr 20 kVAr 25 kVAr 480 V 25 kVAr 525 V 20 kVAr 25 kVAr 525 V
25 kVAr 25 kVAr 30 kVAr 480 V 33.3 kVAr 525 V 25 kVAr 30 kVAr 525 V
50 kVAr 50 kVAr 2 nos of 30 kVAr 480 V 2 nos of 33.3 kVAr 525 V 50 kVAr 2 nos of 30 kVAr 525 V
** Capacitor kVAr selection is done considering the tuning frequency (189 Hz with 7% and 133 Hz with 14%), reactor current
and standard capacitor ratings available.
IMPORTANCE OF USING THE RIGHT DETUNED REACTOR 36
Electrical netwroks often contain significant levels of harmonic distortion, which has led the large majority of
manufacturers of automatic capacitor banks to unanimously include detuned filter units in their offerings. In
this article, we will try to explain the impact of different detuned filters and the consequences of a poor choice,
as well as the recommendation for avoiding these possible risks.
Importance of Tuning Frequency in Capacitor Banks
However, there is no such unanimity in the choice of the tuning frequency of the detuned filter offered as
standard.
In case the network has predominant 3rd order harmonics (150 Hz in 50 Hz networks), the use of detuned
filters tuned at 134 Hz is more common (over voltage factor of p = 14%).
However, a large majority of installations require capacitor bank fitted with detuned filters appropriate for 5th
order harmonics (250 Hz in 50 Hz networks) or higher, which are normally produced by the more usual
harmonic current sources, such as, drives, AC/DC rectifiers, induction ovens, etc. In such cases, there are two
options available, that corresponding to an over voltage factor of p = 7% (tuning frequency of 189 Hz in 50 Hz
networks) and p = 5.67% (tuning frequency of 210 Hz in 50 Hz networks).
It may seem from the above that the choice of a value of p = 7% or p = 5.67% might be indifferent and that
both should give the same result when they are connected to the electrical network, but this is not strictly true.
Detuned Filters and their Effect on Installations
To follow the arguments of this, we will briefly go through the operating principle of detuned filters.
Impedances ohm
100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205 220 235 250 265 280 295 310
Frequency Hz
7% 5.67%
Fig. 1 Impedance-frequency graph of a detuned filter with p = 7% (189 Hz) and p = 5.67% (210 Hz)
Observing the impedance-frequency graph at rated current of a standard reactor-capacitor unit with p = 7%
(green line in Fig. 1), we see that it offers least impedance at 189 Hz, whereas that corresponding to p = 5.67%
(red line in Fig. 1) offers the least impedance at 210 Hz. In both cases, the impedance gradually increases on
either side of it. The impedance is capacitive at frequencies under 189 Hz for 7% and 210 Hz for 5.67%
respectively, and inductive at higher frequencies. It is this inductive character with harmonic frequencies of the
5th order or higher that prevents the possibility of a resonance phenomenon being produced at any of those
frequencies. However, another key parameter for the correct operation of the detuned filter is the value of
impedance at the different harmonic frequencies. Therefore, at said impedance-frequency in Fig. 1 the
impedance difference of each tuning can clearly be seen at a harmonic frequency of 250 Hz.
37
Main Consequence of Difference in Impedance
th
For p = 5.67%, the value of the impedance is around half of the value for p = 7%. Hence its ability to filter of 5
Harmonic and above is only half that of a 7% detuned filter.
The result will be that the absorption of harmonic currents by the capacitor will be higher for p = 5.67% than
for p = 7% as it is providing less impedance to the harmonic frequency.
Other Effects on Filtering
One basic point is the fact that if, to start with, a reactor with p = 5.67% is going to have a larger harmonic
current consumption, then the reactor and the associated capacitor, must be designed to withstand the
overload to which they are to be subjected on the level of intensity and temperature. However, in the particular
case of a similarly-designed reactor with p = 7%, the result is a smaller and lighter reactor, and a lower cost.
In short, in case of reactor with p=5.67%, there is a risk that the capacitor bank might have to withstand
higher levels of harmonic overloading, which would inevitably cause faster wear than in case of a capacitor
with filter of p = 7%.
The other essential point to be considered, which is the most important, is the influence of the capacitor
capacity in tuning the reactor-capacitor series group according to the formula for tuning frequency:
A decrease in the capacitor capacity will result in an increase in the unit's resonance frequency. Capacitors are
elements that lose capacity with time either due to their conditions of use (voltage, temperature, connection
operation rate, etc.), or due to the natural deterioration of the polypropylene of their dielectrics. A same loss of
capacity in a p = 5.67% filter and in one of p = 7% , means that the first will come much closer to the 5th order
frequency than the second, and the closer it comes, the greater harmonic current absorption it will present,
the greater overloading it will suffer, leading to greater deterioration.
In other words, the safety margin given with this loss of capacity is considerably higher in a filter with p = 7%
Conclusions for the Correct Choice of a Reactor
The conclusion in this case is clear, and is the unequivocal recommendation of the use of filters with p = 7%
instead of p = 5.67% in all installations where they have to be applied due to the level of harmonic distortion.
The purpose of this recommendation is none other than to reduce the obvious risk that a loss of capacitor
capacity could cause as a result of overcurrent in the capacitor bank much earlier. Thus, 7% detuned reactors
allow a longer reaction time through pertinent maintenance actions and the application of corrective
measures before the damage is definitive and, therefore, avert worse economic conditions.
LINEARITY OF REACTOR 38
An industry whose load includes a high proportion of non-linear load (harmonic generating loads), with poor
power factor, requires capacitor with de-tuned filter. This performs the function of power factor improvement
while preventing harmonic amplification.
Ln
- Tolerance
x 1,05
Air Core
x 1,00 Normally, the inductance of the series reactor (of de-tuned filter)
x 0,95 connected is chosen such that the tuning frequency of the de-
tuned filter is 10% below the lowest harmonic frequency with
Iron Core
1,8 considerable current/voltage amplitude. Therefore, resonance
does not happen in the system and reactor offers high
impedance for higher frequency harmonics.
0 1 2 3 Xin
Relation between inductance (LN)

and inductor current (IN)
Normally, 7% detuned reactors are designed considering typical industrial loads such as drives that have the
following harmonic voltages: V3= 0.5% VN, V5= 6% VNV7= 5% VN and so on. However, if the individual
harmonic voltages increase, the following phenomenon happens:
The magnitude of net current

(through LC) increases
If the current increases beyond certain limit,

the reactor may be driven into its saturation region
Once the reactor saturates, inductance value

(L, in henry) of the reactor starts decreasing
(as L = Nf /I)
Therefore, the resonant frequency (fR) of the LC rises

as resonant frequency = 1/(2 LC)
The new resonant frequency may match the fifth harmonic
frequency and may result in resonance
As the resonant frequency rises, the capacitor-reactor combination

may offer lower impedance to the fifth harmonic component and
the current through the combination may increase further
Thus the resonant frequency of the reactor capacitor

combination may increase continuously resulting in a
thermal runaway
Normally, reactors are designed with predefined linearity. A reactor having a higher linearity does not saturate
for higher harmonic currents and prevents the system from a thermal run away as described above.
39 Q-FACTOR OF REACTOR
The quality factor or Q-factor is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes a resonator's bandwidth relative to
its center frequency. It also describes the damping nature of a resonant circuit. Higher Q indicates a lower rate of
energy loss relative to the stored energy of the oscillator; i.e., the oscillations die out more slowly. For example, a
pendulum suspended from a high-quality bearing, oscillating in air, has a high Q, while a pendulum immersed in oil
has a low one. Oscillators with high quality factors have low damping making them ring longer.
The Q-factor is the ratio of the reactance to the resistance in the circuit. In other words, it is the absolute value of the
ratio of reactive power to real power
Thus, we can also calculate the Q-factor, just by knowing the power factor of the circuit
or just the tangent of the phase angle
While selecting a detuned filter, it is important to give due consideration to its band-width. The bandwidth will
decide the extent of impendence the filter offers to higher order harmonics. The bandwidth of the filter is a function
of the resistance of the system. The resistance largely depends upon material and construction of the filter
inductor.
Bandwidth = F2 -F1 = Fr /Q
Where, F2 is the upper cut off frequency

F1 is the lower cut off frequency and
Fr is the resonant frequency
I0
R1
(High Q Factor)
R2>R1
(Low Q Factor)
R2
Frequency
For an electrically resonant system, the Q-factor represents the effect of electrical resistance, as shown in the
figure. When resistance is low (R1), the system will have a low bandwidth. When the resistance is increased
gradually (say to R2 ), its bandwidth increases. Thus while selecting De-tuning reactors, care should be taken that
the Q factor of the same is adequate.
REACTORS - HARMONIC FILTERS 40
The increasing use of modern power electronic apparatus (drives,
uninterruptible power supplies, etc) produces nonlinear current
and thus influences and loads the network with harmonics (line
pollution).
The capacitance of the power capacitor forms a resonant circuit in
conjunction with the feeding transformer. Experience shows that
the self-resonant frequency of this circuit is typically between 250
and 500 Hz, i.e. in the region of the 5th and 7th harmonics. Such a
resonance can lead to the following undesirable effects:
Overloading of capacitors
n
Overloading of transformers and transmission equipment
n
Interference with metering and control systems, computers and electrical gear
n
Resonance elevation, i.e. amplification of harmonics
n
Voltage distortion
n
These resonance phenomena can be avoided by connecting capacitors in series with filter reactors in the PFC
system. These so called “detuned” PFC systems are scaled in a way that the self-resonant frequency is below
the lowest line harmonic and the detuned PFC system is purely inductive as seen by harmonics above this
frequency. For the base line frequency (50 or 60 Hz usually), the detuned system on the other hand acts purely
capacitive, thus correcting the reactive power.
Features
Copper and Aluminium wound
n Reactor Tuning Application
Tuning Factor Frequency Typical Loads
(Harmoic Orders)
reactors
Very low operating losses -
n
5th harmonic (250 Hz)
6 pulse drives (AC / DC),
3 to 5 W / kVAr 7% 189 Hz 3 phase UPS, frequency
and above
converters
High linearity - 1.8 times the
n
rated current 3rd harmonic (150 Hz) Single phase UPS, CFL
14% 133 Hz
Low noise
n and above lamps, SMPS, dimmers
Auto-thermal cutoff**
n
Technical Details (Copper and Aluminium)

Standards IEC 60289, IS 5553
Rated Voltage (V) 440 V
Rated Frequency (F) 50 Hz
Max Permissible Operating Voltage 1.05 Un Continuously, 1.1 Un for 8 hours
Max Permissible Operating Current (Linearity) 1.8 In Continuously
Duty Cycle 100%
Class of Protection I
Ambient Temperature 40oC
Winding Cu / Al
Insulation Class Class H
Protection Thermal Switch**
De-Tuning 5.67%, 7% & 14%
V3 = 0.5% VR (duty cycle = 100%)

V5 = 6.0% VR (duty cycle = 100%)
Harmonics Limit V7 = 5.0% VR (duty cycle = 100%)
V11 = 3.5% VR (duty cycle = 100%)
V13 = 3.0% VR (duty cycle = 100%)
Effective Current
Fundamental Current
** In NC, to be connected in series with contactor coil. When temperature exceeds 130o C, NC opens and disconnects the reactor from
the circuit.
41
7% Detuned Reactor (Copper) 440 V - Overall Dimensions
w
L connect well
terminal type
cmst 2.5 mm sq. / 400 V
(Thermistor - NC contact)
H
d2
d1 n2
n1
Open Slot b
d1 X d2 - 4 Nos.
Elevation R. H. Side View
d1
d2
n2
n1
Mounting Plan
Terminal L W H n1 n2 b d1 d2
Rated Hole
kVAr Cat. No. I rms Inductance
Current
All Dimensions in mm
5 LTFR0705B2 6.6A 7.5A 9.280 mH 6Ø 175 96 ± 5 157 100 55 ± 3 73 10.5 18
10 LTFR0710B2 13.12A 14.9A 4.641 mH 6Ø 178 125 ± 5 161 100 75 ± 3 93 10.5 20
12.5 LTFR0712B2 16.5A 18.7A 3.71 mH 6Ø 178 125 ± 5 161 100 75 ± 3 93 10.5 20
15 LTFR0715B2 19.8A 22.35A 3.1 mH 8Ø 225 150 ± 5 230 150 73 ± 3 93 10.6 21.5
20 LTFR0720B2 26.4A 29.8A 2.328 mH 8Ø 226 152 ± 5 205 150 96 ± 3 109 10.8 22
25 LTFR0725B2 32.8A 37.2A 1.86 mH 8Ø 226 152 ± 5 205 150 96 ± 3 109 10.8 22
30 LTFR0730B2 39.6A 44.7A 1.552 mH 8Ø 226 152 ± 5 205 150 96 ± 3 109 10.8 22
50 LTFR0750B2 65.61A 74.45A 0.93 mH 8Ø 260 207 ± 5 240 150 167 ± 3 185 10.6 55
75 LTFR0775B2 99A 112.2A 0.62 mH 6Ø 300 200 ± 5 265 150 151 ± 3 181 12 20
100 LTFR0700B2 131.2A 148.9A 0.464 mH 6Ø 330 225 ± 5 300 240 160 ± 3 195 12 20
7% Detuned Reactor (Aluminium) 440 V - Overall Dimensions 42
Thermistor-NC Contact W
Earthing Bolt
Hole Ø
H
n1 n2
Open Slot
b
d1 X d2 - 4 Nos.
L
R. H. Side View
Elevation
d1
d2
n2
n1
Mounting Plan
Terminal L H W n1 n2 b d1 d2
Rated Hole
kVAr Cat. No. I rms Inductance
Current
All Dimensions in mm
5 LTAL0705B2 6.6A 9A 9.28 mH 6Ø 215 185 130 ± 3 203 80 ± 3 100 ± 3 8 12
10 LTAL0710B2 13.2A 18A 4.64 mH 6Ø 215 185 155 ± 3 203 92 ± 3 110 ± 3 8 12
12.5 LTAL0712B2 16.5A 21A 3.97 mH 6Ø 215 185 170 ± 3 203 105 ± 3 123 ± 3 8 12
15 LTAL0715B2 19.8A 26A 3.21 mH 6Ø 215 185 196 ± 3 203 130 ± 3 150 ± 3 8 12
20 LTAL0720B2 26.4A 35A 2.32 mH 6Ø 250 225 170 ± 3 150 110 ± 3 140 ± 3 12 20
25 LTAL0725B2 33A 43A 1.85 mH 6Ø 270 265 165 ± 3 150 110 ± 3 140 ± 3 12 20
50 LTAL0750B2 66A 86A 0.92 mH 10Ø 270 375 210 ± 5 150 110 ± 5 140 ± 5 12 20
75 LTAL0775B2 99A 129A 0.62 mH 10Ø 270 385 210 ± 5 150 110 ± 5 140 ± 5 12 20
100 LTAL0700B2 132A 172A 0.46 mH 10Ø 370 305 205 ± 5 180 145 ± 5 185 ± 5 12 20
43 BASICS OF ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTER
The increasing use of energy saving power electronics based loads (adjustable speed drives, switch mode
power supplies, etc.) to improve system efficiency and controllability, is increasing the concern for harmonic
distortion levels in end use facilities and on the overall power system. Active filter is the apt device for reducing
harmonic levels in industrial and commercial facilities to meet IEEE 519 guidelines. The concept of active filter,
what many try to explain is, it senses harmonics and generates 180° phase shifted harmonics that cancels out
the unwanted harmonics. This article, specifically describes the basic operation of active filters in a little more
detailed way.
Principle of Operation
An active harmonic filter is based on the following principle:
IFILTER = IMAIN – ILOAD
It detects the difference between the ideal current sine wave (IMAIN) and the actual current which has been
deformed by harmonics (ILOAD). It, then, injects this difference (IFILTER), which is the negative of the harmonic
currents present in the load current, into the system on a real-time basis. This cancels out the high frequency
harmonics and results in almost pure sine wave.
Load Current Sinusoidal Supply

with harmonics Supply Current System
IMAIN
Compensating
current
ILOAD
Active
Filter
IFILTER
100ms 110ms 120ms 130ms 140ms (Time Domain)
Wave Shapes of The Currents - IMAIN, ILOAD & IFILTER
(Frequency Domain)
Line Diagram of Active Harmonic Filter
The use of active harmonic filters helps in reducing harmonics as can been seen under:
Before AHF After AHF
100 100
80 80
Amplitude (%)
Amplitude (%)
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Harmonics order Harmonics order
Frequency Spectrum of Current Before and After Active Harmonic Filtering

Some of the areas where active harmonic filters can be used are:
44
• In areas with critical loads like automobile industry, precision equipment manufacturing etc., the harmonic
load may vary frequently. This may have immediate adverse impacts like poor quality of manufactured
products and equipment failures leading to huge monetary losses. Active filters prove to be suitable as they
provide real-time reduction of THD
• Certain segments like textile industry, having huge VFD loads suffer from high harmonics. Due to this, the
use of detuned filters may not be adequate, resulting in frequent capacitor failures and overheating or
saturation of reactors. Only active harmonic filters provide necessary solutions in such cases
• Active harmonic filters have an added advantage of providing unsymmetrical reactive power compensation
and also, provide load balancing
• Even usage of 14% reactor may not be sufficient to reduce neutral overloading due to triple-N harmonics.
However, 3 phase, 4 wire active filter helps in achieving the same more effectively
Active Harmonic Filters - Concepts & Connections

The active filter uses power electronic switching to generate harmonic currents that cancel the harmonic
currents from a nonlinear load. The active filter configuration is based on a Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM**)
voltage source inverter that interfaces to the system through an Interface Filter as shown in Figure 1. In this
configuration, the filter is connected in parallel with the load being compensated. Therefore, the active filter
with this configuration is often referred to as shunt active filter. Figure 1 illustrates the concept of the harmonic
current cancellation so that the current being supplied from the source is sinusoidal.
IS IL
M
If
Nonlinear
Main Customer Load
Bus
Interface Filter
IGBT Controls
PWM and
Inverter Gating Signal
Generation
**Pulse Width Modulation is a technique used to generate the effect of any wave-form by varying the width of the DC pulse. The width
(duty cycle) is varied by employing faster switching devices (IGBT with switching frequency in kHz). Higher the switching frequency, better
will be the intended wave-form but higher will be the power losses.
The voltage source inverter used in the active filter makes the harmonic control possible. This inverter uses DC
capacitors as the supply and can switch at a high frequency to generate a signal which will cancel the
harmonics from the nonlinear load. One leg of the inverter is shown in Figure 2 to illustrate the configuration.
IGBT
DC Cap.
L1f L2f
Diode
Neutral
Source
Cf
45
The current waveform for cancelling harmonics is achieved with the voltage source inverter and an interfacing
filter. The filter consists of a relatively large isolation inductance to convert the voltage signal created by the
inverter to a current signal for cancelling harmonics. The rest of the filter provides smoothing and isolation for
high frequency components. The desired current waveform is obtained by accurately controlling the switching
of the IGBTs in the inverter. Control of the current wave shape is limited by the switching frequency of the
inverter and by the available driving voltage across the interfacing inductance.
The active filter does not need to provide any real power to cancel harmonic currents from the load. The
harmonic currents to be cancelled show up as reactive power.
Connections & CT installations of Active Harmonic Filters

For the stable operation of active harmonic filter and for the expected reduction of harmonics, the physical
connection & location of power cables & CTs plays a critical role. Let us understand the connections through
the below two cases.
Case 1: In case any industry faces severe problems due to harmonics like over-heating of equipments, failure of
power capacitors, frequent card failures, etc., it is advisable to arrest the harmonics right at the source. The
connection shall be as below:
CT
PCC
CT
MCC
Linear loads Detuned APFC
AHF Non-linear load
Make sure that the APFC panels are detuned and are connected in the upstream of the AHF. Detuning of APFC
panel helps in optimising the AHF rating, as detuning avoids the harmonic amplification. Connecting AHF
below the APFC avoids the AHF being overloaded due to unwanted harmonic resonances. Also make sure that
the CT of AHF shall be connected below the CT of APFC panel.
Case 2: If almost all the main feeders from PCC generates high harmonics, ideally each feeder shall be
compensated with individual AHF. But this will increase the installation cost and requires more space. Also
managing all the AHF will be difficult. In such cases, a common AHF can be connected for harmonics
compensation, as shown below:
CT
AHF Non-linear load Linear Detuned

loads APFC
Also make sure that the APFC panels are detuned and the AHF CT shall be below the CT of detuned APFC
panels. This method is also simple enough, especially for industries where harmonics need to be reduced at the
HT side, in order to meet utility regulations (like Tamil Nadu Electricity Board).
In some rare cases, there may be multiple sources, like two or more synchronised transformers. In such cases,
individual CTs shall be connected to each sources and the common signal can be given to AHF through a
summation CT.
46
Open Loop Connection Vs Closed Loop Connection
The open loop or closed loop connection is indicated by the location, where harmonics are measured by the
AHF. In simple words, CT position states whether the connection is open loop or closed loop connection.
In open loop connection, CT is installed close to load, as indicated

in the above figure. AHF senses the harmonics that are being
generated by the load and generates the compensating Load
Source CT
harmonics based on that data. Advantage of this connection is
faster harmonic compensation. But a drawback in this connection
is, the AHF won't get any feedback from the system and does not
know whether the harmonics compensation is happening
properly or not. Also, as no feedback exists, the resulting line AHF
current may typically contain error components that are not
detected by the control system. This connection works better Open Loop Connection
when AHF is connected close to the load and not at PCC / main
incomer.
In closed loop connection the CT is installed close to source. Here,

Load
CT actually measures the compensated current. In other words,
Source CT AHF senses the difference between load current and the AHF
compensating current. If CT senses any harmonics, corrective
action is taken by the AHF, till CT senses close to sine wave. In this
method of connection, the AHF gets system feedback and any
measurement or other inaccuracies can be automatically
AHF cancelled out. Even though, closed loop connection is not as fast
as open loop, closed loop ensures better harmonics
Closed Loop Connection
compensation. This type of connection works better, anywhere in
the system, than the open loop
Selection / Sizing of Nominal Current of Active Harmonic Filter

Active harmonic filter is rated in Amperes. The current rating is decided on the basis of harmonic content (THD)
in the system which can be obtained from harmonic study. The required nominal current can be obtained by
multiplying the initial current of harmonics measured in the load by a safety factor (SFh) of 20%. In other words,
Ifilter (AHF) = 1.2 x Iload x %THD (I)
Where,
Ifilter (AHF) : Nominal Current of Active Filter (A)
Iload : Maximum Load Current (A)
% THD(I) : Load Current Harmonic Distortion (%)
Majority of the energy saving devices are non-linear in nature. Consequently, the problem of harmonics has
become inevitable. Advanced devices like active harmonic filter provide an ideal solution to this problem. These
filters help in maintaining a stable and healthy power system thereby increasing productivity and efficiency.
47 ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTERS
Active Harmonic filters are the most ideal solution for power quality problems caused, in either industrial or
commercial facilities, for harmonic filtering, phase balancing and reactive power compensation.
Without AHF With AHF
Function
THD TOTAL
• Harmonic Filtering:
th LOAD MAINS
The filters reduce harmonics up to the 50 order (2500 Hz)
reducing distortion power factor. Selection of specific L1 21% 5%
harmonic order for filtering helps in optimizing filtering
L2 18% 5%
efficiency.
L3 19% 5%
3 Phase 4 Wire filter configuration ensures reduction in

neutral current that can reach up to 200% of rated value Harmonic Filtering
due to triple-N harmonics.
VOLTAGE & CURRENT

CURRENT • Phase Unbalance Correction:
VOLTAGE LOAD MAINS
This function ensures balanced current on the supply
L1 232 V 199 A 220 A
side in 3 Phase 4 Wire filter configuration.
L2 231 V 206 A 221 A
L3 231 V 255 A 221 A
FREQUENCY 50 Hz
Phase Balancing
• Power Factor Correction: POWER MAINS

This filter ensures close to unity displacement P Q S PF
power factor for both lagging (inductive) and L1 41.6 kW 5.92 kVAr 42.02 kVA 0.99
leading (capacitive) current systems. With
L2 38.9 kW 5.52 kVAr 39.29 kVA 0.99
improvement in both distortion and displacement
L3 48.0 kW 6.80 kVAr 48.48 kVA 0.99
power factor, true power factor is also improved.
Reactive Compensation
Features & Benefits 48
Features Advantages Benefits
Employs floating Point 32 bit

Digital Signal Processor High accuracy & high
Effective harmonic
attenuation up to 96% of mitigation
Programmable selective individual harmonics
harmonic elimination
Any number of units of different Modularity & expandability Reduced Mean Time to Repair;
ratings can be connected in Filter can be expanded as per
parallel future load requirements
Employs high speed IGBTs in Faster response to change in THD can be maintained even
power circuit THD and very high speed in case of very frequently
of operation changing load
Provision of Alarms Easy diagnosis of fault Safety to devices and

conditions operators
7” TFT touch screen HMI Easy configuration and Ease of installation and
parameter monitoring maintenance, User-friendly
Ethernet based communication Remote monitoring Ease of monitoring
Configuration in both open loop Faster response & higher Flexibility of configuration
(load side sensing) and closed attenuation of harmonics
loop (source side sensing)
The active filter is ideal in any application that has a large variation of loads, a
wide spectrum of harmonics that must be compensated. Non-linear loads that
are heavily distributed in the form of small network loads, so that it is not
possible to use individual passive filters.
The most common applications are:

• Variable frequency drives
• Computer loads
• UPS
• CFL Lamps
In other words, its application is in any industry where large non-linear loads are present with high THD.
Such high THD are prevalent in the following industries:
• Automotive Industry • Textile Industry • Cement Industry

• Data Centres • Paper Mills • Oil & Gas Exploration
• Wind Turbines • Sugar Plants • Water Treatment
• Building & Infrastructure • Pharmaceutical Industry • Granite & Stone Polishing
49
Connection Diagram
LOAD SIDE MAINS SIDE LOAD SIDE MAINS SIDE
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
N N
L1 L2 L3 N L1 L2 L3 N
Active Filter Active Filter
Close Loop Connection Open Loop Connection
Technical Specifications
INPUT
Model AHF - 4W/3W
Normal Voltage 400V AC ±10%, 3Ph 4 Wire/3 Wire (690V optional)
Current Rating 30A 60A 75A 150A 100A 200A 300A 400A 600A
Frequency 50Hz,+/-5%
FILTER
Harmonic Range nd th
2 to 50 order
Harmonic Selection Any 20 Harmonic can be selected at a time
Harmonic Attenuation Ratio Up to 96% at rated current
Response Time <1 ms
Function Selection Harmonic filtering, Power factor correction, Load balancing
Overload (peak value) 125% for 10 msec
30A 60A 75A 150A 100A 200A 300A 400A 600A
Current Transformer 500A:5A 1000A:5A 3000A:5A 5000A:5A 6000A:5A
Class 1, 15VA rating
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Protection Class IP20 (IP31 or IP41 optional)
Cooling Forced air
Cable Entry Front - Bottom
ENVIRONMENTAL
Operating Temperature 0 to 40 Deg C
Relative Humidity 95% (Non condensing)
Maximum Operating Altitude

1000 m
without De-rating
Acoustic Noise at 1m From

Panel Front (Ref ISO3746) < 65 db < 68 db < 70 db
USER INTERFACE
User Parameter Setting LCD touch screen HMI
PROTECTIONS AND STANDARDS
Protections MCCB & fast acting semiconductor fuses
DC over voltage, Over load trip, Over temperature alarm & trip, Over current,
Alarms No synchronisation, Mains abnormal, DC under voltage, Active filter trip, Wrong phase,
No faults, Fast DC overvoltage, Inductor over temperature trip
Reference Design Standard IEC 60146
Safety Standard EN 50178
EN 55011, IEC EN 50081-2, IEC 61000-4-2, IEC 61000-4-3,
Electromagnetic Compatibility
IEC 61000-4-4, IEC 61000-4-5, IEC 610004-6, IEC 61000-6-2
50
Overall Dimensions
AHF - 3W/4W 30/60/75/100
3 Ph 3 Wire / 4 Wire, 400 V Active Filter

Dimensions (mm)
Cat. No. Model No.
Weight
(kg) Width Depth Height Plinth
AHF030331D2 AHF - 3W- 30A 45 Wall-

Height
Height
550 300 800 Mounting

AHF030341D2 AHF - 4W - 30A 48
AHF060331D2 AHF - 3W- 60A 65

620 450 1000 100
AHF060341D2 AHF - 4W - 60A 70
AHF075331D2 AHF - 3W- 75A 75

620 450 1000 100
AHF075341D2 AHF - 4W - 75A 80
Plinth
Plinth
AHF100331D2 AHF - 3W- 100A 85

620 450 1000 100
Width Depth AHF100341D2 AHF - 4W - 100A 90
Front View Side View
AHF - 3W/4W 200/300/400/600
3 Ph 3 Wire / 4 Wire, 400 V Active Filter

Dimensions (mm)
Cat. No. Model No. Weight
Width Depth Height Plinth
(kg)
AHF150331D2 AHF - 3W- 150A 175

800 850 1600 150
AHF150341D2 AHF - 4W- 150A 205
Height
Height
AHF200331D2 AHF - 3W- 200A 225

800 850 1600 150
AHF200341D2 AHF - 4W - 200A 265
AHF300331D2 AHF - 3W- 300A 310
800 850 1600 150
AHF300341D2 AHF - 4W - 300A 365
AHF400331D2 AHF - 3W- 400A 430 1000 900 1600 150
AHF400341D2 AHF - 4W - 400A * * * * *
AHF600331D2 AHF - 3W- 600A 600 1000 900 1600 150
AHF600341D2 AHF - 4W - 600A * * * * *
* Please contact nearest branch

Plinth
Plinth
Width Depth
Front view Side view

CAPACITOR SWITCHING IN APFC PANEL 52
The switching of capacitor banks is a special and challenging task in Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC)
panels. The selection of appropriate switching device for such application is based on two criteria:
nAbility to carry rated capacitor current continuously

nAbility to withstand the peak-inrush current of capacitor
It is simple to calculate the capacitor rated current and select the switching device to be able to carry rated
capacitor current (2.5 to 3 times the capacitor rated current to take care of overload, harmonics, supply
voltage variation and capacitor value tolerance). However, it is little difficult to select the switching device
which is able to withstand the peak-inrush current. This is because the peak inrush current for capacitor
switching application depends upon various factors such as:
The inductance of the network (including cables, switchgears and transformer)

n
The transformer power rating and percentage impedance

n
Method used for power factor correction

n
Ø Fixed capacitor bank

Ø Multi-stage capacitor bank with steps of equal ratings
Ø Multi-stage capacitor bank with steps of unequal ratings
In multi-stage capacitor bank, the numbers and rating of steps already switched on
n
In most of the installations, the multi-stage capacitor banks are used as steps of unequal ratings. The bigger
steps of higher kVAr ratings being switched on initially and smaller steps are switched on periodically, for
achieving the targeted power factor. In such cases, the value of inrush-current peak will be far higher and
hence the smaller capacitors will be heavily stressed.
Capacitor switching can be done by various ways like:
Power Contactor
Normal power contactors simply allow the inrush current to flow through it. Because of this, contactors
n
and capacitors are heavily stressed. So the contactor selection should be such that it withstands the heavy
inrush current. Hence, power contactors need to be heavily de-rated
This inrush current also stresses the power capacitors and may result in their premature failure
n
Power contactors should be used along with inrush current limiting resistors, for reducing the magnitude of
n
inrush current. However, this increases the cost & size of the APFC panel along with extra power losses
Capacitor Duty Contactor

Capacitor duty contactors can be used to limit the inrush current to less than 10*IN
n
Capacitor duty contactors have pre-contacts/auxiliary contacts with current limiting resistors (of 4 W
n ). At the
moment of switching, the pre-contacts (with resistors) close first. This reduces the inrush current to less
than 10*IN. After a few milliseconds, main contacts are closed and the pre-contacts will open and go out of
the circuit
Capacitor duty contactors are employed where the frequency of switching is less i.e., the load fluctuation is
n
not very fast. The capacitor requires atleast 60 seconds to discharge to a nominal value (50 V). So capacitor
duty contactors cannot be used when load fluctuation is heavy
Thyristor Switching Module (TSM)

TSM is a static switching device that is used specially for switching capacitors (dynamic power factor
n
correction), wherever the load fluctuation is heavy (like welding, steel rolling, etc.)
Rapid switching (5 ms to 20 ms) is possible with TSM along with Quick Discharge Resistor (QDR)
n
There is no inrush current while using TSM (zero voltage switching). So frequent switching does not affect
n
the life of capacitors and there is no need for extra current limiting resistors
TSM has thermal cutoff, which switches off the module when temperature exceeds beyond a certain limit. It
n
automatically switches on when optimum temperature is attained
53 CAPACITOR DUTY CONTACTORS - TYPE MO C
MO C Capacitor Duty Contactors are specially designed for capacitor switching
applications. As capacitor switching is associated with high inrush current, the
contactors are provided with damping resistors which limit the value of inrush
current to a safe value. The contactors are used in APFC panels for switching
power capacitors depending upon the amount of reactive power
compensation required.
Benefits of using Capacitor Duty Contactors

Since switching of capacitor banks involves high transient inrush currents, the
size of the contactor required to switch these high currents becomes higher.
Hence, current limiting inductors are used in series to attenuate this inrush
current. This increases the system cost and panel space.
A typical case below illustrates the magnitude of transient inrush current for
switching of a capacitor bank. For a 12.5 kVAr capacitor bank:
Rated current of 12.5 kVAr 415 V Capacitor = 18A

Peak Inrush current without Damping Resistors = 1200A
Capacitor Duty Contactors are designed to limit this high transient inrush current by introducing damping
resistors with early make auxiliary contacts. The current limiting due to damping resistors protects the APFC
system from harmful effects of the capacitor charging inrush current.
Peak Inrush current with Damping Resistors = 260A

It is observed that peak inrush current with damping resistors is one fifth of that without damping resistors.
As the contactor is now required to switch the rated capacitor current, the size of the contactor required is
smaller. Thus the system cost and panel space are significantly lower when Capacitor Duty Contactors are used.
MO C Capacitor Duty Contactors

MO C Capacitor Duty Contactors are designed for switching 3 phase, single or multi-step capacitor bank. In
conventional capacitor switching contactors, early make auxiliary contacts used for insertion of damping
resistors used to remain in the circuit continuously. During current breaking these auxiliary contacts would also
carry and break the currents due to higher arc resistance in the main pole during arcing. This current breaking
by auxiliary contacts at higher transient recovery voltage causes unreliable product performance and
premature product failures.
MO C range of capacitor switching contactors have patented mechanism which disconnects the early make
auxiliary contacts after the main contacts are closed. This completely eliminates the possibility of auxiliary
contacts carrying and breaking the currents during breaking operation. This enhances the product switching
performance and improves the product life.
Features and Benefits of MO C Capacitor Duty Contactors

Feature Customer Benefits
Improved switching performance
De-latching auxiliary contacts
Reduced losses in auxiliary contacts
Dual contact gap for auxiliary contacts
Higher electrical life
Enhanced product safety
Encapsulated resistor assembly
No flash over between phases
Ease if wiring
Separate termination of damping resistors
Enhanced operational reliability
Improved switching performance
Wide and chatter-free operating band Higher electrical life
Higher product reliability
Ordering Information 54
Contactors
Product Designation kVAr Rating @ 415V 50Hz In Built Aux contacts Cat. No.*
MO C5 5 1 NO CS96127
MO C5 5 1 NC CS96128
MO C8.5 8.5 1 NO CS96320
MO C8.5 8.5 1 NC CS96337
MO C12.5 12.5 1 NO CS96321
MO C12.5 12.5 1 NC CS96338
MO C15 15 1 NO CS90019
MO C15 15 1 NC CS90020
MO C20 20 1 NO CS90021
MO C20 20 1 NC CS90022
MO C25 25 1 NO CS96322
MO C25 25 1 NC CS96339
MO C33.5 33.5 1 NO CS96323
MO C33.5 33.5 1 NC CS96340
MO C50 50 1 NO CS96324
MO C50 50 1 NC CS96341
MO C70 70 1 NO CS96325
MO C70 70 1 NC CS96342
MO C80 80 1 NO CS96326
MO C80 80 1 NC CS96343
* : Add four digit suffix as per coil voltage
Accessories & Spares

Add on Blocks Spare Coils
Mounting Position Contacts Cat. No. For Contactor Cat. No.
First Left 1 NO + 1 NC CS94580OOOO MO C5 - C25 CS96317
First Right 1 NO + 1 NC CS94581OOOO MO C33.5 - 50 CS96318
Second Left 1 NO + 1 NC CS94582OOOO MO C70 - 80 CS96319
Second Right 1 NO + 1 NC CS94583OOOO * Add four digit suffix as per coil voltage
MO C Spreader Link Kit

For Contactor Cat. No.
MO C5-25 CS94274OOOO
Note:1) Spreader Link Kit consists of six terminals

2) Use above Spreader Link when using
MO C 25 16 sq. mm cable
Ordering Suffix for Coil Voltages

Std Coil Voltage 110 220 240 415
Ordering Suffix - 50 Hz AOOO KOOO BOOO DOOO
Ordering Suffix - 60 Hz YOOO VOOO - SOOO
55 56
Technical Specification
• Available for capacitor range from 5 - 80 kVAr

• Modular design saving precious panel space
• De-Latching auxiliary contacts
• Separate termination of damping resistors
• Encapsulated resistor assembly ensuring safety
• In-built surge supressor with the coil
• Lugless termination
Type Designation MO C5 MO C8.5 MO C12.5 MO C15 MO C20 MO C25 MO C33.5 MO C50 MO C70 MO C80
Built in Aux 1 NO CS96127 CS96320 CS96321 CS90019 CS90021 CS96322 CS96323 CS96324 CS96325 CS96326
Catalogue No.
Contacts 1 NC CS96128 CS96337 CS96338 CS90020 CS90022 CS96339 CS96340 CS96341 CS96342 CS96343
Conformance to Standards IS/IEC 60947-4-1, IEC 60947-4-1, EN 60947-4-1
Rated Operational Current l (AC - 6b) 3 Phase

Ie A 7 11 16 20 26 33 44 66 92 105
Delta Connected Capacitor Bank at 440 V, 50 Hz
Short Circuit Protection gG type fuses rated at 1.5 - 2 Ie
230 V AC kVAr 3.0 5.0 7.5 8.5 11 14.5 20 30 40 45

kVAr Rating
440 V AC kVAr 5.0 8.5 12.5 15 20 25 33.5 50 70 80
Max. Operational Voltage Ue V 690 690 690 690 690 690 690 690 690 690
Rated insulation Voltage Ui V 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Rated Impulse Withstand Voltage Uimp kV 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
Degree of Protection IP20
2
Solid Conductor mm 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 - - - -
Main Terminal 2
Stranded Conductor mm 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 35 2 x 35 2 x 70 2 x 70
Capacity
2
Finely Stranded Conductor mm 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2 x 25 2 x 25 2 x 50 2 x 50
Pick-up % Uc V 65 - 110 65 - 110 65 - 110 65 - 110 65 - 110 65 - 110 75 - 110 75 - 110 75 - 110 75 - 110
Coil Operating Band
Drop-off % Uc V 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65 35 - 65
Pick-up VA 77 77 77 77 77 77 144 144 240 240
Coil Consumption VA 9 9 9 9 9 9 15 15 25 25
Hold-on
W 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 9 9
Mechanical Million 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Life (Operating Cycles)
Electrical Million 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Max. Operating Frequency Operations / Hr 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240
Making Early Make / Main

Operating Sequence
Breaking Main Contacts Break
Height H mm 87 87 87 87 87 87 123.5 123.5 135 135

Width W mm 45 45 45 45 45 45 55 55 70 70
Overall Dimensions
Depth D mm 133.5 133.5 133.5 133.5 133.5 133.5 163.0 163.0 175.0 175.0
Mounting Dimensions mm 35 x 60 - 65 - 70 35 x 60 - 65 - 70 35 x 60 - 65 - 70 35 x 60 - 65 - 70 35 x 60 - 65 - 70 35 x 60 - 65 - 70 45 x 100 - 105 45 x 100 - 105 60 x 115 - 120 60 x 115 - 120
* Accessories and Spares same as that of MO contactor.

Note: Contact replacement is not permitted in MO C contactors
57
Technical Details
MO C
2T1 4T2 6T3

D
A
T
L
C H
Mounting
Screw
W
P P
MO C
Label
5 - 25 33.5 - 50 70 - 80
W 45 55 70
D 133.5 163 175
H 87 123.5 135
N 26 26 26
T 60 68 68
N
C 22.8 27 35
L 19.6 29.5 30
S 50 82 93
P 14.4 18 23
A 113 142 154
All dimensions in mm.

DYNAMIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 58
Conventionally, power factor correction systems consist of power factor correction capacitors switched using
capacitor duty contactors. The re-switching time is the sum of capacitor discharge time (within 60 seconds as
per IS 13340) and response time of contactor. Such arrangement is suitable for applications where few
switching operations take place per day.
Many applications increasingly require real-time reactive compensation. With this, the demand for dynamic
power factor correction arises and faster switching of capacitors becomes inevitable.
This article discusses the need for thyristor switching module and the care to be taken when designing systems
with thyristor switching modules.
Need for Dynamic Power Factor Correction

Faster response is needed when the demand for reactive power is rapidly fluctuating either due to rapidly
changing load conditions or process requirements. For certain loads, like,
• Welding equipment
• Injection moulding equipment
• Industrial presses
• Loads such as, lifting cranes, elevators, lifts etc.
the demand for reactive power comes frequently and for short duration of time.
Large reactive power demand for very short durations has severe ill-effects, such as,
• Rapid fluctuations in voltage which may lead to system instability.
• High voltage transients may result in insulation breakdown or damage to other loads
• Malfunctioning of sensitive electrical and electronic equipment such as relays, PLCs
• Oversizing of electrical instillation is needed since kVA capacity needs to be provided for maximum power
demand
Why Not Contactors?

Contactors are electro-mechanical devices which switch capacitors after a lag. Also, due to discharge time of
capacitors, the re-switching time of contactors becomes longer than 60 seconds. This makes contactor a slow
device.
In-rush current in capacitor switching are reduced to 10 times the rated current if capacitor duty contactors are
used. However, a certain pulse element is inevitable as can be seen in figure 1.
I= 1200A I= 1260A
IP
IP
t t
Figure : Transient during capacitor switching by a) Normal contactor b) Capacitor-duty contactor
Inrush current occurences cause high eletromechanical forces within the capacitor. The dielectric inside the
capacitor is highly stressed due to this high current. This could lead to reduction in the life of capacitors.
In order to obviate the above shortfalls, the thyristor switching modules are used.
Principle of Operation of TSM

A thyristor switching module (TSM) is a fast, electronically controlled thyristor switch for switching capacitor
loads within a few milliseconds as often and as long as required.
59
First of all, being a thyristor-based switch, the thyristor switches the capacitor without delay. A thyristor
switching module works on the principle of zero-voltage switching, i.e., the capacitor is switched ON only
when the voltage waveform is at its zero crossing. The current through a capacitor is given by:
dVC
IC= C
dt
Where, IC is capacitor current, C is capacitance and VC is voltage across capacitor. This current is directly
proportional to the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor. Thus, when capacitors are switched ON
at zero crossing of supply voltage, the voltage applied to the capacitor is almost zero and grows steadily
following the sine wave. Thus, the inrush current becomes equal to the rated current.
Control signal
Capacitor current
Figure : Zero in-rush current during capacitor switching by TSM
Importance of QDR
Another point to be noted here is that the capacitors used with TSM should be fitted with quick discharge
resistors (QDR). If the capacitors are used with the usual discharge resistors, then, the capacitor may not get
fully discharged at the time of re-switching. In such a situation, there will still be a significant voltage across the
capacitor resulting in high inrush current. Quick discharge resistors ensure that the capacitor is completely
discharged before its re-switching. The typical discharge time of normal resistors is to reach less than 50 V
within 60 seconds (as per IS 13340/1). However, for QDR, the discharge time is reduced to as low as 5 ms
making the capacitors suitable to be used with thyristor switching modules.
PIV Rating of TSM L1 L2 L3
The typical arrangement of thyristor switches in a thyristor switching

module is given in figure 3. Two terminals of a delta connected- High Speed Fuse
capacitor are connected to the line via TSM while the third is
connected directly to the line (all three phases have high speed fuses
for branch protection). This configuration obviates the need to use
three switch-pairs while ensuring that the three-phase capacitor is
TSM
connected only when both switch pairs are ON or the module is ON.
Each switches pair is a combination of two thyristors connected in
anti-parallel for operation with ac voltage.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) rating of a thyristor switch is the

maximum peak voltage that the thyristor can withstand in the
reverse biased condition. It is the maximum voltage that it must
Capacitor
block when it is in OFF condition. A module with thyristors of lower
PIV, say 1600 V, is likely to fail in presence high voltage surges. Hence,
higher values of PIV are desirable. Typically, in capacitor switching
applications, the PIV ratings are up to 2200 V.
Figure 1 Arrangement of thyristor in a TSM
60
Advantages of TSM
• Faster switching of capacitors with response time from 5-40 ms can be achieved.
• No delay due to capacitor discharge
• No inrush current ensures that there are no resulting voltage fluctuations or transients. Thus, we get
transient-free smooth switching and stable voltage and increased life of capacitors.
• No arching owing to a static switch
• Thyristor switches allow any number of switching operations as they are not subjected to any mechanical
wear. Thus, a longer service life as compared to contactors.
• With dynamic compensation, reactive power is more efficiently compensated resulting in further
lowering of energy costs.
• With reduced peak of inrush current, cables and equipment used can be of smaller short circuit rating
reducing capital expenditure.
High Speed Fuse for Branch Protection

For short circuit protection of a thyristor switching module, a faster protection device is needed so that it will
act before the thyristor switch in case of a short circuit. Normally, an HRC fuse has a time characteristics based
2
on the I t characteristics of cables as per IEC 60269-2. In case of a short circuit, the thyristor will blow before the
fuse. However, a semiconductor back-up (or a high speed) fuse has a time characteristics based on I2t
characteristics of a thyristor. Hence, semiconductor fuse or high speed fuse can protect the thyristor module.
Forced Colling for TSM

Being electronic switches, the heat generated due to losses needs to be dissipated quickly. The thyristor
switching modules are generally designed with fins for better heat dissipation. They should be mounted in a
position so that maximum air flow is possible. Additionally, it is always recommended to use an adequately-
sized fan in the compartment where TSMs are mounted in an APFC panel.
Some thyristor switching modules come with in-built fans for cooling. Practically, it is difficult to spot a fan
failure in such a case and an undetected fan failure may lead to failure of TSM. The TSM module becomes
unnecessarily bulky in such cases. Hence, it is best to use fan-less modules with an adequately-sized fan on
panel ceiling.
How to Connect
Capacitor
branch A TSM is connected to the line via a semiconductor
L1 (R)
L2 (S) fuse and its output is given to the three-phase
L3 (T)
N
capacitor or a detuned filter (in case harmonics are
PE
present). Triggering of a TSM can be done by means
Fuse superfast input X1 (signal)
100A at 50kVAr
(controller signal) of dynamic power factor controllers. Triggering can
80A at 25 kVAr
32 / 35A at 25 kVAr
+ -
Signal
10-24 VDC
be done by a controller which has a transistor
L1 fault -on
operation
L3 fault -on
operation output. Typically, a TSM has a 24 V or/and a 12 V
LTTSM
Electronic thyristor-module
for capacitor switching
input and the respective currents required for
triggering are approximately 15 mA and 20 mA
respectively. Sometimes, more than one TSM is
required to be connected to the same controller
output for making a larger step, say, 100 kVAr. In
C1 L1 L3 C3
such a case, more than one TSM can be connected to
one output of the controller. The maximum number
of TSMs that can be connected to a controller is
0.2% Series Reactor / 7% Detuning Reactor
restricted by the dc supply available and the
Quick Discharge Resistor (QDR)
maximum current limit of a stage output of the
controller output.
Figure 4 Connection Diagram of TSM

61
Another point to be noted here is that in case of TSM, there is no electrical isolation. Due to the switching
principle of the thyristor-modules the PFC-capacitors are permanently loaded at the peak value of the grid
voltage (DC current) even when they are disconnected. Even when the thyristor switches are off, no electrical
isolation is given. Hence, even after switching off the incomer of the APFC system, parts should only be
touched after the standard discharge time of the capacitors.
Combination of Contactor-based & Thyristor-based Panels

Thyristor switching modules being expensive is often a concern for industry. An economical solution without
compromising the performance of power factor correction panel can still be devised in many applications.
Typically, an industry consists of a variety of loads – some fixed loads that are always running, some varying
motor loads that run for some part of the day and some highly fluctuating loads.
The following solution is suggested:
APFC CONTROLLER
Fixed Compensation Contactor-based switching Thyristor-based switching

for fixed load for variable load for fluctuating load
Figure 5: Combination of Contactor-based and Thyristor-based switching
The most economical solution can be to provide some fixed capacitors for the loads that are ON throughout
the day, a contactor-based switching for capacitors providing compensation to varying motor loads and a
thyristor-based switching for capacitors providing compensation to highly fluctuating loads.
THYRISTOR SWITCHING MODULES 62
In some modern industries, due to special processes with rapidly
fluctuating loads, the demand for reactive power also fluctuates rapidly.
Usage of mechanical switch (contactors) has the following negative
impacts:
Average unity power factor cannot be maintained due to delay in
n
capacitor switching
Reduction in the life of capacitors, contactors and other equipments
n
Power quality issues due to current and voltage transients

n
The solution is dynamic power factor correction system.
With the thyristor module we provide the main component - “The Electronic Switch”- for dynamic power
factor correction. The LT-TSM series offers fast electronically controlled, self-observing thyristor switches for
capacitive loads up to 50 kVAr, that are capable to switch PFC capacitors within a few milliseconds nearly
without a limitation to the number of switchings during the capacitor lifetime. These switching modules are
easy to install, have a fast reaction time of 5 msec and come with built-in indications of operations, faults and
activation. These thyristor modules are very compact and operate at lower power losses.
Features
High peak inverse voltage (2.2 kV) ensures long operational life
n
Automatic thermal cut-off
n
Monitoring of voltage, phase sequence, faults and display of status via LED
n
Faster response time - 5 ms
n
No system perturbation caused by switching operations (no transients)
n
No auxiliary supply needed
n
Maintenance free
n
Long operational life
n
High switching speed
n
No noise during switching
n
Compact design ready for connection and easy installation
n
Application
Industries and applications with high load fluctuations, where the demand for reactive power is also very
dynamic:
Welding
n
Elevators and cranes
n
Presses
n
Wind turbines
n
63
Technical Details
LT TSM 10 LT TSM 25 LT TSM 50
Rated Voltage (V) 440 V
Frequency (Hz) 50 / 60
Rating (kVAr) 10 25 50
Power Losses (W) 35 75 150
LED Display Per Phase 2 2 2
0
Ambient Temperature ( C) -10 to 55
Signal Voltage Required 10-24 Vdc (20 mA)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) 2.2 kV
Reaction Time 5 ms
Re-switching Time 60 ms
2 LEDs Per Phase
LED (Green/Red) Fault / Operation
Green : Operating voltage activated, thyristor module standby
Flashing Red - Fast : Temperature failure
Indication / Display Flashing Red - Slow : Net voltage L1-L3 too low (under-voltage < 300 V)
Permanent Red : Phase L2 missing or under-voltage
or phase L1 or L3 missing or capacitor without capacitance or not existent
LED (Yellow)
Yellow : “Module ON”
Permanent monitoring of net voltage, temperature and operation status

Monitoring
(Note: Before re-switching after temperature fault, heat sink temperature must be below 50°C)
Termination Connection from bottom; Cable lug: 25 sq. mm. D: 8 mm

Semiconductor fuse (High speed fuse) is mandatory for short circuit protection.
Protection
10 kVAr : 32 A 25 kVAr : 80 A 50 kVAr : 160 A
Capacitor Discharge Resistor Quick discharge resistors (Default capacitor discharge resistors shall be interchanged with QDR)
Mounting Position Vertical, minimum 100 mm space clearance around the module
Selection of TSM and Semiconductor Fuse

Capacitor Step (kVAr) Rated Current (A) TSM Rating (kVAr) Semiconductor Fuse Rating (A)
5 6.6 10 16
10 13.1 10 32
12.5 16.4 25 40
15 19.7 25 47
20 26.2 25 63
25 32.8 25 80
30 39.4 50 94
35 45.9 50 110
40 52.5 50 126
50 65.6 50 160
75 98.4 3 nos. of 25 9 nos. of 80 A
100 131.2 2 nos. of 50 6 nos. of 160 A
64
Network of Thyristor Switching Modules
supply meas.
voltage voltage meas. current
Vb Vm Im (5A/1A) 1st Capacitor 2nd Capacitor 3rd Capacitor
branch branch branch
L1 k
L2 (S)
L3 (T)
N
PE
Semi conductor fuse Semi conductor fuse Semi conductor fuse

T2A
T2A
160 A at 50 kVAr
80 A at 25 kVAr
Input
(controller signal)
+- +- +-
Signal Signal Signal
10-24VDC 10-24VDC 10-24VDC
L N L N K I L1 fault /”On” L3 fault /”On” L1 fault /”On” L3 fault /”On” L1 fault /”On” L3 fault /”On”
operation operation operation operation operation operation
U Um lm
LT TSM LT TSM LT TSM
Alarm electronic thyristor-module
electronic thyristor-module
electronic thyristor-module
a b P1 1 2 3 4 5 6
C1 L1 L3 C3 C1 L1 L3 C3 C1 L1 L3 C3
+-
24 V DC
Filter
Quick Discharge
Resisto (QDR)
Power
Capacitor
Thyristor Switching Modules - Dimensions

H
H
Top View
C1 L1 L3 C3
W D
Front View Side View
Rating Max. RMS Current Dimensions in (mm)

(kVAr) (A) Cat. Nos.
W D H
10 20 153 75 153 LTTSM10B2
25 50 156 171 200 LTTSM25B2
50 100 156 171 200 LTTSM50B2
etaCON - AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION CONTROLLER 66
Trouble-free Power Factor Correction

The etaCON L series digital Power Factor Controllers are
microprocessor-based controllers which automatically correct
power factor, with the help of contactors by switching capacitor
banks. The series comes in 3, 5, 7, 8 and 12-step versions.
The etaCON controller offers power factor correction without any

need for manual intervention. It decides the optimum
configuration of capacitor banks to achieve desired power factor
by taking into consideration the kVAr of each step, the number of
operations, total usage time, re-connection time of each step, etc.
The intelligent adjustment interface helps in achieving balanced
capacitor usage ensuring longer life for switchgear and capacitors.
Besides, manual switching of capacitors is also possible directly
through the controller.
Automatic Programming
With automatic programming at start-up, there is no need for
manual feeding of parameter values. In this mode, the controller
automatically senses the kVAr rating of each step and configures
the controller, ready to be placed in service.
By pressing just two buttons simultaneously, the automatic

controller set-up can be activated.
Feature Description
Display of V, A, Δ kVAr, Average Weekly PF,

3 Digit 7 Segment LED Display
Capacitor overload & Panel temperature
4 Key Membrane Keypad Selecting & configuring parameters
Internal Temperature Sensor Temperature sensing for control of fan and alarm
Programmable Relay O/Ps Programmable for normal contact / alarm / fan control
67
Salient Features
COMPACT RELAY
Compact relay of 96 x 96 x 71 mm for 3, 5 and 7 stage
for space economy.
The etaCON detects the CT reversal and automatically

AUTOMATIC RECOGNITION OF
corrects the same. This saves the effort put into the
CURRENT FLOW DIRECTION detection/correction of CT polarity at site.
DISPLAY OF AVERAGE WEEKLY POWER FACTOR

Average value of power factor of last seven days is displayed
and updated every day for assessment of APFC panel
performance.
Hunting of capacitors is avoided by faster switching of

INTELLIGENT SWITCHING
step in case of higher kVAr demand and more delay in
SENSITIVITY case of smaller demand
KEYPAD LOCK
The keypad lock function eliminates unauthorized modification
of operating parameters.
68
PROVISION OF ALARMS
Alarms for Under / Over compensation, Low/ High current,
Low / High voltage, Capacitor overload due to harmonic
voltage, Over temperature, No-voltage release.
Capacitors are protected from overload due to harmonics,

over-voltage and over-temperature. If threshold value is
PROTECTION OF CAPACITOR exceeded, alarm is triggered and steps are disconnected
either immediately or after some delay depending upon
the different settings
PROTECTION OF PANEL FROM OVER-HEATING

An inbuilt temperature sensor monitors temperature variation
of the panel. Alarm is triggered in case of over-heating. Fan
start & stop temperature can be set to operate cooling fans.
69
Technical Specifications
Auxillary Supply etaCON etaCON etaCON etaCON etaCON

L3 L5 L7 L8 L12
Rated Voltage Ue 415 - 440 VAC
Operating Limit -15% to +10% Ue
Rated Frequency 50 or 60 Hz± 1%
Maximum Consumption 6.2 VA 5 VA
Maximum Dissipation 2.7 W 3W

Maximum Power Dissipation by Output Contacts 0.5 W with 5 A
Immunity Time for Micro Breakings £

30 ms
No-Voltage Release ³
8 ms
Current Input
Rated Current le 5A
Operating Limit 0.125 - 6 A
Constant Overload + 20%
Type of Measurement True RMS
Short-time withstand Current 10 le for 1 sec
Dynamic Limit 20 le for 10 ms
Burden on CT 0.65 VA
Control Range
Power Factor Setting 0.8 ind - 0.8 cap
Reconnection Time of the Same Step 5 - 240 secs
Sensitivity 5 - 600 s/step
Relay Outputs etaCON L3 etaCON L5 etaCON L7 etaCON L8 etaCON L12
Number of Outputs* 3 5 7 8 12
Type of Output 3NO 4 +1 NO 6 +1 NO 7NO +1C/O 11NO +1C/O
Maximum Current at Contact Common 12 A
Rated Current lth 5A
Rated Capacity of NO Contact 1.5 A 250 VAC (AC15) - 1.5 A 400 VAC (AC15)
Rated Capacity of NC Contact 1.5 A 250 VAC (AC15) - 0.75 A 400 VAC (AC15)
Electric Life at 0.33A, 250 VAC and AC11 load conditions 5000000 ops
Electric Life at 2A, 250 VAC and AC11 load conditions 400000 ops
Electric Life at 2A, 400 VAC and AC11 load conditions 200000 ops
70
Ambient Conditions
Operating Temperature -20 to +60°C
Storage Temperature -30 to +80°C
Relative Humidity <90%
Overvoltage Category 3
Maximum Pollution Degree 3**
Connections
Type of Terminal Removable / Plug-in
Conductor Cross Section (min-max) 0.2 - 2.5 sq mm (24 - 12 AWG)
Tightening Torque 0,5 Nm (4.5 l bin)
UL Rating - Conductor Cross Section (min -max) 18-12 AWG
Housing
Mounting Flush mount
Material Thermoplast NORYL SE1 GN F2 Thermoplast LEXAN 3412R
Degree of Protection IP54 IP41
Weight 420 g 440 g 460 g 740 g 770 g
Compliance
IEC/EN 61010-1, IEC/EN 61000-6-2, ENV 50204, CISPR 11/EN55011, IEC/EN 61000-3-3, IEC/EN 60068-2-61,
IEC/EN 60068-2-27, IEC/EN 60068-2-6, UL 508, CSA C22.2n°14
Certifications
Use 60°C/75°C CU conductor and wire size range 18-12 AWG, stranded or solid
Other Features
Instantaneous PF, V, I, & D

kVAr, Capacitor overload
Measurement
Panel temperature, Average weekly PF
Average weekly PF, Maximum values of voltage,

Metering / Logging
Current, Overload & temperature
Under / Over compensation, Low/ High current,

Alarms Low / High voltage, Capacitor overload due to
harmonic voltage, Over temperature, No-voltage release
* 1 output contact is Galvanically isolated

** Pollution degree 2 when outputs used with 400 VAC load
71
Wiring Diagrams
etaCON L3 / L5 / L7
MAINS
N L1 L2 L3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Current Voltage
/5A 415V
S1 S2 9 10 C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FU11
CT1
OS1
FU1 FU2 FU7
FU9 FU10
KM1 KM2 KM7
LOAD
K1 K2 K7
etaCON L8 / L12
MAINS
N L1 L2 L3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Current Voltage
/5A 415V
S1 S2 15 16 C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
CT1
FU16
OS1
FU1 FU2 FU12
FU14 FU15
KM1 KM2 KM12
LOAD
K1 K2 K12
72
Overall Dimensions
etaCON L3 / etaCON L5 / etaCON L7
96 12 53 6 92
92
etaCON L8 / etaCON L12 96
144 15 47 7.7 138.5
138.5
137
144
Dimensions in mm
CT / Dimensions (mm) Panel Dimensions (mm)

Product Steps Voltage Cat. Nos.
Input L H D L H
etaCON L3 3 stage 3 5 A / 415 V 96 96 71 92 92 ERPML03D500

APFC relay
5 stage
etaCON L5 APFC relay 4+1* 5 A / 415 V 96 96 71 92 92 ERPML05D500
7 stage
etaCON L7 6+1* 5 A / 415 V 96 96 71 92 92 ERPML07D500
APFC relay
8 stage
etaCON L8 7+1* 5 A / 415 V 144 144 69.7 138.5 138.5 ERPML08D500
APFC relay
12 stage
etaCON L12 APFC relay 11+1* 5 A / 415 V 144 144 69.7 138.5 138.5 ERPML12D500
* Last contact can be programmed for capacitor switching / alarm function / fan control
SELECTION OF CAPACITOR - 5 STEP APPROACH 74
Power Factor Correction Capacitors have been used for many years as the most cost effective solution for
PF improvement. Modern electrical networks are continuously evolving into more complex installations
due to the increasing usage of non-linear loads, sophisticated control & automation, UPS systems, energy
efficiency improvement devices etc.
This evolution is also accompanied by increased dependency on captive power generation as well as
growing concerns about incoming supply power quality.
In this background, it is necessary to evolve the Power Factor Correction solution also to a higher level so
as to ensure sustainable achievement of high PF & acceptable harmonic distortion levels.
The selection of the correct type of PFC capacitors & filter reactors thus needs better understanding of the
various issues involved.
This publication outlines a “5 Step” technology based approach, simplified for easier understanding to
enable the correct selection of PFC Capacitors & Filter Reactors.
STEP 1 STEP 2
Calculation Selection of
of kVAr Required Capacitor Duty
SELECTION
OF CAPACITORS
STEP 5 STEP 3
Achieving Dynamic Avoiding the Risk of
and Transient Harmonic Application
Free Unity PF and Resonance
STEP 4
Methods of Power
Factor
Correction
STEP 1: Calculation of kVAr Required for Industries & Distribution Networks

In electrical installations, the operating load kW and its average power factor (PF) can be ascertained from
the electricity bill. Alternatively, it can also be easily evaluated by the formula:
Average PF = kW/kVA
Operating load kW = kVA Demand x Average PF
The average PF is considered as the initial PF and the final PF can be suitably assumed as target PF. In such
cases, required capacitor kVAr can be calculated as explained in the example below:
Example: To calculate the required kVAr compensation for a 500 kW installation to improve the PF from
0.75 to 0.96
kVAr = kW x multiplying factor from table = 500 x 0.590 = 295 kVAr
Note: Table is based on the following formula:
where
kVAr required = kW (tanØ1 - tanØ2) Ø1 = cos-1 (PF1) and Ø2= cos-1(PF2).
75
Target
PF 0.9 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99
Initial
PF
0.4 1.807 1.836 1.865 1.896 1.928 1.963 2.000 2.041 2.088 2.149
0.42 1.676 1.705 1.735 1.766 1.798 1.832 1.869 1.910 1.958 2.018
0.44 1.557 1.585 1.615 1.646 1.678 1.712 1.749 1.790 1.838 1.898
0.46 1.446 1.475 1.504 1.535 1.567 1.602 1.639 1.680 1.727 1.788
0.48 1.343 1.372 1.402 1.432 1.465 1.499 1.536 1.577 1.625 1.685
0.5 1.248 1.276 1.306 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.440 1.481 1.529 1.590
0.52 1.158 1.187 1.217 1.247 1.280 1.314 1.351 1.392 1.440 1.500
0.54 1.074 1.103 1.133 1.163 1.196 1.230 1.267 1.308 1.356 1.416
0.56 0.995 1.024 1.053 1.084 1.116 1.151 1.188 1.229 1.276 1.337
0.58 0.920 0.949 0.979 1.009 1.042 1.076 1.113 1.154 1.201 1.262
0.6 0.849 0.878 0.907 0.938 0.970 1.005 1.042 1.083 1.130 1.191
0.62 0.781 0.810 0.839 0.870 0.903 0.937 0.974 1.015 1.062 1.123
0.64 0.716 0.745 0.775 0.805 0.838 0.872 0.909 0.950 0.998 1.058
0.66 0.654 0.683 0.712 0.743 0.775 0.810 0.847 0.888 0.935 0.996
0.68 0.594 0.623 0.652 0.683 0.715 0.750 0.787 0.828 0.875 0.936
0.7 0.536 0.565 0.594 0.625 0.657 0.692 0.729 0.770 0.817 0.878
0.72 0.480 0.508 0.538 0.569 0.061 0.635 0.672 0.713 0.761 0.821
0.74 0.425 0.453 0.483 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.617 0.658 0.706 0.766
0.75 0.38 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.590 0.631 0.679 0.739
0.76 0.371 0.400 0.429 0.460 0.492 0.526 0.563 0.605 0.652 0.713
0.78 0.318 0.347 0.376 0.407 0.439 0.474 0.511 0.552 0.699 0.660
0.8 0.266 0.294 0.324 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.458 0.499 0.547 0.608
0.82 0.214 0.242 0.272 0.303 0.335 0.369 0.406 0.447 0.495 0.556
0.84 0.162 0.190 0.220 0.251 0.283 0.317 0.354 0.395 0.443 0.503
0.85 0.135 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.328 0.369 0.417 0.477
0.86 0.109 0.138 0.167 0.198 0.230 0.265 0.302 0.343 0.390 0.451
0.87 0.082 0.111 0.141 0.172 0.204 0.238 0.275 0.316 0.364 0.424
0.88 0.055 0.084 0.114 0.145 0.177 0.211 0.248 0.289 0.337 0.397
0.89 0.028 0.057 0.086 0.117 0.149 0.184 0.221 0.262 0.309 0.370
0.9 0.029 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.156 0.193 0.234 0.281 0.342
0.91 0.030 0.060 0.093 0.127 0.164 0.205 0.253 0.313
0.92 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.134 0.175 0.223 0.284
0.93 0.032 0.067 0.104 0.145 0.192 0.253
0.94 0.034 0.071 0.112 0.160 0.220
0.95 0.037 0.078 0.126 0.186
Step 2: Selection of Capacitor Duty

To select the type of capacitor to be used.
Power Factor Correction Capacitors can be classified as follows:
n Standard Duty
n Heavy Duty
n LTXL: Ultra Heavy Duty
The criteria for this classification is based on the following:

n Operating life
n Permissible over voltage & over current coupled with the time duration
n Number of switching operations per year
n Peak inrush current withstand capability
n Operating ambient temperature
76
Permissible
Duty Over Voltage @ Rated Peak Inrush Ambient Maximum Switching
Over Current Temperature Operations / Year
Voltage 440V Currents
Standard Duty 1.5 x In 1.1 Un (12h/24h) 200 x In -250C to 550C 5000
Heavy Duty 1.8 x In 1.1 Un (12h/24h) 300 x In -250C to 550C 8000
LTXL: Ultra Heavy Duty 3 x In 1.1 Un (12h/24h) 500 x In 0

-25 C to 70 C
0
20000
It is strongly recommended that the above table be followed as a guideline for selecting the appropriate
capacitor for a given application. While choosing the type of duty it is also very important to identify the % age
non-linear load in the system. The method of calculating the % age non-linear load is shown below:
Calculation of Non - linear Load:

Example:
Installed transformer rating = 1000 kVA
Non - linear loads = 100 kVA
% non - linear loads = (non - linear loads / transformer rating) x 100
= (100 / 1000) x 100
= 10%
Examples of non - linear load
UPS, Arc / induction furnace, Rectifiers, AC / DC Drives, Computer, CFL lamps, CNC machines, etc.
% Age Non - linear Load Type of Duty
<10% Standard Duty
Upto 15% Heavy Duty
Between 15 and 25% Ultra Heavy Duty
Between 25% and 30% Use Capacitor + Reactor (detuned filters)
Above 30% Hybrid filters (Active filter + detuned filters)*
*For solutions contact L&T
In addition to the above, a simplified way of using capacitor duty based on type of industry is given in the
following table**:
Standard Duty Heavy Duty Ultra heavy Duty
Steady Uniform Variable Inductive Loads, Variable and Fluctuating

Inductive Loads Like THD < 5% Inductive Loads, THD < 8%
Commercial buildings with CFL

Agricultural pump sets Steel rolling mills
lamps, SMPS, UPS, etc
Commercial establishments Garment industries Cement Industries

Small scale Industries etc., Fabrications shops Textiles
Welding shops Heavy chemical industries
Machine & Tool shops Pharmaceutical industries
Steel wire drawings Sugar plants
Bakeries Automobile plants
Flour mills Paper industries
Coffee curing works Food processing plants
Oil mills Granites & Stone polishing units
Steel melting IT industries
Glass industries Wind mills
Heavy welding equipments
Power frequency induction furnaces
** The above table is for illustration; actual selection of capacitors & reactors shall be carried out based on THD or % non-linear load.
77
Step 3: Avoiding the Risk of Harmonic Application and Resonance
To make a choice between the use of Capacitors or Capacitors +Filter reactors.
In a system with inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC) impedances, resonance can happen at one particular
frequency (resonant frequency, fR).
1
Resonant frequency, fR=
(2 LC )
At this point XL becomes equal to XC and the net impedance becomes very low. Hence, at resonance point, the
magnitude of the current (with frequency fR) is very high and only inherent resistance in the network would
limit the current. Typically, the resonance may create major problem in harmonics rich industry. The resonant
frequency may match with any of the harmonic frequency and create very high harmonic amplification, which
can create huge damage to the electrical equipment.
Ohms
XC XL
Z XL-XC
ƒ (Hz)
ƒr
Addition of detuned reactors (in series to capacitors) forcefully shifts the resonant frequency to a safer level.
For example, combination of capacitor and 7% detuned filter reactor has the resonant frequency of 189 Hz,
th
which will avoid resonance with 5 harmonic and above.
Step 4: Methods of Power Factor Correction

To estimate whether fixed compensation or automatic compensation is to be used.
In order to achieve high power factor i.e., close to unity PF, the following guideline may be adopted to make a
decision. If the total kVAr required by the installation is less than 15% of the rating of the incoming supply
transformers, then the use of fixed capacitors may be adopted at various points in the installation.
If the kVAr required by the installation is more than 15% of the rating of the incoming supply transformers,
then automatic power factor correction solution needs to be adopted.
APFC panels with suitable kVAr outputs may be distributed and connected across various points within the
installation.
Note: De-tuned filter APFC panels must be selected if non-linear loads exceed as per previous table.
78
Methods of Power Factor Compensation
Individual Group Central
Compensation Compensation Compensation
Supply Bus
Manual / Manual / Automatic
Control
Semi-automatic Semi-automatic
Elimination of
Yes Yes Yes
penalties due to low PF
Transformer
Achievement of
No No Yes
Unity PF
Circuit breaker
Optimization of the kVA
demand of the installation Yes Yes Yes
to the installed load in kW
Reduction of transformer
Yes Yes Yes CC
loading
Reduction of transformer
Yes Yes Yes
losses
GC GC
Reduction of circuit
Yes Yes Yes
breaker rating
IC IC IC IC
Reduction of switchgear
ratings and cable sizes Yes Partial reduction No
down the line L L L L
2
Reduction in I R losses Yes Partial reduction No
Chance of leading PF No Yes No
Simple and Relatively Best suited for L : Inductive load
Advantages inexpensive better industries IC : Individual Compensation
for few number management with large and
of motors of loads variable loads GC : Group Compensation
CC : Central Compensation
Difficult to
Managing manage,
becomes difficult Relatively
Disadvantages if there is load
if the number of expensive
variation
motors are more in the group
Step 5: Achieving Dynamic and Transient-Free Unity PF

To decide whether transient free PF correction is required.
Conventional switching techniques of capacitors involving electro-mechanical contactors may give rise to
transient phenomena. This transient phenomena can interact with impedances present in the installation to
create “Surges”. This occurrence of surges can cause serious damage to sensitive electronics and automation
resulting in either their malfunction or permanent damage. The transient phenomenon is a sudden rise in
voltage or current at the point of switching.
In this background, it is important to ensure that all the capacitors installed are switched in a transient free
manner so as to ensure reliable performance of the installation.
In such a situation, it is necessary to specify the use of Thyristor switches for transient free switching of
Capacitors.
Note: Thyristor switching can also be used for dynamic compensation which is needed if the fluctuation of
loads is very high; such as lifts, welding load is very high; fast presses etc.
79 MOTOR POWER FACTOR COMPENSATION
The various methods of power factor correction are direct compensation, group compensation and
centralized compensation. Depending upon the size and the rate of change of loads in an industry, any one or
combination of the above methods can be employed. Specifically, in case of agricultural pump-sets and some
small scale industries with a few motor loads, the power factor correction can be done by connecting shunt
capacitors directly to the motors. This method of compensation is called direct compensation. This is simple
and ideal method for reactive power compensation, as this results in rating optimization of all the upstream
switchgear and cables, which reduces overall system losses.
Direct motor compensation can be done by two methods:
Method – 1:
As shown in the figure, the capacitor is connected directly to the motor terminals, after the starter. The
capacitors would start supplying reactive power, as soon as the motor is switched ON. This method of
compensation can be used for motors with Direct on-line starters. Usually the kVAr rating for a particular
motor is given by the respective motor manufacturers, as the kVAr ratings are motor specific.
Motor 3000 1500 1000 750 500

(hp) rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm
2.5 1 1 1.5 2 2.5
5 2 2 2.5 3.5 4
7.5 2.5 3 3.5 4.5 5.5
10 3 4 4.5 5.5 6.5
15 4 5 6 7.5 9
20 5 6 7 9 12
25 6 7 9 10.5 14.5
30 7 8 10 12 17
40 9 10 13 15 21
50 11 12.5 16 18 25
60 13 14.5 18 20 28
70 15 16.5 20 22 31
Starter 80 17 19 22 24 34
90 19 21 24 26 37
100 21 23 26 28 40
110 23 25 28 30 43
120 25 27 30 32 46
130 27 29 32 34 49
140 29 31 34 36 52
145 30 32 35 37 54
150 31 33 36 38 55
M 155 32 34 37 39 56
160 33 35 38 40 57
165 34 36 39 41 59
170 35 37 40 42 60
175 36 38 41 43 61
c
180 37 39 42 44 62
185 38 40 43 45 63
190 38 40 43 45 65
200 40 42 45 47 67
250 45 50 55 60 70
Even though this is the effective method of power factor compensation, there is a limitation in sizing of the
capacitors. That is, the maximum kVAr should be decided such that, the rated capacitor current is less than
90% of the motor’s no-load current. If this condition is not met, self-excitation may occur, in which the motor
acts as a generator. This happens when a motor has enough inertia to keep rotating even after being
disconnected from the power system and the capacitor is large enough to supply the reactive power needs of
the motor. Self-excitation may result in high voltage at the terminals of the motor and this can damage the
contactor and the capacitor. As this method has the limitation in the sizing of maximum kVAr rating, it is not
possible to achieve unity power factor.
80
Method – 2:
In this method, the capacitor is connected to the motor before the starter and it is switched through a separate
capacitor-duty contactor. The capacitors are disconnected as soon as the motor is switched off hence, self-
excitation is avoided. There is no need of any limitations in capacitor sizing and unity power factor can be
achieved by this method.
The capacitor size (in kVAr) can be calculated by the below formula:
kVAr=kW
The limitations are the manual switching of the capacitors and the extra cost incurred for the contactors.
Moreover, when the number of motors increase in future, managing all at a time would be difficult.
Motors with Star-Delta Starter

Specifically for motor with star-delta starter, it is recommended to use method-2. If capacitors are directly
connected to the terminals of the motor, the life of the capacitor drops drastically because of the voltage spikes
that happen during every star to delta transition. So it is safer to connect the capacitor before the star-delta
starter, as shown in the above figure.
Points to Remember
• The operating power factor varies with respect to the percentage loading of the motors. Hence with the
varying load, the fixed capacitors may not be able to maintain the unity power factor continuously
• After switching off the capacitor, it is very important to maintain a minimum time delay of 60 seconds, for
switching ON the capacitor again. Else, there are more chances of contactor damage because of charged
capacitor
• If the motor is operated with drives/converters, it is recommended to detune the capacitors by adding
series reactors
• It is recommended to use capacitor duty contactors for minimizing the inrush current and hence to
maximize the life of contactors and the capacitors
81 TRANSFORMER COMPENSATION
In order to achieve near unity power factor, all sources of reactive power need to be identified and fully
compensated. One such element that consumes reactive power is the transformer. Reactive power is
consumed by transformers through the no load magnetizing current and through the leakage reactance. This
issue is aimed at helping customers size capacitor banks for transformer compensation.
Basics
The power factor on the HT side (source side) of a transformer depends upon the following:
• LT Side (Load side) power factor
• Real power consumed by transformer
• Reactive power consumed by transformer
The load side power factor is compensated by employing APFC panels and/or by providing individual
compensation to connected loads. Transformer compensation on the other hand needs a different approach.
The equivalent circuit of a transformer is as shown below:
Lleakage RT
IL
VP IO
VS
Source Load
side RNL Lmag side
IW IM
Where: VP is the source voltage, VS is the load voltage, IO is the no load current, IW is the no load watt loss
current, IM is the magnetizing current, RNL is the no load resistance, Lmag is the magnetizing inductance, Lleakage
is the leakage inductance, RT is the windingresistance.
As can be seen from the equivalent circuit, the inductive elements, namely Lmag and Lleakage contribute to the VAR
consumption of the transformer
Magnetizing VAR Requirement of a Transformer

The magnetizing VAR consumption is a function of the rated voltage and the magnetizing current of the
transformer. The no load current of a transformer varies between 0.5 % and 2.5% of the full load current
depending on the design of the transformer and the operating flux level. The magnetizing current is around
80% of the no load current and thus varies between 0.4% and 2%. It is safe to assume a value of 1-1.2% for
distribution transformers.
Thus the VAR required to compensate for the magnetizing current of the transformer is around 1- 1.2% of the
transformer kVA rating.
VAR Requirement due to Leakage Reactance

The VAR requirement due to leakage reactance is a function of the square of the current and the leakage
reactance. At full load the voltage drop across the leakage reactance is equal to the impedance voltage (%Z
impedance). The reactive VAR consumption is equal to the product of impedance voltage and load current.
Where IL is the load current and XLeakage is the leakage reactance; QX is the kVAr
Power Requirement
Typically, for a 3 phase transformer,
Where V2 is the secondary voltage.

2
QX = (% Z) x (kVA) x (% load)
% loading is assumed to be 50% to 75%. Thus for % Z=5%, Q works out to 5%* (75%) i.e. 3%
Thus the VAR requirement to compensate for the leakage reactance of the transformer is around 3% of the kVA
rating of the transformer.
The total VAR required to compensate for the reactive power consumed by the transformer is around 4% to
4.25% of the kVA rating of the transformer.
REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION OF DG SETS 82
Whenever an industry is drawing power from utility, there are no major complications in managing the
reactive power and power factor close to unity can be maintained. However, when diesel generators are
operating, some precautions are needed to be taken for managing reactive power. This article briefs the
performance of the DG sets at various power factors and thereby shows the optimal manner of power factor
compensation of generators with the help of some examples.
Normally DG sets are rated in apparent power (kVA) along with power factor and typical rated power factor is
0.8 lag (considering the power factor of motors, without any capacitors) irrespective of alternator’s apparent
power. The diesel engine’s mechanical output power (bhp/kW) is designed to match the electrical real power
(kW = kVA x PF) of the alternator.
For example, consider a generator rated for 1000 kVA and lagging power factor of 0.8. The maximum possible
real power (kW) the generator can supply is 800 kW (rated current = 1739 A). Thus, the diesel engine will also
be rated to deliver 800 kW equivalent mechanical power to the alternator. The following cases show the
operation of the alternator at different power factor.
Case 1:
Apparent power = 1000 kVA; connected load = 800 kW; power factor = 0.8
Current drawn, I1 = 1000 x 1000 / (1.732 x 415 x 0.8) =1739 A
• Here, the generator is operated at the rated name plate values. The load draws maximum rated current from
the generator and the generator draws the maximum permissible mechanical power (800 kW) from the
diesel engine
Case 2:
Current drawn, I2 = 1000 x 1000 / (1.732 x 415 x 0.6) = 2318.9 A
• In case 2, the connected load is 800 kW (operated at 0.6 PF) which is equal to the maximum mechanical
power that the engine can deliver. But the actual current drawn by the load is greater than the rated
alternator current. This results in generator overloading. In order to avoid generator overloading, the
maximum load (at the same PF) that can be connected to the generator is 600 kW at 0.6 PF
• Conversely, if the connected load is 600 kW and if the power factor is at 0.6, the entire generator capacity
(1000 kVA) is blocked for this partial load. If the power factor was to be improved to 0.8, then as in case 1
additional 200 kW load could have been connected to the same generator, thereby increasing the capacity
and productivity of the industry. Moreover, if 600 kW load is operated at unity power factor, the load current
(1391 A) will be reduced by 40%, thereby significant reduction in the copper loss/cable loss. This will result
in fuel savings of the engine. This is what is described in case 3 below
Case 3:
Current drawn, I3 = 1000 x 1000 / (1.732 x 415 x 1.0) =1391 A
• The genset is connected to its full capacity of 800 kW operating at unity power factor. Unlike case 1, the load
draws 20% less current at UPF (1391 A). This in turn results in significant reduction in copper loss/cable loss
and thereby saving some fuel
• Here, at UPF, even though the generator can support a load of 1000 kW, the diesel engine is rated to deliver a
maximum mechanical power of 800 kW
• Even though the current drawn is less than the rated current (1739 A), the genset is delivering its maximum
real power (800 kW)
• Hence at UPF, utmost care should be taken such that the total connected electrical load must not exceed
800 kW. Otherwise the diesel engine will be overloaded
Summary
• Close to unity power factor shall be maintained for the loads connected to the DG sets by using capacitors.
This will result in the reduction of copper loss and hence savings in fuel
• The load (active power) connected to the generator must not exceed the engine’s equivalent kW rating
etaSYS -
STANDARD AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION PANELS 84
Modern power networks cater to a wide variety of electrical and power electronics loads, which create a
varying power demand on the supply system. In case of such varying loads, the power factor also varies as a
function of the load requirements.
It therefore becomes practically difficult to maintain consistent power factor by the use of fixed compensation
i.e. fixed capacitors which shall need to be manually switched to suit the variations of the load. This will lead to
situations where the installation can have a low power factor leading to higher demand charges and levy of
power factor penalties.
In addition to not being able to achieve the desired power factor it is also possible that the use of fixed
compensation can also result in leading power factor under certain load conditions. This is also unhealthy for
the installation as it can result in over voltages, saturation of transformers, mal-operation of diesel generating
sets, penalties by electricity supply authorities etc.
Consequently the use of fixed compensation has limitations in this context. It is therefore necessary to
automatically vary, without manual intervention, the compensation to suit the load requirements. This is
achieved by using on Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC) system which can ensure consistently high
power factor without any manual intervention. In addition, the occurrence of leading power factor will be
prevented.
APFC panels are fully automatic in operation and can be used to achieve:
Consistently high power factor under fluctuating load conditions
n
Elimination of low power factor penalty levied by electrical supply authorities

n
Reduced kVA demand charges

n
Lower energy consumption in the installation by reducing losses

n
n Preventive leading power factor in an installation
Basic Operation
To continuously sense and monitor the load condition by the use of external CT (whose output is fed to the
n
control relay)
To automatically switch ON and OFF relevant capacitor steps on to ensure consistent power factor
n
To ensure easy user interface for enabling reliable system operations

n
To protect against any electrical faults in a manner that will ensure safe isolation of the power factor
n
correction equipment
Salient Features and Advantages

Pre-selected optimal number of steps and step sizes, for better step resolution and hunt free capacitors
n
switching
Ideal switchgear selection for reliable short circuit protection, without nuisance tripping
n
Right capacitor-reactor combination selection to prevent harmonic amplification and resonance

n
Option of capacitor duty contactor or thyristor switch for transient free switching
n
Panels with better electrical, mechanical and thermal design for longer life of capacitors and other
n
components
Panels are with advanced microcontroller based APFC relay that offers reliable switching operation with
n
four quadrant sensing
85
etaSYS Standard APFC Panel Range
kVAr Branch Harmonic

Product Description Capacitors Main Incomer Switching
ratings Protection Filter
Contactor switched 35 to 500 Heavy Duty Gas MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; MO C Capacitor
etaSYS - MH1 MCCB -
standard APFC Panels kVAr filled Capacitors ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor
Contactor switched
100 to 500 Heavy Duty Gas MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; MO C Capacitor 7% copper
etaSYS - MH2 standard APFC Panels filled Capacitors MCCB
kVAr ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor reactor
with harmonic filters
Contactor switched 35 to 500 Heavy Duty Gas MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; MO C Capacitor
etaSYS - FH1 HRC Fuse -
standard APFC Panels kVAr filled Capacitors ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor
Contactor switched
100 to 500 Heavy Duty Gas MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; MO C Capacitor 7% copper
etaSYS - FH2 standard APFC Panels HRC Fuse
kVAr filled Capacitors ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor reactor
Thyristor switched Thyristor
etaSYS - 100 to 500 Heavy Duty Gas MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; Semiconductor 7% copper
standard APFC Panels filled Capacitors switching
FH3 (RTPFC) kVAr ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr Fuse reactor
with harmonic filters modules
Contactor switched 100 to 500 LTXL - Ultra Heavy MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; MO C Capacitor -
etaSYS - MU1 MCCB
standard APFC Panels kVAr Duty capacitor ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor
Contactor switched MO C Capacitor 7% copper
100 to 500 LTXL - Ultra Heavy MCCB - upto 350 kVAr;
etaSYS - MU2 standard APFC Panels MCCB
kVAr Duty capacitor ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor reactor
Contactor switched 35 to 500 LTXL - Ultra Heavy MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; MO C Capacitor -
etaSYS - FU1 HRC Fuse
standard APFC Panels kVAr Duty capacitor ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor
Contactor switched MO C Capacitor 7% copper
100 to 500 LTXL - Ultra Heavy MCCB - upto 350 kVAr;
etaSYS - FU2 standard APFC Panels HRC Fuse
kVAr Duty capacitor ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr duty contactor reactor
Thyristor switched Thyristor
etaSYS - 100 to 500 LTXL - Ultra Heavy MCCB - upto 350 kVAr; Semiconductor 7% copper
standard APFC Panels Duty capacitor switching
FU3 (RTPFC) kVAr ACB - 400 to 500 kVAr Fuse reactor
with harmonic filters modules
etaSYS Basic Design Specifications

Power Range 35 kVAr to 500 kVAr
Rated System Voltage 440 V / 415 V / 400 V / 380 V
Rated Frequency 50 Hz
Incomer Short Circuit Rating > 36 kA
Altitude 1000 m
Duty Continuous
Ambient Temperature -5oC to 45oC
Power Supply Three phase, four line
Relay Current Input Signal – / 5A, from CT on line
The load bearing structure is made of 2 mm sheet steel
The front door and partition are made of 1.6 mm sheet steel
Enclosures
The internal components are accessible on opening the front door
Ingress protection - IP42
Indoor, wall mounted (upto 100 kVAr), floor mounted (100 kVAr and above)
Installation
in a well-ventilated, non-dusty environment, cable entry from bottom
Incomer 3 Pole MCCBs upto 630 A, 3 Pole ACBs above 630 A

1. Heavy duty cylindrical gas filled capacitors.
Capacitors
2. LTXL Ultra Heavy Duty Capacitors (see below table for step ratings).
1. Without Reactors
Reactors
2. With 7% Detuned Reactors
1. 3 Pole MO C Capacitor duty contactors of adequate ratings for respective steps.
Switching
2. Thyristor Switching Modules of suitable ratings.
1. MCCBs for providing short circuit protection and isolation.
Branch Protection 2. HRC Fuses of adequate ratings.
3. High speed fuse / semiconductor fuse for thyristor switched APFC panels.
APFC Panel - Overall Dimensions 86
R Y B
APFCR
H
Air filter
unit
36
20
TH
W D
Front view Side view
Cut out at bottom
Gland plate
Top view
Notes:
nWall mounted : upto 100 kVAr
nFloor mounted : above 100 kVAr
nRecommended front access : 1000 mm
nRecommended side clearance : 1000 mm
nPaint shade : RAL 7032 Powder coated
nTolerance on dimensions : ±10 mm
nCable entry : bottom
87
etaSYS - MH1 Standard APFC with a combination of Heavy Duty Capacitors & MCCB
Panel
Type of Main Dimension (mm)
Cat. Nos. Rating Step size (kVAr) Steps Switching Reactor
Branch
Device Capacitor Protection Incommer (H x W x D)
(kVAr)
LTAPMH0351B2 35 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 5 4 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1100 x 600 x 400
LTAPMH0501B2 50 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 10 + 1 x 5 5 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1100 x 600 x 400
LTAPMH0751B2 75 2 x 25 + 2 x 10 + 1 x 5 5 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1200 x 800 x 400
LTAPMH1001B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH1251B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH1501B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH1751B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH2001B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH2251B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH2501B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPMH2751B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 600
LTAPMH4001B2 400 2 x 100 + 2 x 50 + 4 x 25 8 Contactor MPPH - DU MCCB ACB 2000 x 1600 x 800
etaSYS - MH2 Standard APFC with a combination of Heavy Duty Capacitors, MCCB &
7% Detuned Reactor
Panel
Branch
(kVAr)
LTAPMH1002B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1600 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH1252B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1600 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH1502B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH1752B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH2002B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 1 x 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH2252B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH2502B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMH2752B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 800
LTAPMH3002B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 800
LTAPMH3502B2 350 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 4 x 25 8 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1400 x 800
LTAPMH4002B2 400 2 x 100 + 2 x 50 + 4 x 25 8 Contactor MPPH 7% DU MCCB ACB 2000 x 1600 x 1200
88
etaSYS - FH1 Standard APFC with a combination of Heavy Duty Capacitors & HRC Fuse
Panel
Cat. Nos. Rating Step size (kVAr) Steps Switching Capacitor Reactor Branch
(H x W x D)
(kVAr) Device Protection Incommer
LTAPFH0351B2 35 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 5 4 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1100 x 600 x 400
LTAPFH0501B2 50 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 10 + 1 x 5 5 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1100 x 600 x 400
LTAPFH0751B2 75 2 x 25 + 2 x 10 + 1 x 5 5 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1200 x 800x 400
LTAPFH1001B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 500
LTAPFH1251B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 500
LTAPFH1501B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPFH1751B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPFH2001B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPFH2251B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPFH2501B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 600
LTAPFH2751B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 600
LTAPFH3001B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor MPPH - HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 600
etaSYS - FH2 Standard APFC with a combination of Heavy Duty Capacitors, HRC Fuse &
7% Detuned Reactor
Panel
Cat. Nos. Rating Step size (kVAr) Steps Switching Type of Reactor Branch Main Dimension (mm)
(kVAr) Device Capacitor Protection Incommer (H x W x D)
LTAPFH1002B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 1600 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH1252B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 1600 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH1502B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH1752B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2002B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 1 x 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2252B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2502B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2752B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 800
LTAPFH3002B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 800
etaSYS - FH3 Standard APFC with a combination of Heavy Duty Capacitors, Thyritor Switching
& 7% Detuned Reactor
Panel
LTAPFH1003B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH1253B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH1503B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH1753B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2003B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 1 x 25 + 3 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2253B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2503B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFH2753B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2200 x 1200 x 800
LTAPFH3003B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2200 x 1200 x 800
89
etaSYS - MU1 Standard APFC with a combination of LTXL Capacitors & MCCB
Panel
Branch
(kVAr)
LTAPMU1001B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU1251B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU1501B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU1751B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU2001B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU2251B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU2501B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPMU2751B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 700
LTAPMU3001B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor LTXL - DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 700
etaSYS - MU1 Standard APFC with a combination of LTXL Capacitors, MCCB &
7% Detuned Reactor
Panel
Branch
(kVAr)
LTAPMU1002B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU1252B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU1502B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU1752B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU2002B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 1 x 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU2252B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU2502B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPMU2752B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 1200
LTAPMU3002B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor LTXL 7% DU MCCB dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 1200
etaSYS - FU1 Standard APFC with a combination of LTXL Capacitors & HRC Fuse
90
Panel
Cat. Nos. Rating Step size (kVAr) Steps Switching Capacitor Reactor Branch
(H x W x D)
(kVAr) Device Protection Incommer
LTAPFU1001B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU1251B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1500 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU1501B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU1751B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU2001B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU2251B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU2501B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 1800 x 1000 x 700
LTAPFU2751B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 700
LTAPFU3001B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor LTXL - HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 700
etaSYS - FU1 Standard APFC with a combination of LTXL Capacitors, HRC Fuse &
7% Detuned Reactor
Panel
LTAPFU1002B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU1252B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU1502B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU1752B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2002B2 200 2 x 12.5 + 1 x 25 + 3 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2252B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2502B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2752B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 1200
LTAPFU3002B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Contactor MPPH 7% HRCF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1200 x 1200
etaSYS - FU3 Standard APFC with a combination of LTXL Capacitors, Thyritor Switching &
7% Detuned Reactor
Panel
LTAPFU1003B2 100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU1253B2 125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU1503B2 150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU1753B2 175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2003B2 200 2 x 12.5 +1 x 25 + 3 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2253B2 225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2503B2 250 2 x 25 + 4 x 50 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2100 x 1000 x 800
LTAPFU2753B2 275 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 12.5 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2200 x 1200 x 1200
LTAPFU3003B2 300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 Thyristor MPPH 7% HSF dsine MCCB 2200 x 1200 x 1200
CAPACITOR STEP SIZE SELECTION GUIDELINES
91 IN APFC PANELS
Major part in the design of APFC panels is the selection of step size of capacitor banks and number of steps. The
right selection of step size and number of steps plays a significant role in the performance as well as cost of the
APFC panel. This section focuses on the need and ways of good step size (maximum and minimum sizes)
selection and number of steps.
Maximum Step Size Selection

The maximum capacitor rating in an APFC panel depends up on the following:
I. Maximum amount of load variation that happens in the industry at a time: Large load
variations demand bigger capacitor steps so that target power factor is achieved in short time,
by less number of switching operations.
ii. Current and voltage transient withstand capabilities of the system:
• Current transients: Switching of big capacitors (usually above 100 kVAr) introduces large magnitude
of inrush current (current transients) for a small duration. This results in high thermal and electrical
stress on capacitors, short circuit protection devices and mainly, the switching device. This may lead
to their nuisance tripping and premature failures
• Voltage transients: Switching of big capacitors may cause transient over voltages, which might result
in failure of sensitive electronic devices
Thus, the maximum size of the capacitor step is a trade-off between the points i and ii. Practically acceptable
maximum possible rating in any APFC panel shall be 100 kVAr. If this 100 kVAr rating capacitor is switched
using power contactor, the peak inrush current may reach as high as 75 kA. Hence, the capacitors should be
switched using either capacitor duty contactors or thyristor switching module.
However, thyristor switching module or capacitor duty contactor for 100 kVAr rating is not readily available.
Hence, the best way to switch a 100 kVAr bank is by connecting two 50 kVAr TSM / contactor in parallel, each
with a separate physical 50 kVAr capacitor banks. The control supply to both the 50 kVAr TSM/contactors shall
be common (one relay output of the controller), so that both of the devices are triggered at the same time. To
achieve this, the common output of the APFC relay should be programmed as 100 kVAr. Hence, physically they
are two separate 50 kVAr banks, whereas electrically they behave as a single 100 kVAr bank.
A sample connection diagram for switching a step of 100 kVAr capacitor using two 50 kVAr capacitor duty
contactors / TSM is shown as under:
MCCB for MCCB for

50 kVAr 50 kVAr
MO C MO C
contactor / contactor /
TSM TSM
50 kVAr 50 kVAr
Common control supply

7% Detuned 7% Detuned
etaCON Reactor Reactor
APFC Controller 50 kVAr 50 kVAr
Capacitor Capacitor
60 kVAr 480 V 60 kVAr 480 V
Figure 1: Connection diagram showing switching logic of 100 kVAr bank

Minimum Step Size Selection 92
The minimum capacitor rating depends on how precise the power factor needs to be maintained. This
minimum kVAr rating depends upon the minimum current sensitivity (typically around 2.5%) of the APFC
controller. However the change in PF due to these minimum selected kVAr rating would be usually in the 3rd or
4th decimal places (depending on panel size or kVAr requirement), whereas the electricity board is concerned
only with the first two digits of PF (like 0.99).
Typically many industries want the desired target PF to be unity (exactly 1.00), in order to get incentives from
some EBs. But practically, the optimum target PF has to be 0.96 to 0.99. These are healthy levels of power
factor as it will have safety margin that avoids the leading power factor as well as any dangerous harmonic
amplification (due to more capacitance in the system).
Hence, as a rule of thumb, the minimum kVAr rating in an APFC panel can be chosen to be 5-10% of overall
rating of APFC panel. For smaller rating APFC panels (up to 100 kVAr), the smallest step can be 5 kVAr and for
bigger rating APFC panels (above 600 kVAr and up to 1000 kVAr) the minimum rating can be 25 kVAr.
Number of Steps / Branches in APFC Panels

Once the minimum and maximum kVAr rating of the APFC panel is selected, the number of branches can be
decided upon based of the following:
I. Technology of APFC controllers: Latest APFC controllers like etaCON L Series employ self-optimized
intelligent switching where the controller calculates the exact kVAr requirement and switches ON / OFF the
appropriate capacitors irrespective of the capacitors already in circuit. Traditional controllers employing
linear or circular switching require more number of smaller steps (like 1:2:2:…) for effective power factor
correction. Whereas the latest controllers like etaCON can have a mix of large and small steps reducing the
number of steps in capacitor bank as well as the cost of associated switchgear.
ii. Size & cost of APFC panel: More the number of steps more will be the cost of APFC panel, due to more
number of switchgear, bigger size of panel and others.
An APFC panel should have:

a. Maximum number of electrical steps (combination of physical steps) to ensure more accurate and
flexible power factor correction
b. Minimum number of physical steps to reduce the size and cost of the panel
Let us consider a few examples of step size selection in APFC panels.
I. 100 kVAr APFC panel Case A Case B

Step configuration 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + … 10 times 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5
Step resolution 10 kVAr 5 kVAr
Electrical Steps 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, … 100 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, … 100
Physical Steps 10 5
No. of Electrical Steps 10 20
In case B, 20 electrical steps are possible with only 5 physical steps; whereas in case A, 10 physical steps are required
to achieve 10 electrical steps.
II. 300 kVAr APFC panel Case A Case B

Configuration 25 + 25 + 25 + 25 + … 12 times 1x100 + 3x50 + 2x25
Step resolution 25 kVAr 25 KVAr
Electrical Steps 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, … 275, 300 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, … 275, 300
Physical Steps 12 6
Case B is better as same electrical steps are achieved with just 6 physical steps.
III. 600 kVAr APFC panel Case A Case B

Configuration 50 + 50 + 50 + 50 + … 12 times 3x100 + 5x50 + 2x25
Step resolution 50 kVAr 25 KVAr
Electrical Steps 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, … 600 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, … , 600
Physical Steps 12 10
In Case B, 24 electrical steps are possible with only 10 physical steps; whereas in Case A, 12 physical steps are required
to achieve 12 electrical steps.
93
Summary
APFC panels with more number of steps (more than 12) does not always mean better step resolution. With the
latest APFC controller technology, fewer steps are sufficient to achieve better step resolution and control of
power factor. Hence, usually a combination of large, small and very small ratings is used in steps of capacitor
banks, as given below:
1. Large rating capacitors (100 kVAr maximum) are required to PF compensation of base load and coarse
power factor compensation
2. Medium rating capacitors are meant for variable part of the reactive power compensation.
3. Small rating capacitors (usually 5 to 10% of total kVAr or 25 kVAr for panels above 500 kVAr) are meant
for fine tuning of the power factor.
Considering the above points, following table suggests optimum number of steps and step sizes from 35 kVAr
to 1000 kVAr. Beyond 1000 kVAr, it is always better to split the APFC panels and install them at different
PCC/MCC levels.
Panel No. of No. of

Electrical / Logical Steps
Rating Physical Step Size (kVAr) Physical Electrical
(all possible combination of physical steps )
(kVAr) Steps Steps
35 2x12.5 + 2x5 4 5, 10, 12.5, 17.5, 22.5, 25, 30, 35 8

50 2 x 12.5 + 2x10 + 1x5 5 5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 35, 37.5, 40, 45, 50 15
75 2 x 25 + 2x10 + 1x5 5 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, … 70, 75 15
100 50 + 25 + 15 + 5 + 5 5 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, …95,100 20
125 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 50 5 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 75, 87.5, 100, 112.5, 125 10
150 2 x 12.5 + 3 x 25 + 50 6 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 75, 87.5, … 137.5, 150 12
175 2 x 12.5 + 2 x 25 + 2 x 50 6 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 75, 87.5, … 162.5, 175 14
200 2 x 12.5 + 25 + 3 x 50 6 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 75, 87.5, … 187.5, 200 16
225 2 x 12.5 + 4 x 50 6 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 75, 87.5, … 121.5, 225 18
250 4 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250 10
275 5 x 50 + 1 x 25 6 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 250, 275 11
300 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 6 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 275, 300 12
350 1 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 4 x 25 8 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 325, 350 14
400 2 x 100 + 2 x 50 + 4 x 25 8 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 375, 400 16
450 2 x 100 + 4 x 50 + 2 x 25 8 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 425, 450 18
500 3 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 2 x 25 8 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 475, 500 20
550 3 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 4 x 25 10 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 525, 550 22
600 3 x 100 + 5 x 50 + 2 x 25 10 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 575, 600 24
650 4 x 100 + 4 x 50 + 2 x 25 10 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 625, 650 26
700 3 x 100 + 5 x 50 + 6 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 675, 700 28
750 5 x 100 + 3 x 50 + 4 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 725, 750 30
800 5 x 100 + 5 x 50 + 2 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 775, 800 32
850 6 x 100 + 4 x 50 + 2 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 825, 850 34
900 7 x 100 + 2 x 50 + 4 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 875, 900 36
950 8 x 100 + 2 x 50 + 4 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 925, 950 38
1000 9 x 100 + 1 x 50 + 2 x 25 12 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, … 975, 1000 40
The above table is for illustration only, which may be applicable for majority of industries. For accurate compensation, step ratings
shall be decided after studying the load profile of the industry.
Disclaimer
For accurate compensation, the load profile of the industry needs to be studied. This gives an indication of the size of
peak loads, base loads, possible harmonics, power factor and thus, helps determine step sizes based on load
variations. In some cases, the load requirements can also be established from equipment lists.
FUSE SELECTION FOR APFC PANELS 94
For any APFC panel, fuses are required for faster short circuit protection and overload protection of capacitors.
Fuse selection for capacitive load is critical because of heavy inrush current, high overload capacity and
continuous full load. These inherent traits of a capacitor, complicates the selection process. Hence the
selection should be such that even during these permissible abnormalities, the fuse should not blow.
Normally, the maximum permissible current in a capacitor branch is 2 times the rated current. This factor is
comprised of the following:
• Harmonics overload and over voltage - 30%

• Capacitance tolerance -10%
• Frequency variation - 2%
• Fuse deration factor - 35%
The fuse used for branch protection must be capable of carrying this current continuously. Hence the fuse
should be sufficiently rated so as to avoid the deterioration of the fuse element. Further the fuse should not
blow during switching of the capacitors because of the inrush current (more than 100 times the rated
capacitor current under normal conditions). In order to prevent nuisance operation of fuse, its time-current
characteristic should cover the peak inrush current of the capacitor. Hence for the optimal selection of fuses,
the inrush current must be limited by using either capacitor duty contactor or inrush current limiting reactor.
The following table** shows the selection of Fuses and Capacitor switching contactors for an APFC panel:
Allowed O/C for Recommended Fuse Rating

kVAr Rated Current* (A) O/C Factor
Capacitor (A) Contactor* (A)
10 13.12 2 26.24 MO C12 32

15 19.68 2 39.36 MO C15 40
20 26.24 2 52.48 MO C20 63
25 32.80 2 65.60 MO C25 80
50 65.61 2 131.22 MO C50 160
* Selection principle is same for other family of fuses

** The table is valid only for L&T switchgear and capacitors +at 440 V
The rated current of a capacitor can be calculated as.
(1000 x kVAr)
( 3 x V)
For any capacitor bank, permissible overload is 2 times rated capacitor current. Hence, fuses should be rated to
carry continuous overcurrent as given in the above table. In case Thyristor Switching Modules are used instead
of capacitor duty contactors, it is highly recommended to use High Speed Fuses (semiconductor fuse).
Above selection chart is valid only if fuses are used along with capacitor duty contactor or inrush current
limiting reactor (0.2% reactor). Please consider the above table purely as a guideline for selection. Actual
selection needs to be done based on considerations of connected load and the electrical network properties.
95 MCCB SELECTION FOR APFC PANELS
For any APFC panel, MCCBs are required for short circuit protection, overload protection and for isolation of
capacitors. MCCB selection for capacitive load is tricky because of heavy inrush current, high overload capacity
and continuous full load. These inherent traits of a capacitor, complicates the selection process. The selection
should be such that the MCCB should not nuisance trip during inrush current and should withstand
continuous flow of overload current.
Whenever we use MCCB in an APFC panel, proper measures need to be taken against the ill effects of the inrush
current. Normally the inrush current (more than 100 times the rated capacitor current) will remain for a few
micro-seconds and will not be sensed by the MCCB. However the contacts of MCCB may repel and bounce
because of the current limiting feature, causing micro-arcs between the contacts of MCCB. This multiple
bounce can result in premature failure of MCCB contacts. In order to reduce the magnitude of the peak inrush
current, MCCBs must be used along with capacitor duty contactors or inrush current limiting reactors.
The maximum permissible current in a capacitor branch is 1.46 times the rated current. This factor is comprised
of the following:
• Harmonics overload and over voltage - 30%

• Capacitance tolerance - 10%
• Frequency variation - 2%
The branch MCCB must be capable of carrying this current continuously.

The following table** shows the selection of MCCBs and Capacitor switching contactors for an APFC panel:
Permissible Thermal Setting (A) Magnetic

Rated O/L Recommended
kVAr Capacitor MCCB* Setting
Current*A Factor Contactor+ IR
O/L (A) IN (6 to 10*IR)
(100% IN)
10 13.12 1.46 19.16 MO C12 DH / DU / DN 19 19 171
15 19.68 1.46 28.74 MO C15 DH / DU / DN 29 29 261
20 26.24 1.46 38.32 MO C20 DH / DU / DN 38 38 342
25 32.80 1.46 47.90 MO C25 DH / DU / DN 48 48 432
30 39.37 1.46 57.47 MO C30 DH / DU / DN 58 58 513
50 65.61 1.46 95.79 MO C50 DH / DU / DN 96 96 864
* Selection principle is same for other family of MCCBs
**The table is valid only for L&T switchgear and capacitors +at 440 V
The rated current of a capacitor can be calculated as
(1000 x kVAr) /( 3 x V)
For any capacitor bank, permissible overload is 1.46 times rated capacitor current. Hence, MCCB should be
rated to carry continuous over current as given in the above table.
Above selection chart is valid only if MCCB is used along with capacitor duty contactor or inrush current
limiting reactor (0.2% reactor). Please consider the above table purely as a guideline for selection. Actual
selection needs to be done based on considerations of connected load and the electrical network properties.
CABLE SELECTION FOR CAPACITORS 96
Switchgear and cable selection for capacitor application is quite challenging. The reason is the capacitive
networks are more prone to over-current, high peak inrush current and continuous flow of full load current.
Usually the capacitors are designed to withstand and operate normally, even during the above said
abnormalities, for a finite amount of time. Hence, the switchgear and cables in the capacitor network should
be rated accordingly, so as to withstand & operate normally during these abnormalities.
The capacitors draw over-current because of the harmonics, capacitance tolerances, voltage variation and
frequency variation. The permitted over-current isup to 146% of the rated current, which comprises the
following:
• Harmonics overload and over voltage – 30%

• Capacitance tolerance – 10%
• Frequency variation – 2%
Accordingly, the cables should also be derated, to continuously withstand permitted over-current. The derated
cable will also help in withstanding the electrical and thermal stresses that occur during every switching cycle
because of high inrush current.
Following is the recommended cable selection chart:
Current at the Rated Derated Current at the Minimum Recommended

Capacitor Voltage (in A) Rated Voltage (in A) Copper Cable Size**
Rating (kVAr)
(sq.mm)
440 V 415 V 440 V 415 V
1 1.31 1.39 1.92 2.03 0.5
2 2.62 2.78 3.83 4.06 0.5
3 3.94 4.17 5.75 6.09 0.75
4 5.25 5.56 7.66 8.12 1
5 6.56 6.96 9.58 10.16 1
6 7.87 8.35 11.49 12.19 2.5
7.5 9.84 10.43 14.37 15.23 2.5
8.3 10.89 11.55 15.90 16.86 2.5
10 13.12 13.91 19.16 20.31 4
12.5 16.40 17.39 23.95 25.39 4
15 19.68 20.87 28.74 30.47 6
20 26.24 27.82 38.32 40.62 10
25 32.80 34.78 47.90 50.78 16
30 39.37 41.74 57.47 60.94 25
50 65.61 69.56 95.79 101.56 50.0 / 2x25*
75 98.41 104.34 143.69 152.34 70
100 131.22 139.12 191.58 203.12 95
**Cross section values mentioned above are guidelines that are valid for operation under normal conditions and at ambient
temperature of 40°C.
Busbar selection in APFC panels can be done with the standard calculations for short circuit withstand
capability and temperature rise (current density). The only assumption is that the rated current should be
considered as 146% of the total capacitor rated current.
It is recommended to use capacitor duty contactors to reduce the magnitude of peak inrush current. This will
reduce the thermal and electrical stress in the capacitors, cables and switchgear, which happens during each
switching cycle. This also prevents the premature failure of capacitors and nuisance tripping of short circuit
protection device. The above special selection for cables will also overcome the heating and losses that happen
because of skin effect.
97 THERMAL DESIGN OF APFC PANELS
The life of the power capacitors and other equipments in APFC panels depend very much on the operating
temperature. In panels with detuned harmonic filter reactors and thyristor switches, the chances of elevated
temperature are high, as these equipments generate relatively more heat.
Hence in order to maximise the life of the capacitors and other important equipments in the APFC panel, the
temperature must not be allowed to increase beyond certain limit. This article briefs some guidelines about the
thermal design of APFC panels and thereby dissipating the generated heat effectively.
For any panel, the temperature rise can be reduced by the following three ways:
n Operating at lower ambient temperature
n Using devices with lower power loss
n Dissipating the excess heat, so that temperature rise is controlled
There is minimal control over the first two conditions. But the third condition completely depends upon the
design of the panel. By offering effective cooling methods, the excess heat generated by the equipments can
be dissipated.
Selection of the cooling methods can decided based on the internal temperature rise inside the panel. The
maximum internal temperature can be calculated using the following formula:
Pd
Internal Temperature (Ti ) = + Ta
kxS
Where, Pd = Total power dissipated in the panel (in watts)

k = constant defined by the material used to manufacture the enclosure
2
For painted sheet-steel enclosure, k = 5.5 W/m °C
2
S = effective surface area of the panel (in m )
Ta = Ambient temperature (in °C)
If the temperature rise (Ti – Ta) is within the acceptable limits, natural cooling would be sufficient; else forced
cooling method should be employed for dissipating excessive heat.
1. Natural Cooling
In most of PCCs and MCCs, the temperature rise remains under desirable limits with natural circulation of air
(through natural convection and radiation). The air circulation happens through some slots in the enclosure,
called the louvers. When temperature rises inside the panel, the pressure of the air increases and the density
reduces.
Hence the hot air tends to move upwards. The hot air would go out through the louvers provided at the top
side of the panel. Fresh cold air would enter the panel through the louvers provided at the bottom. This is
represented in Figure 1.
Figure 2 represents the common usage of extra louvers in-between the top and bottom louvers.
The common misconception behind this is that, extra louver would increase the volume of air flow. Practically,
this does not happen because the volume of the panel is fixed.
This results in the reduced air flow at the bottom section of the panel, as some air enters through the middle
louvers. Hence, the temperature of the lower section of the panel will be higher than the upper section.
It is recommended to follow the panel design as per the Figure 1.
98
Figure 1 Figure 2
LOUVERS LOUVERS
Hotl Air Outlet
Reduced rate
of air flow,
hence, over
Cool Air Inlet heating
PLINTH PLINTH
SIDE VIEW SIDE VIEW
2. Forced Cooling
In most of the APFC panels and in some MCC and PCC panels, the above method would not offer sufficient
cooling. In order to maintain the desired temperature levels (ambient temperature + allowed temperature
rise), forced cooling methods (using fans at the top) should be employed, which would increase the rate of air
flow.
In Figure 3 the cold air enters through the bottom louvers, flows through all the equipments and they are
forced out of the panel through fans. Hence, temperature rise in the panel is kept under check and there are no
hot spots/sections.
In Figure 4 provision of additional louvers, actually disturbs the uniformity of the flow. Major chunk of cold air
would enter through the top louver and result in “short cycling”. So the bottom section of the panel would see
higher temperature rise.
Figure 3 Figure 4
LOUVERS
Hotl Air Outlet
Forced out via Fan
Reduced rate
of air flow,
hence, over
Cool Air Inlet heating
PLINTH PLINTH
SIDE VIEW SIDE VIEW

99
Fan Selection for Forced Cooling

Fan selection is based on the rate of air flow, which is measured in m3/h or Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM),
where 1 CFM = 1.7 x 1 m3/h. Following is the formula to calculate air flow rate:
P d - [k x S (T d - T a )]
Q = Cx
(T d - T a )
Where,
Q = Air flow rate (in m3/h)
C = Coefficient related to the altitude above the sea level
Altitude (in meters) C
0 to 100 3.1
101 to 250 3.2
251 to 500 3.3
501 to 750 3.4
751 to 1000 3.5
Pd = total power loss (watts) inside the panel, by summing up the power loss of individual
devices like capacitors, reactors, thyristor switches, contactors,
bus bars, joints and so on.
k = constant defined by the material used to manufacture the enclosure.
For painted sheet-steel enclosure, k = 5.5 W/m2 °C
S = Open surface area of the panel (in sq. m) can be calculated using one of the below formulas:
Formula for Calculating S (in sq. m)

Position of the Enclosure as per IEC 890
accessible on all sides S = 1.8 x H x (W + D) + 1.4 x W x D
placed against a wall S = 1.4 x W x (H + D) + 1.8 x D x H
end of a row of enclosures S = 1.4 x D x (H + W) + 1.8 x W x H
end of a row of enclosures with back

S = 1.4 x H x (W + D) + 1.4 x W x D
against the wall
intermediate in a row of enclosures S = 1.8 x W x H + 1.4 x W x D + D x H
intermediate in a row of enclosures with S = 1.4 x W x (H + D) + D x H

the back against the wall
intermediate in a row of enclosures back S = 1.4 x W x H + 0.7 x W x D + D x H

against the wall with top part covered
Td = Desired Maximum temperature inside the enclosure

Ta = Ambient temperature
100
This is a simple method of thermal management and fan selection, which is suitable for majority of the
panels. At the same time, some other aspects like position of mounting various equipments in the APFC
panel should be taken care.
Recommendations
Capacitors should be kept below the reactors, which are the major heat sources. This is because the
n
elevated temperature would reduce the life of the capacitors
The reactors should be mounted in the zigzag position (as shown in the below figure), in order to ensure
n
better heat flow. If the reactors are kept one above other, the bottom most reactors would heat up the
other reactors that are mounted above them
Thyristor switching modules should be mounted vertically (position of heat sink should be parallel to the
n
air flow direction) and in zigzag positions
It is recommended to use copper reactors, which have lower power loss than aluminium reactors
n
50 kVAr 50 kVAr
50 kVAr 50 kVAr
Zig-zag arrangement
of reactors
Reactors
25 kVAr 25 kVAr 7% Detuned
Capacitors 480V
Capacitors kept
below the major
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 heat source
kVAr kVAr kVAr kVAr kVAr kVAr kVAr kVAr (reactors)
PLINTH
Hence, in APFC panels, a proper thermal design would pave way for maximising the life of important
equipments like capacitors, thyristor switches, reactors and other switchgear.
101 etaPRO v2.2 - MULTI UTILITY SOFTWARE PACKAGE
etaPRO is an innovative, multi-utility and user friendly software package, related to Reactive Power Management.
The users will get the benefit of easy and error free selection of products.
Features
KVAR
n CALCULATION
Easy calculation of capacitor kVAr rating
if initial power factor and final power
factor are known
DETUNED
n HARMONIC FILTER SELECTION
Selection of right capacitor-reactor
combination (detuned harmonic filter)
and the catalogue numbers
PAYBACK
n CALCULATION
Monthly payback calculation, after
improving the power factor to the
desired level
102
APFC
n PANEL BILL OF MATERIALS GENERATION
generation of bill of materials, covering capacitor
selection, switchgear selection, switching device
selection. The output gives the catalogue numbers
and MRP of all the items in the panel, that can be
exported to excel format.
Ø BoM generation up to 1400 kVAr APFC Panels
with maximum 14 steps
Ø Auto-calculation of rated incomer and branch
currents
Ø Switchgear selection options for main incomer
(ACB, MCCB and SDF) and branch protection
(MCCB, SDF, HRC Fuse and MCB)
Ø Accessories selection for the selected switchgear
Ø Capacitors and reactor selection
Ø Instant catalogue access for selected
switchgear/capacitors
Ø Final BoM in two forms:
l Branch-wise list of items
l Consolidated list of items
TECHNICAL
n ARTICLES AND PRESENTATIONS
24 technical articles and technical presentations
related to reactive power and harmonic management
Benefits
End customers and panel builders will be benefitted by the following ways:
n Easy selection of capacitors and reactors
n Error free switchgear ratings selection
n Time saving while preparing APFC quotations
n Optimum step size selection
n Automatic selection of capacitor-reactor combinations
n BoM can be exported to Microsoft Excel format
For download, visit www.LNTEBG.com/etaPRO

Note
Aimed at maximizing productivity, conserving energy, minimizing costs and enhancing safety, our
Electrical & Automation training programmes have benefitted over 1.35 Lakh professionals in the
last 28 years. These training programmes are highly beneficial as they provide right exposure and
impart knowledge on selection, installation, maintenance and testing of Electrical & Automation
Products.
So gain the advantage and go the extra mile with:

22 courses on contemporary topics
Courses applicable to all switchgear brands
Training Centers in Pune, Lucknow, Coonoor, Vadodara, Delhi & Kolkata
Blend of theory and practical experience
The typical training programmes cover:

Low Voltage & Medium Voltage Switchgear
Switchboard Electrical Design
AC Drives & Building Management Solutions
Protective Relays, Earthing, Reactive Power Management & Harmonics
Energy Conservation & Management
Please contact any of the training centres for participation and detailed training programme schedule.
Pune Lucknow Coonoor

Larsen & Toubro Limited Larsen & Toubro Limited Larsen & Toubro Limited
Switchgear Training Centre, Switchgear Training Centre, Switchgear Training Centre,
T-156/157, MIDC C - 6 & 7, UPSIDC Ooty-Coonoor Main Road
Bhosari, Pune - 411 026 P. O. Sarojininagar, Lucknow - 226 008 Yellanahalli P.O., The Nilgiris - 643 243
Tel: 020 2712 0037 / 2712 0653 Tel: 0522 247 6015 / 97944 54455 Tel. : 0423 251 7107
Fax: 020 2712 2933 Fax: 0522 247 6015 Fax : 0423 251 7158
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Vadodara Delhi Kolkata

Larsen & Toubro Limited Larsen & Toubro Ltd Larsen & Toubro Limited
Switchgear Training Centre Switchgear Training Centre Switchgear Training Centre
Behind L&T Knowledge City, 32, Shivaji Marg, 4th Floor, 3B, Shakespeare Sarani,
Near Village Ankhol, Near Motinagar Metro Station, Kolkata - 700071
Vadodara - 390019 New Delhi - 110015 Tel: 033 42005975 / 42005978
Tel: 0265 2457805 Tel: 011 41419515 / 41419695 / 41419500 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 011 41419600
E-mail: [email protected]
Electrical Standard Products (ESP) Offices:
HEAD OFFICE Khairasol, Degaul Avenue L&T Business Park,

L&T Business Park, Durgapur 713 212 Tower 'B' / 5th Floor
Tower 'B' / 3rd Floor Tel: 0343-2540448 / 2540449 / 2540443 Saki Vihar Road, Powai
Saki Vihar Road, Powai Fax: 0343-2540442 Mumbai 400 072
Mumbai 400 072 e-mail: [email protected] Tel: 022-67052874 / 2737 / 1156
Tel: 022-67053229 Fax: 022-67051112
Fax: 022-67051112 5, Milanpur Road, Bamuni Maidan e-mail: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected] Guwahati 781 021
Tel: +91 8876554410 / 8876554417 12, Shivaji Nagar
BRANCH OFFICES Fax: 361-2551308 North Ambajhari Road
501, Sakar Complex I e-mail: [email protected] Nagpur 440 010
Opp. Gandhigram Rly. Station Tel: 0712-2260012 / 6606421
Ashram Road II Floor, Vasantha Chambers Fax: 2260030 / 6606434
Ahmedabad 380 009
5-10-173, Fateh Maidan Road e-mail: [email protected]
Tel: 079-66304006-11
Hyderabad 500 004
Fax: 079-66304025
e-mail: [email protected] Tel: 040-67015052 32, Shivaji Marg
Fax: 040-23296468 P. O. Box 6223
38, Cubbon Road, P. O. Box 5098 e-mail: [email protected] New Delhi 110 015
Bengaluru 560 001 Tel: 011-41419514 / 5 / 6
Tel: 080-25020100 / 25020324 Monarch Building, 1st Floor Fax: 011-41419600
Fax: 080-25580525 D-236 & 237, Amrapali Marg e-mail: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected] Vaishali Nagar
Jaipur 302 021 L&T House
131/1, Zone II Tel: 0141-4385914 to 18 P. O. Box 119
Maharana Pratap Nagar Fax: 0141-4385925 191/1, Dhole Patil Road
Bhopal 462 011 e-mail: [email protected] Pune 411 001
Tel: 0755-3080511 / 05 / 08 / 13 / 17 / 19 Tel: 020-66033395 / 66033279
Fax: 0755-3080502 Akashdeep Plaza, 2nd Floor Fax: 020-26164048 / 26164910
e-mail: [email protected] P. O. Golmuri e-mail: [email protected]
Jamshedpur 831 003
Plot No. 559, Annapurna Complex Jharkhand Crystal Tower,
Lewis Road Tel: 0657-2312205 / 38 4th Floor, G. E. Road
Bhubaneswar 751 014 Fax: 0657-2341250 Telibandha
Tel: 0674-6451342 / 2436690 / 2436696 e-mail: [email protected] Raipur - 492 006
Fax: 0674-2537309 Tel: 0771-4283214
e-mail: [email protected] Skybright Bldg; M. G. Road e-mail: [email protected]
Ravipuram Junction, Ernakulam
Aspire Towers, 4th Floor Kochi 682 016 3rd Floor
Plot No. 55, Phase-I Tel: 0484-4409420 / 4 / 5 / 7 Vishwakarma Chambers
Industrial & Business Park Fax: 0484-4409426 Majura Gate, Ring Road
Chandigarh-160 002
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Tel: 0172-4646840 / 41 / 42 / 46 / 53
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Email: [email protected] 3-B, Shakespeare Sarani Fax: 0261-2477078
Kolkata 700 071 e-mail: [email protected]
L&T Construction Campus Tel: 033-42005982
TC-1 Building, II Floor Fax: 033-22821025 / 7587 Radhadaya Complex
Mount-Poonamallee Road e-mail: [email protected] Old Padra Road
Manapakkam Near Charotar Society
Chennai 600 089 A28, Indira Nagar, Faizabad Road Vadodara 390 007
Tel: 044-2270 6800 Lucknow 226 016 Tel: 0265-6613610 / 1 / 2
Fax: 044-22706940 Tel: 0522-4929905 / 04 Fax: 0265-2336184
e-mail: [email protected] Fax: 0522-2311671 e-mail: [email protected]
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67, Appuswamy Road Door No. 49-38-14/3/2, 1st floor,
Post Bag 7156 No: 73, Karpaga Nagar, 8th Street NGGO's Colony, Akkayyapalem,
Opp. Nirmala College K. Pudur Visakhapatnam - 530 016
Coimbatore 641 045 Madurai 625 007 Tel: 0891-2791126 / 2711125
Tel: 0422-2588120 / 1 / 5 Tel: 0452-2567405 / 2561068 / 2561657 Fax: 0891-2791100
Fax: 0422-2588148 Fax: 0452-2567552 Email: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Product improvement is a continuous process. For the latest information and special applications, please contact any of our offices listed here.
Larsen & Toubro Limited, Electrical Standard Products

Powai Campus, Mumbai 400 072
Customer Interaction Center (CIC)

BSNL / MTNL (toll free) : 1800 233 5858 Reliance (toll free) : 1800 200 5858
Tel : 022 6774 5858, Fax : 022 6774 5859
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SP 50481 R4

Power Quality Solutions - Catalogue

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L&T Switchgear, a part of the Electrical &

It offers a complete range of products including

Switchgear Factory, Vadodara

Power Factor Correction

Capacitor Switching in APFC Panel 52

etaCON - APFC Controller 66

etaSYS - Standard APFC Panels 84

etaPRO V2.2 - Multi-utility Software Package 101

Standard Duty Heavy Duty Standard Duty Heavy Duty LTXL:

MPP Advanced APP

Detuned Harmonic Filter Reactor Active Harmonic Filter

Thyristor Switching Modules Capacitor Duty Contactors -

etaCON L series APFC relay

etaSYS APFC Panels

Principles of Power Factor Correction

Supply Bus Supply Bus

Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3:

Benefits of Power Factor Correction

Distribution HT Capacitor Distribution

Fig 1: Compensation on HT Side Fig 2: Compensation on LT Side

Reduction in Transformer Copper Losses

Power Saving (in W) = 25000*0.6*(1/.75-1/.98) = 4694 W

Capacity Release in Transformer

Cast 1: When compensation is provided on HT side, operating PF of transformer = 0.75

Cast 2: When compensation is provided on LT side, operating PF of transformer = 0.98

Optimized Main Incomer Switchgear Rating

MPP (Metalized Poly-Propylene)

Polypropylene Film Electrodes (metallized)

Self - Healing Breakdown

Torn - off Condition

Where, Q is the reactive power rating of the capacitor (in VAr).

Normally, the tan d

If the capacitor is re-switched without discharging

Formula to calculate the resistance is:

For example, if a capacitor is rated for 30 kVAr at 480 V,

Selection of Capacitors when System Voltage is 415 V

• 10% over-voltage for 12 hours in every 24 hours

IS 13340-2012, IS 13341-1992, IS 13340-2012, IS 13341-1992,

+10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h), +10% (12h/24h), +15% (30m/24h),

Power rating Dimensions

4 440 V 4 5 65.77 5.25 165 63.5 LTCCF304B2

5 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 225 63.5 LTCCF305B2 d

6 440 V 6 7 98.65 7.87 225 63.5 LTCCF306B2

11 440 V 15 18 246.62 19.68 270 85 LTCCD315B2

13 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 345 90 LTCCD325B2

1 440 V 1 1 16.44 1.31 125 140 40 LTBCF301B2 D±5

2 440 V 2 2 32.88 2.62 125 140 40 LTBCF302B2

3 440 V 3 4 49.32 3.94 145 170 50 LTBCF303B2

4 440 V 4 5 65.77 5.25 145 170 50 LTBCF304B2

5 440 V 5 6 82.21 6.56 175 170 50 LTBCF305B2

6 440 V 6 7 98.65 7.87 175 170 50 LTBCF306B2

7 440 V 7.5 9 123.31 9.84 300 240 80 LTBCD307B2

9 440 V 10 12 164.42 13.12 300 240 80 LTBCD310B2

10 440 V 12.5 15 205.52 16.40 300 240 80 LTBCD312B2

13 440 V 25 30 411.04 32.80 300 240 160 LTBCD325B2

14 440 V 30 36 493.25 39.37 300 240 160 LTBCD330B2 EMBOSSING

IS 13340-1993, IS 13341-1992, IS 13340-1993, IS 13341-1992,

Rated Frequency 50Hz 50Hz

Power Saving (in W) = 250000.6(1/.75-1/.98) = 4694 W