PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,

Florence-Darlington Technical College

CHAPTER 10
Blood

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blood

• The only fluid tissue in the human body

• Classified as a connective tissue
• Components of blood
• Living cells
• Formed elements
• Non-living matrix
• Plasma

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blood

• If blood is centrifuged
• Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45 percent
of blood, a percentage known as the
hematocrit)
• Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets
(less than 1 percent of blood)
• Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between
the erythrocytes and plasma
• Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.1 (1 of 2)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.1 (2 of 2)
 Physical Characteristics of Blood

• Color range
• Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
• Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
• pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
• Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature at 100.4°F
• In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6
liters or about 6 quarts
• Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blood Plasma

• Composed of approximately 90 percent water

• Includes many dissolved substances
• Nutrients
• Salts (electrolytes)
• Respiratory gases
• Hormones
• Plasma proteins
• Waste products

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blood Plasma

• Plasma proteins
• Most abundant solutes in plasma
• Most plasma proteins are made by liver
• Various plasma proteins include
• Albumin—regulates osmotic pressure
• Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured
• Antibodies—help protect the body from
pathogens

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 Blood Plasma

• Acidosis
• Blood becomes too acidic
• Alkalosis
• Blood becomes too basic
• In each scenario, the respiratory system and
kidneys help restore blood pH to normal

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 Formed Elements

• Erythrocytes
• Red blood cells (RBCs)
• Leukocytes
• White blood cells (WBCs)
• Platelets
• Cell fragments

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 Formed Elements

• Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs)

• Main function is to carry oxygen
• Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
• Biconcave disks
• Essentially bags of hemoglobin
• Anucleate (no nucleus)
• Contain very few organelles
• 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood

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 Lymphocyte Platelets

Erythrocytes Neutrophils
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.2
 Formed Elements

• Hemoglobin
• Iron-containing protein
• Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
• Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen
binding sites
• Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules
• Normal blood contains 12–18 g of
hemoglobin per 100 mL blood

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements

• Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs

• Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying
ability of the blood
• Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from
abnormally shaped hemoglobin
• Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal
increase in the number of erythrocytes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.3
 Formed Elements

• Polcythemia
• Disorder resulting from excessive or
abnormal increase of RBC
• May be caused by bone marrow cancer
(polycythemia vera)
• May be a response to life at higher
altitudes (secondary polycythemia)
• Increased RBC slows blood flow and
increases blood viscosity

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 Formed Elements
• Leukocytes (white blood cells or WBCs)
• Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
• These are complete cells, with a nucleus and
organelles
• Able to move into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis)
• Can move by ameboid motion
• Can respond to chemicals released by damaged
tissues
• 4,800 to 10,800 WBC per cubic millimeter of
blood
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 Formed Elements
• Abnormal numbers of leukocytes
• Leukocytosis
• WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
• Generally indicates an infection
• Leukopenia
• Abnormally low leukocyte level
• Commonly caused by certain drugs such as
corticosteroids and anticancer agents
• Leukemia
• Bone marrow becomes cancerous, turns out excess WBC

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements
• Types of leukocytes
• Granulocytes
• Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
• Possess lobed nuclei
• Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
• Agranulocytes
• Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
• Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
• Include lymphocytes and monocytes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements

• List of the WBCs from • Easy way to

most to least remember this list
abundant • Never
• Neutrophils • Let
• Lymphocytes • Monkeys
• Monocytes • Eat
• Eosinophils • Bananas
• Basophils

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.4
 Formed Elements
• Types of granulocytes
• Neutrophils
• Cytoplasm stains pale pink and contains fine
granules
• Deep purple nucleus contains three to seven
lobes
• Function as phagocytes at active sites of
infection
• Numbers increase during infection
• 3,000–7,000 neutrophils in a cubic millimeter
of blood (40–70% of WBCs)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Formed Elements

• Types of granulocytes (continued)

• Eosinophils
• Red, coarse cytoplasmic granules
• Figure-8 or bilobed nucleus stains blue-
red
• Function to kill parasitic worms and play a
role in allergy attacks
• 100–400 eosinophils in a cubic millimeter
of blood (1–4% of WBCs)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements

• Types of granulocytes (continued)

• Basophils
• Sparse but large blue-purple granules
• U- or S-shaped nucleus stains dark blue
• Release histamine (vasodilator) at sites of
inflammation
• Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
• 20–50 basophils in a cubic millimeter of
blood (0–1% of WBCs)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements

• Types of agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes
• Cytoplasm is pale blue
• Dark purple-blue nucleus
• Functions as part of the immune response
• B lymphocytes produce antibodies
• T lymphocytes are involved in graft rejection,
fighting tumors and viruses
• 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes in a cubic millimeter
of blood (20–45% of WBCs)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements

• Types of agranulocytes (continued)

• Monocytes
• Largest of the white blood cells
• Gray-blue cytoplasm
• Dark blue-purple nucleus is often kidney shaped
• Function as macrophages
• Important in fighting chronic infection
• 100–700 monocytes per cubic millimeter of
blood (4–8% of WBCs)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formed Elements

• Platelets
• Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells
(megakaryocytes)
• Needed for the clotting process
• Platelet count ranges from 150,000 to
400,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
• 300,000 is considered a normal number of
platelets per cubic millimeter of blood

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hematopoiesis

• Blood cell formation

• Occurs in red bone marrow
• All blood cells are derived from a common
stem cell (hemocytoblast)
• Hemocytoblast differentiation
• Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
• Myeloid stem cell produces all other formed
elements

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.4
 Formation of Erythrocytes

• Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins

• Wear out in 100 to 120 days
• When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
• Lost cells are replaced by division of
hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Control of Erythrocyte Production

• Rate is controlled by a hormone

(erythropoietin)
• Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
response to reduced oxygen levels in the
blood
• Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 IMB
ALA
NC
E
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels

1 Stimulus
5 O −carrying IMB Low blood O2−carrying ability
2 ALA
ability of blood NC due to
E
increases. • Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2

4 Enhanced
erythropoiesis
increases RBC 2 Kidney (and liver
count. to a smaller extent)
releases erythropoietin
3 Erythropoietin
stimulates red bone
marrow.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.5

 IMB
ALA
NC
E
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels

1 Stimulus
IMB Low blood O2−carrying ability
ALA
NC due to
E
• Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.5, step 1

 IMB
ALA
NC
E
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels

1 Stimulus
IMB Low blood O2−carrying ability
ALA
NC due to
E
• Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2

2 Kidney (and liver

to a smaller extent)
releases erythropoietin

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.5, step 2

 IMB
ALA
NC
E
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels

1 Stimulus
IMB Low blood O2−carrying ability
ALA
NC due to
E
• Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2

2 Kidney (and liver

to a smaller extent)
releases erythropoietin
3 Erythropoietin
stimulates red bone
marrow.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.5, step 3

 IMB
ALA
NC
E
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels

1 Stimulus
IMB Low blood O2−carrying ability
ALA
NC due to
E
• Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2

4 Enhanced
erythropoiesis
increases RBC 2 Kidney (and liver
count. to a smaller extent)
releases erythropoietin
3 Erythropoietin
stimulates red bone
marrow.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.5, step 4

 IMB
ALA
NC
E
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels

1 Stimulus
5 O −carrying IMB Low blood O2−carrying ability
2 ALA
ability of blood NC due to
E
increases. • Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2

4 Enhanced
erythropoiesis
increases RBC 2 Kidney (and liver
count. to a smaller extent)
releases erythropoietin
3 Erythropoietin
stimulates red bone
marrow.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.5, step 5

 Formation of White Blood Cells and
Platelets
• Controlled by hormones
• Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and
interleukins prompt bone marrow to
generate leukocytes
• Thrombopoietin stimulates production of
platelets

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 Hemostasis

• Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in

a blood vessel
• Hemostasis involves three phases
• Vascular spasms
• Platelet plug formation
• Coagulation (blood clotting)

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 Hemostasis

• Vascular spasms
• Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to
spasm
• Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss

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 Step 1 Vascular spasms occur.
• Smooth muscle contracts, causing
vasoconstriction.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.6, step 1

 Hemostasis

• Platelet plug formation

• Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a
blood vessel
• Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
• Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets
• Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

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 Step 2 Platelet plug forms.
• Injury to lining of vessel exposes collagen fibers;
Collagen platelets adhere.
fibers
• Platelets release chemicals that make nearby
platelets sticky; platelet plug forms.

Platelets

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.6, step 2

 Hemostasis

• Coagulation
• Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
• PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood
protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to
trigger a clotting cascade
• Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin
to thrombin (an enzyme)

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 Hemostasis

• Coagulation (continued)
• Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-
like molecules of insoluble fibrin
• Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a
clot)

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 Step 3 Coagulation events occur.
• Clotting factors present in plasma and released
by injured tissue cells interact with Ca2+ to form
thrombin, the enzyme that catalyzes joining of
Fibrin fibrinogen molecules in plasma to fibrin.

• Fibrin forms a mesh that traps red blood cells

and platelets, forming the clot.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.6, step 3

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.7
 Hemostasis

• Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes

• The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
• The clot is broken down after tissue repair

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 Undesirable Clotting

• Thrombus
• A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
• Can be deadly in areas like the heart
• Embolus
• A thrombus that breaks away and floats
freely in the bloodstream
• Can later clog vessels in critical areas such
as the brain

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 Bleeding Disorders

• Thrombocytopenia
• Platelet deficiency
• Even normal movements can cause
bleeding from small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting
• Hemophilia
• Hereditary bleeding disorder
• Normal clotting factors are missing

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 Blood Groups and Transfusions

• Large losses of blood have serious

consequences
• Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
• Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
which can be fatal
• Transfusions are the only way to replace blood
quickly
• Transfused blood must be of the same blood
group

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 Human Blood Groups

• Blood contains genetically determined proteins

• Antigens (a substance the body recognizes as
foreign) may be attacked by the immune
system
• Antibodies are the “recognizers”
• Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will
cause blood with certain proteins to clump
(agglutination)

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 Human Blood Groups

• There are over 30 common red blood cell

antigens
• The most vigorous transfusion reactions are
caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens

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 ABO Blood Groups

• Based on the presence or absence of two

antigens
• Type A
• Type B
• The lack of these antigens is called type O

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 ABO Blood Groups

• The presence of both antigens A and B is

called type AB
• The presence of antigen A is called type A
• The presence of antigen B is called type B
• The lack of both antigens A and B is called
type O

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 ABO Blood Groups

• Blood type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O

blood
• Universal recipient
• Blood type B can receive B and O blood
• Blood type A can receive A and O blood
• Blood type O can receive O blood
• Universal donor

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 ABO Blood Groups
Blood Group RBC Antigens Plasma antibodies Blood that can be
received

AB A, B None A, B, AB, O
Universal recipient

B B Anti-A B, O

A A Anti-B A, O

O None Anti-A, Anti-B O

Universal donor

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 Rh Blood Groups

• Named because of the presence or absence

of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D)
that was originally defined in Rhesus monkeys
• Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)
• Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a
body with Rh– (Rh negative) blood

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 Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

• Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh–

and the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the
Rh+ factor
• RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of
anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood

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 Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

• The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+

baby can cause problems for the unborn child
• The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
problems
• The immune system is sensitized after the first
pregnancy
• In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+
blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

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 Blood Typing

• Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and

anti-B serum
• Coagulation or no coagulation leads to
determining blood type
• Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the
same manner
• Cross matching—testing for agglutination of
donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice
versa

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 Blood being tested Serum
Anti-A Anti-B
Type AB (contains
antigens A and B;
agglutinates with
both sera)

Agglutinated
RBCs

Type B (contains
antigen B;
agglutinates with
anti-B serum)

Type A (contains
antigen A;
agglutinates with
anti-A serum)

Type O (contains
no antigens;
does not
agglutinate with
either serum)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 10.8
 Developmental Aspects of Blood

• Sites of blood cell formation

• The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation
• Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the
seventh month
• Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin
produced after birth
• Physiologic jaundice results in infants in which
the liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin
breakdown products fast enough

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.