BIOLOGY

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Called the energy currency of the cell.
 It is the organic compound composed of the phosphate groups, adenine, and the sugar ribose. These
molecules provide energy for various biochemical processes in the body. Therefore, it is called “Energy
Currency of the Cell”.
 These ATP molecules are synthesized by Mitochondria, therefore it is called powerhouse of the cell.
 ATP is a type of nucleic acids (like DNA and RNA)
 It contains high energy phosphate bonds that store and release energy.
 mainly composed of the molecule adenosine and three phosphate groups. It is soluble in water and has a
high energy content, which is primarily due to the presence of two phosphoanhydride bonds connected
to the three phosphate groups.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living things.
 ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel
other cellular processes.
 Cells require chemical energy for three general types of tasks: to drive metabolic reactions that would
not occur automatically; to transport needed substances across membranes; and to do mechanical work,
such as moving muscles. ATP is not a storage molecule for chemical energy; that is the job
of carbohydrates, such as glycogen, and fats. When energy is needed by the cell, it is converted from
storage molecules into ATP. ATP then serves as a shuttle, delivering energy to places within the cell
where energy-consuming activities are taking place.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF ATP

Where does ATP come from?

 ATP comes from the food we eat.
 Molecules of carbohydrates (glucose) and lipids are broken down through the process of cellular
respiration to produce ATP.

At the heart of ATP is a molecule of

 Adenosine Monophosphate composed of an adenine molecule bond to a ribose molecule and to a single
phosphate group.
 ADP also called adenosine diphosphate.

ADDITIONAL!
Adenosine Diphosphate
 A molecule formed in living cells. It is often converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a high-energy
molecule used in various biochemical reactions.
  ADP is made up of adenine (a nucleobase), ribose (a simple sugar), and two phosphate molecules
(phosphorous ions).
 Adenine is a purine base, while adenosine is a nucleoside (base bound to a sugar). Di means "two,"
and phosphate is a charged ion that contains the mineral phosphate. Therefore, ADP's name denotes
that it contains two phosphate ions.

Phosphorylation
 ATP is able to power cellular processes by transferring a phosphate group to another molecule.

Oxidation
 According to electronic concept oxidation is defined as the process in which an atom or ion loses one or
more electrons.
 Original meaning was combining with oxygen

Reduction
 According to electronic concept reduction is defined as the process in which an atom or ion gains one or
more electrons.
 Original meaning was removing oxygen.
LEO says GER or OIL RIG
Losing
Electron
Oxidation
says
Gaining
Electron
Reduction

NAD
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

Task of ATP
1. Chemical Work
 ATP is used for building macromolecules.

2. Transport Work
 ATP is used for transporting ion membranes.

3. Mechanical Work
 ATP is used for mechanical processes such as muscle contraction, cilia movement.

NADH
 Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

COMPONENTS OF NUCLEOTIDES
 Phosphate group
 Sugar
 Nitrogenous base
COMPONENTS OF ATP
 Nitrogenous base (adenine)
 Ribose sugar
 Three bonded phosphate group
 Alpha
 Beta
 Gamma

CELLULAR PROCESSES
1. Protein synthesis
2. DNA replication
3. Cellular division

ADP-ATP Cycle

 Cell break phosphate bonds between the last two phosphate groups in a molecule of ATP as needed to
supply energy for most cellular functions. When this happens a molecule of Adenosine Diphosphate
(ADP) and a phosphate become available for reuse.
 When any of the phosphate bonds are broken or formed energy is involved.
 Energy is released each time a phosphate is removed from the molecules.
 Energy is stored each time a phosphate attaches to the molecule

Steps in ADP-ATP Cycle

 To supply cells with energy a “high energy” bonds in ATP is broken. ADP is formed and a phosphate is
released back into the cytoplasm

How is the Bond Broken?

 Hydrolysis (adding water)
 Available energy is contained in the bonds between the phosphates and is released when they are
broken, which occurs through the addition of a water molecule
 Released by energy
 Assisted by the enzyme ATP Triphosphatase, a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of a
phosphate bond in ATP to from ADP
How ATP is Re-made?
 Another enzyme is used.
 ATP Synthase, enzymes that provides energy for the cell to use through the synthesis of ATP. Uses the
flows of protons (H+) across a membrane to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP to phosphate group. It is
found in mitochondria.

Exergonic
 Reaction is not spontaneous.
 Energy is released.

Endergonic
 Reaction is spontaneous.
 Energy is absorbed.
Did you know?
ATP regeneration happens very fast (10M molecules of ATP used and regenerated per second

Electron Transport Chain Location

 The electron transport chain is located within mitochondria, and the proteins of the electron transport
chain span the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Electrons & Energy
 The removal of an electron from a molecule results in a decrease in potential energy in the oxidized
compound.
 The electron that is removed is shifted to a second compound, reducing the second compound.

Electrons
 The transfer of electrons between molecules is important because most of the energy stored in atoms
and used to fuel cell functions is in the form of high-energy electrons.
 The electron that is removed is shifted to a second compound, reducing the second compound.

Electron carriers
 Electron shuttles.
 They bind and carry high energy electrons between compounds in pathways.
 The principal electron carriers are derived from B VITAMIN and are derivatives of nucleotides.

Electron Carriers
 Are called coenzymes.
 A coenzyme is an organic non-protein compound that binds with an enzyme to catalyze a reaction.
 Coenzymes are often broadly called cofactors, but they are chemically different. A coenzyme cannot
function alone but can be reused several times when paired with an enzyme.
 Role is to produce ATP.
 The whole process of shuffling electrons around from one molecule to another is called a redox reaction.
The name redox is used because as one carrier molecule gains electrons and is reduced (red-) the other
loses electrons and is oxidized (-ox). Sometimes another term, oxidation-reduction reaction, is used
instead.

ELECTRON CARRIERS
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH+)
 Stands for “nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H)." It occurs naturally in the body and
plays a role in generating energy. The NADH produced by the body is involved in making energy in the
body.
 Taking NADH supplements might affect blood pressure and have other effects.

NADPH+
 The reduced form of NADP+; used in anabolic reactions, such as lipid and nucleic acid synthesis, which
require NADPH as a reducing agent. It has a role as a fundamental metabolite and a cofactor. It is a
NAD(P)H and a NADP. It is a conjugate acid of a NADPH(4-).

Flavin adenine Dinucleotide (FADH2)

 High energy electron carrier used to transport electrons generated in Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle to the
Electron Transport Chain. Glycolysis is the first of the three steps used to breakdown glucose to produce
ATP. Glucose, a 6 carbon sugar, is split into two 3 carbon sugars.

An enzyme without a coenzyme is called an apoenzyme. Without coenzymes or cofactors, enzymes cannot
catalyze reactions effectively. In fact, the enzyme may not function at all. If reactions cannot occur at the
normal catalyzed rate, then an organism will have difficulty sustaining life.
When an enzyme gains a coenzyme, it then becomes a holoenzyme, or active enzyme. Active enzymes change
substrates into the products an organism needs to carry out essential functions, whether chemical or
physiological. Coenzymes, like enzymes, can be reused and recycled without changing reaction rate or
effectiveness.

Cofactors
 Unlike coenzymes, true cofactors are reusable non-protein molecules that do not contain carbon
(inorganic).
 Usually, cofactors are metal ions such as iron, zinc, cobalt, and copper that loosely bind to an enzyme's
active site. They must also be supplemented in the diet as most organisms do not naturally synthesize
metal ions.

NAD → NADH and FAD→FADH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD", is a coenzyme found in all living cells.
In metabolism, NAD+ is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another.
NAD is an oxidizing agent, i.e. an electron acceptor It accepts electrons from other molecules and becomes
reduced to form NADH.
NADH is thus a reducing agent, i.e. an electron donor.
Similarly FAD is an oxidizing agent that accepts electrons to become the reducing agent FADH2,

NADH
 Is vital for cellular respiration.

NADPH
 Is crucial for photosynthesis.

FAD
 Derived from vitamin B.

NADH+ (Reduced NAD)

Holoenzyme can substrate

Apoenzyme
 Enzyme without coenzyme

Coenzyme cannot function alone, lagi

dapat may enzyme na kasama
Enzyme can function but cannot
catalyze reaction effectively.
ADP phosphorylation
 The process of introducing a phosphate group into ADP, adenosine diphosphate, to produce ATP.
 Adition of phosphate group in the process of condensation, phosphoric acid and ADP undergo a
condensation reaction
 ADP+Pi = ATP

Photosynthesis
 process of food making in plants.
 the process by which plants and some other living organisms derive energy from light sources—
usually the sun.
 most important chemical reaction.
 energy for all life on Earth, ultimately comes from photosynthesis

Oxygenic photosynthesis is carried out by:

 cyanobacteria
 7 groups of algae

Photosynthesis is divided into two:

 Light Dependent Reaction (thylakoid membrane)
 capture energy from sunlight.
 make ATP and reduce NADP+ to NADPH.

 Light Independent Reaction/Carbon Fixation Reaction (stroma)

 use ATP and NADPH to synthesize organic molecules from CO2.

NOTE!
o Choloroplast, thylakoid and stroma
o the waste product of plants is oxygen comes from water

Thylakoid Membrane
 the interiors of chloroplasts contain closely packed flattened sacs
 contains chlorophyll and other pigments
Thylakoid membrane
 internal membrane
 contains chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments
 pigments clustered into photosystems

Grana
 stacks of flattened sacs of thylakoid membrane

Stroma lamella
 connect grana

Stroma
 semiliquid surrounding thylakoid membranes

NOTE!
o plants undergo cellular respiration
o grana-plural
o granum-singular

DISCOVERY OF PHOTSYNTHESIS
Jan Baptista van Helmont (1580-1644)
 a Belgian chemist, physiologist and physician.
 Helmont performed a 5-year experiment involving a willow tree which he planted in a pot with soil
and placed in a controlled environment. The willow tree was carefully and precisely watered over
the 5-year period.
 At the end of his experiment Helmont concluded that the growth of the tree was the result of the
nutrients it had received from the water and not the soil.

Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)

 study of oxygen

Jan Ingen-Housz (1730-1799)

 he proved that sunlight is essential for the photosynthesis process during which carbon dioxide is
used and oxygen is produced.

Frederick Frost Blackman (1866-1947)

 Blackman also concluded that photosynthesis must proceed in two separate and coupled
reactions: light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions.
 Blackman theorized that at moderate light intensities, the "light" reaction limits or "paces" the
entire process.

C.B. van Niel (1930)

 proposed general formula: CO2 + H2A + light energy -> CH2O + H2O + 2A, where H2A is the
electron donor
 he identified water as the source of the 02 released from the photosynthesis
 Robin Hill confirmed van Niel’s proposed that energy from the light reactions fuels carbon
fixation.

Proton: a particle of light

 acts as a discrete bundle of energy
 energy content of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light

Photoelectric Effect: removal of an electron from a molecule (chlorophyll, pigment absorb light
energy) by light
occurs when photons transfer energy to electrons

NOTE!
 decrease wavelength - energy increase (made destroy ang cholorophyll)
 700+ -- no photosynthetic activity
 400 nm -- 740 nm --> visible light
 water will become electron donor
 hindi pwedeng mag photosynthesis kapag lumagpas sa visible light (400 nm-740nm)

Pigments
 molecules that absorb visible light.

Absorption spectrum, the range and efficiency of photons, it is capable of absorbing

TYPES OF PIGMENT
1. Carotenoids
 450 highest
 Carbon rings linked to chains with alternating single and double bonds
 Can absorb photons with a wide range of energies
 Also scavenge free radicals – antioxidant (protective role)
 Phycobiloproteins –Important in low-light ocean areas.

2. Chlorophyll A
 450-800, primary pigment in plants and cyanobacteria (chlorophyll D)
absorb violet-blue and red light

3. Chlorophyll B
 secondary pigment
 absorbing light wavelengths that chlorophyll A does not absorb

Visible Light
 700 nm (other 740) wavelength of light
 400 nm - plant physiologist refer to this range as photosynthetically active radiation

STRUCTURE OF Pigments
Porphyrin Ring
 complex ring structure with alternating double and single bonds
 magnesium ion at the center of the ring
 photons excite electrons in the ring
 electrons are shuttle away from the ring

Accesory Pigments
 secondary pigments absorbing light wavelengths other than those absorbed by chlorophyll A
 increase the range of the light wavelengths that can be used in photsynthesis
 Include: chlorophyll B, carotenoids (also acts as antioxidants), and phycobiloproteins

Photosystem Organization
a phtosystem consists of
1. an antenna complex of hundreds accessory pigment molecules
2. a reaction center of one of the most chlorophyll A molecules
Energy of electrons is transferred through the antenna complex to the reaction center. At the reaction
center, the energy from the antenna complex is transferred to chlorophyll a. This energy causes an
electron from chlorophyll to become excited. The excited electron is transferred from chlorophyll a to
an electron acceptor. Water donates an electron to chlorophyll a to replace the excited electron.

Chlorophyll A -- a reaction center

Light Dependent Reaction

 requires light
 convert light energy into chemical energy
 capture energy from sunlight
 make ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH
 The goal of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis is to collect energy from the sun and
break down water molecules to produce ATP and NADPH.

FOUR STAGES
1. Primary Photoevent
 light energy absorb by a pigment molecule (chlorophyll)

2. Charge Separation
 energy is transferred to the reaction center; an excited electron is transferred to an acceptor
molecules.
 splitting of water molecules with the aid of light (photolysis).

3. Electron Transport
 electron move through carriers to reduce NADP+
 release of energy.

4. Chemiosmosis
 there is ATP production
 formation of energy-carrying molecules - ATP and NADPH

Cyclic Photophosphorylation
 In sulfur bacteria, only one photosystem is used
 1. an electron joins a proton to produce hydrogen
 2. an electron is recycled to cholorophyll
o this process drives the chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP
 only one photosystem is used Generates ATP via electron transport
 Anoxygenic photosynthesis
 Excited electron passed to electron transport chain
 Generates a proton gradient for ATP synthesis Cyclic photophosphorylation
In chloroplast, two linked photosystems are used in noncyclic photophosphorylation
1. Photosystem ll
 reaction center pigment (P680) has a peak absorption
 at 680nm

2. Phtosystem l
 (P700) with a peak absorption at 700 nm

Convert light energy into chemical energy.

The goal of the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis is to collect energy from the sun
and break down water molecules to produce
ATP and NADPH. These two energy-storing
molecules are then used in the light-
independent reactions.
Photosystem ll acts first:
 accesory pigments shuttle energy to the P680 reaction center
 excited electrons from P680 are transferred to b6-f complex (electron carriers)
 electron lost from P680 is replaced by an electron released from the splitting of water

The b6-f complex is a series of electron carriers

 electron carrier molecules are embedded in the thylakoid membrane
 protons are pumped into the thylakoid space to form a proton gradient

Photosystem l
 it receives energy from an antenna complex
 energy is shuttled to P700 reaction center
 excited electron is transferred to a membrane-bound electron carrier
 electrons are used to reduce NADP to NADPH
 electrons lost from P700 are replaced from the b6-f complex

ATP is produced via chemiosmosis

 ATP synthase is embedded in the thylakoid membrane
 protons have accumulated in the thylakoid space
 protons move into the stroma only through ATP synthase
 ATP is produced from ADP + Pi, pores of plant (stomata/stoma); pores of plant is the opening of the plants
and the exit of waste material

Photolysis
 water is split with the aid of light.

Stroma
 part of the chloroplast where Light Independent happens
CALVIN CYCLE PHASES
1. Carbon Fixation or Light Independent Reactions
 does not require light
 use ATP and NADPh to synthesize organic molecules from CO2
 This step makes a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a three-carbon
compound, 3-phosphoglycer aldehyde (3-PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme Ribulose
Bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, or rubisco.

2. Carbon Reduction
 In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA molecules into molecules of a
three-carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its name because NADPH
donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate to make G3P.

3. Carbon Regeneration
 glucose, while others must be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires
ATP and involves a complex network of reactions, which my college bio professor liked to call the
"carbohydrate scramble."

RuBH is a 5 Carbon molecule

Calvin Cycle
 biochemical pathway that allows for carbon fixation
 Occurs in stroma
 Uses ATP and NADPH as energy sources
 Incorporates CO2 into organic molecule

To build carbohydrates, cells need:

1. Energy
ATP from light-dependent reactions

2. Reduction Potential
NADPH from photosystem 1
Carbon Fixation
 the incorporation of CO2 into organic molecules
 occurs in the first step of Calvin Cycle
 ribulose-bis-phosphate + CO2  2PGA
 5 carbon. 1 carbon. 6
 Catalyze by enzyme Ribulose Bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco)

The Calvin Cycle has Three Phases

1. Carbon Fixation
RuBP + CO2  2 molecules PGA

2. Reduction
PGA is reduced to G3P

3. Regeneration of RuBPH
G3P is used to regenerate RuBP

Glucose is not a direct product of Calvin Cycle

 2 molecules of G3P leave the cycle
 Each G3P contains 3 carbons
 2 G3P are used to produce 1 glucose in reactions in the cytoplasm
 Energy is needed

The energy is supplied from

 18 ATP molecules
 12 NADPH molecules

The Energy Cycle

 Photosynthesis uses the products of respiration as starting substrates
 Respiration uses the products of photosynthesis as starting substrates

PHOTORESPIRATION
RuBisCo has 2 enzymatic activities
1. Carboxylation
 The addition of CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RUBP)
 Favored under normal condition.

2. Photorespiration
 The oxidation of ribulose bisphosphate (RUBP) by the addition of O2.
 Favored in hot conditions.

 CO2 and 02 compete for the active site on ribulose bisphosphate (RUBP)
 Some plants can avoid photorespiration by using an enzyme RuBisCo

Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) Carboxylase

 CO2 is added to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
 A carbon compound is produced.
 CO2 is later released from this 4 carbon compound and used by RuBisCo in the Calvin
Cycle.

C4 Plants
 Use phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to capture CO2.
 CO2 is added to PEP in one cell type (mesophyll cell).
 The resulting 4-carbon compound is moved into bundle sheath where the CO2 is released
and used in the Calvin Cycle.
 4 carbon – oxaloacetate.
 Corn is C4 mechanism.

Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Plants

 CO2 is captured at night when stomata are open.
 PEP carboxylase adds CO2 to PEP to produce a 4 carbon compound.
 The compound releases CO2 during the day.
 Co2 is used by RuBisCo in the Calvin Cycle.
 Pineapple is CAM mechanism.

 PS. C4 and Cam have the same mechanism but different time to absorb the CO2

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 The process in which organisms take molecules broken down from food and release the
chemical energy stored in the chemical bonds of those molecules.
 It’s important to remember that food is not the direct source of energy.
 The energy that is released from chemical bonds during cellular respiration is stored in
molecules of ATP.
 Exergonic Reaction

What types of organisms undergo cellular respiration?

While only autotrophs undergo photosynthesis both

Heterotrophs (an organism that only undergo cellular respiration)

Autotrophs
Undergo cellular respiration.

What types of molecules are broken down?

Any food (organic) molecule, or nutrient,

including carbohydrates, fats/lipids, and proteins
can be processed and broken down as a source
of energy to produce ATP.

NOTE!
 Carbohydrate is the main source of energy

What will the ATP be used for?

 ATP will release energy for cellular metabolic processes.
 Examples:
1) Active transport of molecules across the cell membrane.
2) Protein synthesis
3) Muscle contractions

Cellular
Respiration and
Photosynthesis
 Notice that the cellular
respiration equation is
the breakdown of
 those molecules made through photosynthesis and that it also uses the waste products of
photosynthesis.
 Notice that photosynthesis uses those products made by cellular respiration.
 This is representative of a cycle.

BIOCHEMICAL
PATHWAY
 Cellular Respiration is a
biochemical pathway just like
photosynthesis in which each
step (chemical reaction) of the
process is dependent on the
products of the previous step.
 The cellular respiration equation represents many steps that have taken place.
 Overall, cellular respiration is a process that is aerobic.
 Some steps within the process of cellular respiration do not require the presence of oxygen
and are therefore anaerobic.

Where does cellular respiration occur?

 Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria of the eukaryotic cell.
 Recall that the mitochondria is
considered to be the
“powerhouse” of the cell
because it produces the
majority of a cell’s ATP.

Parts of the
Mitochondria

 Many similarities exist between

the chloroplast and the
mitochondria
 Mitochondria has a double
membrane.
 Mitochondria have their own DNA and only come from preexisting mitochondria.
 Mitochondria have a smooth outer membrane.
 Mitochondria have a folded inner-membrane called the cristae.
 A folded inner membrane allows more surface area for chemical reactions to occur.
 Mitochondria have a center called the matrix.

Glucose
 glucose is used as the example for cellular respiration.

Three Major Steps in Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis (anaerobic)
2. Krebs Cycle (aerobic)
3. Electron Transport Chain (aerobic)

Energy Carriers Found in Cellular Respiration

 ATP
 NADH (similar to NADPH in photosynthesis)
 FADH2

Glycolysis
 is an anaerobic step in the cellular respiration pathway.
 takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell and is a series of reaction using enzymes.
 is the splitting of a molecule of glucose.
 The percentage of ATP production directly and indirectly is 20%.
 The products of glycolysis are broken down in the mitochondria to make more ATP
 Glucose --> glycolysis --> ATP
What are the products of glycolysis?
 When a molecule of glucose is split, 2 pyruvate molecules, 2 NADH molecules, and 4 ATP
are produced.
 Glycolysis makes 4 molecules of ATP for other reaction to occur. Therefore glycolysis yields
a net of 2 ATP molecules.
 When glucose split, pyruvic acid, NADH, and ATP are produced.
What moves on to the next stage?
 Pyruvic acid is the main goal of glycolysis and these molecules will move on to the Krebs
Cycle
 Pyruvic Acid --> Krebs Cycle
 NADH --> Electric Transport Chain
 ATP --> Usable Energy

Glycolysis
 Anaerobic.
 Splitting/breaking down of glucose molecule.
 Occurs in the cytoplasm.
 There are 2 phases with 10 steps.

Energy Investment Phase (preparatory/Energy requiring phase)

 First five steps (first half).
 Starting material: glucose (ATP).
 End Material: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P/GA3P).
 2 ATP --> 2 ADP.
 O NADH.

STEP 1
 The first step in glycolysis is catalyzed by hexokinase, an enzyme with broad specificity
that catalyzes the phosphorylation of six-carbon sugars.
 Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose using ATP as the source of the phosphate, producing
glucose-6-phosphate, a more reactive form of glucose.
NOTE!
 If phosphorylation nagdadagdag ng phosphate
 Glucose--> 6 glucose --> 6 phosphate
 6C hexokinase

STEP 2
 an isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into one of its isomers, fructose-6-phosphate.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of a molecule into one of its isomers (same
number of atoms but different arrangement) is an isomerase.
 This change from phosphoglucose to phosphofructose allows the eventual split of the
sugar into two three-carbon molecules.

STEP 3
 The third step is the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme
phosphofructokinase. A second ATP molecule donates a high-energy phosphate to
fructose-6-phosphate, producing fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.

STEP 4
 The newly-added high-energy phosphates further destabilize fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
The fourth step in glycolysis employs an enzyme, aldolase (split into 2), to cleave 1,6-
bisphosphate into two three-carbon isomers: dihydroxyacetone-phosphate and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

STEP 5
 an isomerase - triose phosphate isomerase transforms the dihydroxyacetone-phosphate
into its isomer, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Thus, the pathway will continue with two
molecules of a single isomer.
 At this point in the pathway, there is a net investment of energy from two ATP molecules
in the breakdown of one glucose molecule.

NOTE!
 STEP 1 and STEP 3 gagamit ng ATP
 Dihydroxyacetone-phosphate is the isomer

Energy Payoff Phase

 Energy yielding.
 2nd five steps.
 Starting material: 2 G3Ps.
 End material: 2 Pyr (pyruvate acid)
 4 ADP --> 4 ATP.
 2 NADHP.
STEP 6
 The sixth step in glycolysis oxidizes the sugar (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate), extracting
high-energy electrons, which are picked up by the electron carrier NAD+, producing
NADH.
 The sugar is then phosphorylated by the addition of a second phosphate group,
producing 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
 Note that the second phosphate group does not require another ATP molecule.

STEP 7
 catalyzed by phosphoglycerate kinase (an enzyme named for the reverse reaction), 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate donates a high-energy phosphate to ADP, forming one molecule of
ATP. (This is an example of substrate-level phosphorylation. )
 A carbonyl group on the 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is oxidized to a carboxyl group, and 3-
phosphoglycerate is formed.

STEP 8
 the remaining phosphate group in 3-phosphoglycerate moves from the third carbon to
the second carbon, producing 2-phosphoglycerate (an isomer of 3-phosphoglycerate).
 The enzyme catalyzing this step is a mutase (isomerase).

STEP 9
 Enolase catalyzes the ninth step. This enzyme causes 2-phosphoglycerate to lose water
from its structure; this is a dehydration reaction, resulting in the formation of a double
bond that increases the potential energy in the remaining phosphate bond and produces
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

STEP 10
 The last step in glycolysis is catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate kinase (the enzyme in this
case is named for the reverse reaction of pyruvate’s conversion into PEP) and results in
the production of a second ATP molecule by substrate-level phosphorylation and the
compound pyruvic acid (or its salt form, pyruvate(3-C)).

Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency

 Pyruvate kinase deficiency is an inherited lack of the enzyme pyruvate kinase, which is
used by red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the body’s tissue.
 Without this enzyme, red blood cells break down too easily, resulting in a low level of
these cells (hemolytic anemia).

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION!
Kinase
 Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate and
ADP to pyruvate and ATP in glycolysis and plays a role in regulating cell metabolism.
 Step 1
 Step 3
 Step 7
 Step 10

Isomerase
 an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of a specified compound to an isomer.
 Step 2
 Step 5
 Step 8

Aldolase
 Aldolase is a protein (called an enzyme) that helps break down certain sugars to produce
energy.
 Step 4

Enolase
 Enolases are metalloenzymes typically localized in the cytosol that participate in
glycolysis by converting 2-phospho-d-glycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate.
 Step 9

KREBS CYCLE
PRE KREBS CYCLE
(Acetyl-CoA)
 Before pyruvic acid enters the Krebs Cycle, it combines with an enzyme called Coenzyme
A (CoA).
 This reaction produces a molecule of Acetyl CoA.
 Acetyl CoA is a molecule produced by almost all nutrients (carb., protein, lipids) before
entering the Krebs cycle.
 Pyruvate formed in glycolysis, it enters the mitochondrial matrix

Pathway to the Krebs Cycle

(citric acid cycle)
Glycolysis
↓
Pyruvic Acid
↓
Acetyl CoA
 ↓
Krebs Cycle

Pyruvate Oxidation
Steps
Pyruvate is produced by glycolysis
in the cytoplasm, but pyruvate
oxidation takes place in the
mitochondrial matrix (in
eukaryotes). So, before the
chemical reactions can begin,
pyruvate must enter the
mitochondrion, crossing its inner
membrane and arriving at the
matrix.

Krebs Cycle
 Named after Hans Krebs who won the Nobel Prize for this pathway he discovered in
cellular respiration.
 The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle, is a series of reactions that
take place in the mitochondria, resulting in the oxidation of acetyl CoA to release carbon
dioxide and hydrogen atoms that later lead to the formation of water.
 It also called “Citric Acid Cycle” or “Tricarboxyl Acid Cycle”
 Two turn and 1 ATP per turn.

Krebs Cycle
 Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle.
 Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
 Turns twice per glucose molecule (produces 1 ATP per turn).
 Produces two ATP
 Takes place in matrix of mitochondria
 Acetyl CoA (formed from Pyruvic Acid) combines with a four-carbon molecule to make a
molecule of citric acid.
 Citric acid is broken down in several steps providing the energy to make NADH, FADH2, ,
ATP.
Krebs Cycle Reactant
 Pyruvic Acid
 ADP
 NAD+
 FAD+

STEP 1 (Anabolic)
 Condensation Step
 combining the two-carbon acetyl group with a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form
a six-carbon molecule of citrate. CoA is bound to a sulfhydryl group (-SH) and diffuses
away to eventually combine with another acetyl group. This step is irreversible because it
is highly exergonic.
 Catalyzed by citrate synthase.

STEP 2
 Isomerization Step
 citrate loses one water molecule and gains another as citrate is converted into its isomer,
isocitrate (6C).
 Catalyzed by aconitase (an isomerase).

STEP 3 (Catabolic)
 Oxidative Decarboxylation of Isocitrate and Redox Reaction.
 isocitrate is oxidized, producing alphaketoglutarate (5C), together with a molecule of
CO2 and two electrons, which reduce NAD+ to NADH.
 Catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase.

STEP 4
 Oxidative Decarboxylation of Alpha-ketoglutarate and Redox Reaction.
 Oxidative decarboxylation of alphaketoglutarate produces succinyl CoA (4C)
 The enzyme alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase catalyzes this reaction to produce
NADH, CO2, and high energy thioester bond to coenzyme A.

STEP 5
 P0 substrate level phosphorylation.
 a phosphate group is substituted for coenzyme A, and a high-energy bond is formed.
 This energy is used in substrate-level phosphorylation (during the conversion of the
succinyl group to succinate (4C). In particular, protein synthesis primarily use GTP) to form
either guanine triphosphate (GTP) or ATP.
 Catalyzed by succinate thiokinase.
 Tissues that use large amounts of ATP, such as heart and skeletal muscle. Tissues that
have a high number anabolic pathways - liver, RnA, Amino acid to protein.
 This form produces ATP. The second form of the enzyme is found in tissues that have a
high number of anabolic pathways, such as liver. This form produces GTP.
 GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP; however, its use is more restricted. In particular,
protein synthesis primarily uses GTP.

STEP 6
 Dehydration/Dehydrogenation Step/ Oxidation Step.
 Succinate is converted to fumarate (4C).
 The enzyme succinate dehydrogenase catalyzes this reaction
 Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to FAD, producing FADH2. The energy contained in
the electrons of these atoms is insufficient to reduce NAD+ but adequate to reduce FAD.

STEP 7
 Hydration step
 Water is added to fumarate (4C) during step seven, and malate (4C) is produced by the
addition of H2O. The last step in the citric acid cycle regenerates oxaloacetate by
oxidizing malate. Another molecule of NADH is produced in the process.
 The enzyme fumarase catalyzes this reaction.
 This is accomplished at the double bond formula just formed.

STEP 8
 Dehydrogenation step
 Malate (4C) is oxidized to produce oxaloacetate (4C).
 The enzyme malate dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal pair of hydrogen atoms (blue)
placed on carbon #1 and #2 by water in the previous reaction.
 NAD is reduced to NADH.
 The carbon containing hydroxyl group in malate is converted into a carbonyl group,
regenerating oxaloacetate.
Additional Information!!
At each turn of the cycle,
 3 NADH,
 1 FADH2,
 1 GTP (or ATP),
 2 CO2
Krebs Cycle is amphibolic
 It means both anabolic and catabolic in nature.

Note: One NADH are formed from a molecule of pyruvate in the oxidative decarboxylation
of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA.

Anaerobic Pathways
Fermentation
 If oxygen is not present, the products of glycolysis (pyruvic acid and NADH) will enter an
alternative process called fermentation.
 Fermentation provides enough ATP and recycles NADH into NAD+ so that glycolysis may
continue until more oxygen becomes available.
 Occurs in the cytoplasm/ Cytosol of the cell
 Two Types of Fermentation
1. Lactic Acid
2. Alcoholic

Lactic Acid Fermentation

 Occurs in muscle cells in the body.
 Lactic acid is a waste product of fermentation that will build up and cause your muscles to
"burn" during hard exercise.
 Lactic acid fermentation also occurs in some bacteria and molds.
 Waste products of the fermentation process give cheese different flavors.
 Yogurt is another product of lactic acid fermentation.
End Products: Lactic acid fermentation
 2-ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
 Lactic Acids
Alcoholic Fermentation
 Alcoholic fermentation is a process used by many yeasts and plants.
 Also uses the products of glycolysis (NADH and pyruvic acid) to provide enough NAD+ and
ATP for glycolysis to continue.
 Alcoholic fermentation is used to make bread or dough rise and is also used for beer and
wine.
End Products: Alcohol fermentation
 2-ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
 2-CO
 2-Ethanols

Advantages of Fermentation
 All available energy extracted from glucose is 2 ATP.
 Certain bacteria produce chemicals of industrial importance such as isopropanol, butyric
acid, acetic acid when bacteria ferment-breakdown of sugars in the absence of oxygen.
 Foods that are fermented last longer because these fermenting organisms have removed
many of the nutrients that would attract other microorganisms.
 Yeasts ferment fruits and wine is produced. Grain is also fermented to produce beer. They
also cause the bread to rise due to CO2, a by-product, and alcohol is lost in the bread.
 Yeasts and lactobacillus together produce sour taste in wheat beer.
 Yeasts and Acetobacter aceti spoil wine to become vinegar.
 Bacterial fermentation produces yogurt (due to Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus bulgaricus), sour cream, cheese, brine cucumber pickles, and kimchi
 Clostridium bacteria can produce nail polish remover and rubbing alcohol from the
acetone and Isopropanol they make
 Soy sauce is produced by adding mold (Aspergillus), yeasts and fermenting bacteria.

Disadvantages of Fermentation
 Consumption of 2 ATP is fast.
 Ethanol and lactate, the by-products of fermentation, have a lot of energy reserves-
prokaryotes and eukaryotes cannot extract the energy in lactate and ethanol using
anaerobic method.
 Needs a large supply of glucose to perform the same work as in aerobic respiration.

Cristel Tenoso
STEM 12-B