Lecture notes on the course

"Fundamentals of measuring techniques”

 Lecture1

Measurement - a set of actions to determine the ratio of one (measured) quantity to

another homogeneous quantity, accepted by all participants as a unit stored in a technical
tool (measuring tool). The numerical value of the measured quantity is the number
resulting from the measurement. The value of a physical quantity is a numerical value
together with the designation of the unit used.

Measurement involves comparison of the investigated physical quantity with a

homogeneous physical quantity, the value of which is taken as a unit measurement, and
presenting the result of this comparison as a number

For this procedure requires the implementation of various operations: reproduction,

comparison, measurement conversion,scaling, etc.

Main characteristics of measuring instruments

Metrological characteristics of measuring devices:

• sensitivity; • sensitivity threshold;• division price; • measurement range (full,

working);• equation of measuring transformation (static characteristic of transformation,
nominal functiontransformations);• an error (absolute, relative, brought,additional); •
variation of indications; • speed – time spent for one measurement
The standard SI unitsusedforthemeasurement of voltage, current and
resistancearehe Volt [ V ], Ampere [ A ] and Ohm [ Ω ] respectively.

The following table gives a list of some of the standard electrical units of measure used in
electrical formulas and component values.

Standard ElectricalUnits

Electrical Measuring Symbol Description

Parameter Unit

Voltage Volt V or E Unit of Electrical

Potential
V=I×R

Current Ampere I or i Unit of Electrical

Current
I=V÷R

Resistance Ohm R or Ω Unit of DC Resistance

R=V÷I

Conductanc Siemen G or℧ Reciprocal of Resistance

e G=1÷R

Capacitance Farad C Unit of Capacitance

C=Q÷V

Charge Coulomb Q Unit of Electrical Charge

Q=C×V
 Inductance Henry L or H Unit of Inductance
VL = -L(di/dt)

Power Watts W Unit of Power

P = V × I or I2 × R

Impedance Ohm Z Unit of AC Resistance

Z2 = R2 + X2

Frequency Hertz Hz Unit of Frequency

ƒ=1÷T

There is a huge range of values encountered in electrical and electronic engineering

between a maximum value and a minimum value of a standard electrical unit. For
example, resistance can be lower than 0.01Ω’s or higher than 1,000,000Ω’s. By using
multiples and submultiple’s of the standard unit we can avoid having to write too many
zero’s to define the position of the decimal point. The table below gives
theirnames and abbreviations.

Current Standard The fundamental unit of electric current (Ampere) is defined by the
International System of Units (SI) as the constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross section placed
1 meter apart in vacuum, will produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10-7
newton per meter length. Early measurements of the absolute value of the ampere were
made with a current balance which measured the force between two parallel conductors.
These measurements were rather crude and the need was felt to produce a more practical
and reproducible standard for the national laboratories. By international agreement, the
value of the international ampere was based on the electrolytic deposition of silver from a
silver nitrate solution. The international ampere was then defined as that current which
deposits silver at the rate of 1.118 mg/s from a standard silver nitrate solution.
Difficulties were encountered in the exact measurement of the deposited silver and slight
discrepancies existed between measurements made independently by the various National
Standard Laboratories. Later, the international ampere was superseded by the absolute
ampere and it is now the fundamental unit of electric current in the SI and is universally
accepted by international agreement.

Voltage Standard In early times, the standard volt was based on an electrochemical cell
called the saturated standard cell or simply standard cell. The saturated cell has
temperature dependence, and the output voltage changes about -40 µV/°C from the
nominal of 1.01858 volt. The standard cell suffers from this temperature dependence and
also from the fact that the voltage is a function of a chemical reaction and not related
directly to any other physical constants. In 1962, based on the work of Brian Josephson, a
new standard for the volt was introduced. A thin-film junction is cooled to nearly
absolute zero and irradiated with microwave energy. A voltage is developed across the
junction, which is related to the irradiating frequency by the following relationship:

Lecture2

Analog measuring devices of electromechanical system differ:

simplicity, low cost, high reliability, variety of application, rather high precision, don't
demand additional sources energy, can have an exit for connection to the
COMPUTER.This type devices don’t require additional power source. With their help it
is possible to measure various physical quantities.Most simple measuring EIP of direct
transformation consists of three main converters: measuring circuit, measuring
mechanism and countingdevice.

1.The measuring circuit provides transformation electric the measured size in

intermediate electrical quantity
2The measuring mechanism is electromechanical the converter which is carrying out
transformation of electric sizes in the evident analog indication

3The countingy device consists of the index which is rigidly connected with mobile part
and motionlessscale

Despitethewidevariety of designs and types of instruments, all

Theyhave a number of commonunits and details: thebody, scale, pointer, devices

Measuring devices of magnetoelectric system(3)

StructurallyMeasuringMechanisms (MM) of devices of this systems can be executed
with a mobile magnet or from mobile coil.

Structure of the device of magnetoelectric system:

1 – permanent magnet; 2 – polar tips; 3 – motionless core; 4 – winding; 5, 6 – half shafts;

7, 8 – springs; 9 – arrow; 10 - the counterbalancing freight.

The dinamic of mobile system is described by following the description.

M r=BSꙍI

M r -rotated moment

M =k ⍺

M-counter active moment

B – magnetic induction in a gap;S – area of a frame;ω – number of rounds in the coil;K –

rigidity of a spring.α - an angle of rotation.

And using the balancing of the 2 moment the angle ⍺ that is corresponding to measuring
parameter is determined in the following view.

BSꙍI =k ⍺
 BSꙍI
⍺= k

This type devices have following advantages

1 there working character have high linarity property;

st

2 have high sensitivity; next stability of indicators; small power source require. Don’t
nd

affect enviromental parameters such as electromagnet,electrical and so.

Disadvantages-Devices can’t measuring AC parameters without converters. Have small

overload capacity. Beside this type of devices following types of electromechanical tools.

The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque is exerted
on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet. A PMMC instrument is shown in Figure
2.11. The coil C has a number of turns of thin insulated wires wound on a rectangular aluminium former F. The
frame is carried on a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1 , J2 . A pointer PR is attached to the spindle so that it
moves over a calibrated scale. The whole of the moving system is made as light in weight as possible to keep the
friction at the bearing to a minimum. The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed between the shaped soft-iron
pole piece (pp) of a permanent magnet PM and a fixed soft-iron cylindrical core IC [Figure 2.11(b)]. The core
serves two purposes; (a) it intensifies the magnetic field by reducing the length of the air gap, and (b) it makes
the field radial and uniform in the air gap. Thus, the coil always moves at right angles to the magnetic field
[Figure 2.11(c)]. Modern permanent magnets are made of steel alloys which are difficult to machine. Soft-iron
pole pieces (pp) are attached to the permanent magnet PM for easy machining in order to adjust the length of
the air gap. Figure 2.11(d) shows the internal parts and Figure 2.11(e) shows schematic of internal parts of a
moving-coil instrument. A soft-iron yoke (Y ) is used to complete the flux path and to provide shielding from
stray external field
In electromagnetic measuring devices for movement

mobile part energy of magnetic field of the system consisting is used from the coil on
which the measured current, and one or several proceedsthe cores made of ferromagnetic
materials.

In electrodynamic measuring devices for movement

mobile part energy of the system consisting from mobile is used and

motionless a framework with the current proceeding on them.

In electrostatic measuring devices for movement mobile part the principle of interaction
of two is used or several loaded conductors, therefore devices of this system

measure voltage, but not current as considered above

Lecture 3

Electromechanical instruments with convertions

For change of value of the size of physical quantity in the given number of times with the
normalized error apply scalemeasuring transducers.

Scale transformers subdivide on:

- passive (shunts, current transformers,voltage);- the active (amplifiers, generators)

The measuring mechanisms which are switched on in an electric circuitconsistently with

loading, about 20 allow to measure currents … 50 мА. For expansion of limits of
measurement use the shunts manufactured from manganina (with cooling radiators)
which resistance isn't enough depends on temperature.For exvoltage of limits of
measurement on tvoltageit is serialwith IT turn on the additional resistor

Attenuators (attenuators) are intended for reduction voltage in the required number of
times. By means of attenuators rating of small levels of signals is carried out. As well as
dividers, they are characterized by the range of operating frequencies, input and output
resistance, power carrying capacity of dispersion, error divisions.

The moving-coil instrument has a coil wound with very fine wire. It can carry only few
mA safely to give full-scale deflection. For measuring higher current, a low resistance is
connected in parallel to the instrument to bypass the major part of the current. The low
resistance connected in parallel with the coil is called a shunt. Figure 2.12 shows a shunt
resistance Rsh connected in parallel with the basic meter.
For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is connected in series with
the instrument to limit the current in the coil to a safe value. This value of
current should never exceed the current required to produce the full scale
deflection. The high resistance connected in series with the instrument is
called a multiplier. In Figure 2., Rsc is the multiplier.

Measuring mechanisms with rectifiers and thermo transformers

As rectifiers of the signals used together with measuring mechanisms of magnetoelectric

system, use semiconductor diodes on the basis of silicon or germanium. In dependence
from number of the diodes used in the diagram one is carried out – or full wave
rectification of an alternating current. Using this type semiconductor devices allow to
expand the frequency range of electromechanical measurement devices. But in this case
is necessary to conduct temperature and frequency composition. Decide this one in this
case device working characteristics to be bad and measurement occureancy is reduced.

Thermelectric converters can consist of one or several thermocouples and heaters.

Heating devices as usually are constructed. Material with high resistivity.

a)
Contact, b)contactless c) thermoconverters (v):

1 — theheater; 2 — thethermocouple; 3 — glass

Theheaterisusuallymade of a material with a large

resistivity (nichrome, constantan, tungsten). Forthermocouplespickupmaterialsthatgive a

highenoughvaluethermo-emf (chromel-alumel, chromel-kopel).

Thermocouplesaremade of twotypes: contact (abovesensitivity and speed) andcontactless,

forexample, withadditionalinsulatorbetweentheheater and thethermocouple.

Advantages: increase the operatingfrequency of deviceselectromechanicalsystemupto 100

MHz, theextension of theworkingrange of current and voltage, lowinputresistance.
Disadvantages: low overload capacity, dependence readings fromambienttemperature,
lowsensitivity, high ownenergyconsumption, limitedservicelife, unevenscale.

Application: thermoelectricdevicesareused as ammeters, voltmeters, wattmetersinhigh-

currenthigh-frequency(radio) circuits.

Lecture 4

Measuring transformers of current and voltage

Are used in alternating current circuits for change of value of current and voltage in the
given number of times with a certain accuracy. Device of measuring transformers
similarly normal to power transformers with only that difference that their secondary
winding can be two-layer: one coil is used for the purposes of measurement, and the
second (low accuracy) for circuits of automatic protection. In secondarycircuit of the
transformer not only instruments of monitoring can turn on(voltmeters, active power
meters, energy counters, etc.), but also automatic equipment elements (elements of
protection and control).

A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to measure AC

current. It produces an alternating current (AC) in its secondary which is
proportional to the AC current in its primary. Current transformers, along with
voltage or potential transformers are Instrument transformer.
Current transformers are designed to provide a scaled-down replica of the
current in the HV line and isolate the measuring instruments, meters, relays,

etc., from the high voltage power circuit.

The large alternating currents which can not be sensed or passed through the
normal ammeter, and current coils of wattmeters, energy meters can easily be
measured by use of current transformers along with normal low range
instrument
As weseefromthe figure the secondary winding of the transformer must be earthed.

For the current measurement transformers other following characteristics: normal

voltage, nominal primary and secondary current, nominal transformer functions. Arrows
by current: angle arrows;full arrows. But voltage transformers serve to form of the
voltage to standart value. Which are used secondary devices. Connection have following
view. For 2 single face transformer:

Voltage transformer working principle

A potential transformer is typically used to measure high voltages. The
primary side of the potential transformer (Figure 3 labeled PT) is connected
across the transmission line whose voltage (132 kV in Figure 3) is to be
measured. The transmission line is connected to a load ‘A’ that receives
electrical power from the line. The potential transformer is always connected
in parallel across the line. The secondary side of the potential transformer is
connected to a standard low-range voltmeter (Figure 3 labeled V). A current
transformer is always connected in series with the line whose current is to be
measured. Read our article to see a thorough comparison between voltage
transformers and current transformers.

When voltage is applied to the primary winding, it induces a voltage on the

secondary windings. This voltage is lower than the voltage on the primary
winding and is proportional to the number of windings on the primary and
secondary sides.
 The main character of transfer of voltage,transformer are following the nominal means
of the voltage on turns. The power of transformer and power secondary load.

Measurement amplifiers. This type amplifiering DC and AC signals due additional

energy source using.

For example: Transformer increasing voltage is not signal amplifier.

DC amplifier are characterized zero drift to increase there accuracy are used
stabilizied power supply but AC amplifier have no drift zero. Therefor often the DC is
convert to AC is a simplify..

Lecture 5

Operational amplifiers The Operational Amplifiers (IA) are used for amplifier of
signals constant and variable currents due to use of additional power sources. For
example, the transformer increasing voltage not is the signal multiplier. For classification
of amplifiers different can be used signs:• on a band of operating frequencies (it is low -
and high-frequency, impulse and broadband);• by the nature of the amplifying signal (a
direct and alternating current);• as the used non-linear elements (semiconductor,
magnetic, dielectric, lamp);• according to the diagram of switching on; on number of
stages;• by the form communications between stages (serial, parallel).
 −R 1
U out = U ¿ if R1=R 2 this circuit will be using only for inverting
R2

t2
−1
RC ∫
uout = U ¿ ( t ) dt
t 1

dui(t )
U out =−RC
dt

The Direct Current Amplifiers (DCA) are characterized by drift existence zero. For
increase in their accuracy use stabilized power supplies, heat, use compensating circuits,
etc. AC amplifiers have no drift of zero therefore often the direct current will be
transformed in variable, then amplified . But at the same time the gain amount depends
on the frequency therefore for gain of signals in broad range of frequencies, it is rectified
(at the same time it is lost sensitivity).The operational amplifiers (OA) – are widely used
to amplifier signals in the given number of times on a certain range of frequencies. OA
differ on frequency band, by the nature of a signal (constant, variable).Differential
amplifiers use for gain of the difference signals.
 Diagrams of operational amplifiers: and – the equivalent; – not inverted

Lecture 6
Analog electronic measuring devices

Analog electronic instruments unlike simple electromechanical instruments contain

additional units: amplifiers; shapers of signals; transformers from one physical quantity in
another, etc.). It allows to expand the range of measured significantly physical quantities,
both on amplitude, and on frequency, their nomenclature, to increase sensitivity and
accuracy of measurements.

ID ADC M.M
The direct current electronic voltmeter consist of input devices (ID), direct current
amplifier (DCA), measuring mechanism (MM). The measured voltage of a direct current
arrives on entrance the device representing multilimit high-resistance resistor divider of
voltage . The signal with ID arrives o n DCA entrance, which besides amplifiers function
of a signal will coordinate high output ID resistance with a small resistance of a frame - a
divider entrance voltage HIM magneto electric system.

In case of measurement of feeble signals begins to affect drift of DCA therefore in

electronic micro voltmeters exclude DCA, will transform a direct current by means of the
modulator in variable is also used the amplifier of alternating voltage. At last amplified
signals demodulated and measuring mechanism.

ID M ACA DM M
 GENERATOR

здес
Disadvantage of ACA is the measurement depends on from the signal frequency. AC
electronic voltmeters are used to measure alternating voltage that is functioned in large
amplitude and frequency range. Also this type measuring device consist of input device
ACA and measuring mechanism. Input devices and measuring mechanism

ID ~ M.
M.

To expand the frequency range of measuring signal this electronic voltmeter main contain
rectifier that allows to solve all this requirements. So structured circuit all this device has
following view

R
D M
I e
ct C
.
M
D ifi
er A .

Universal electronic voltmeter are widely used and designed to measure different circuit
and electrical parameters. Such devices consist if number of additional blocks that
convert the measuring parameters of voltage which then is measured. Structurally circuit
of this universally device has following view.

U
~__
~

U_

R
UR

I DCA Count device

UI
Pulse voltmeter are used to measure pulse signals. By other words the amplitude of
maximum values of this pulses. The principal functional is based on the charge of the
capacitor from stabilization source. And maintaining the measured level of signal
enchanted at the time corresponding maximum value.

Selected electron voltmeter are used to measure working values of voltage of separate
harmonic amplitude. Working principle of this type devices is based on the separated that
certain harmonic form the basic signal by help use tunable band width filters or by using
neurodel principle. Technologically is very convenient to use not different filters for each
harmonic signal but device that consist of signal mixed block and tuneable generator. To
mix these signals its possible to disjoined signals amplitude with different frequency.
Selective electronic voltmeters has following views.

Lecture 7

Measuring bridges and compensators

Broad application of bridge schemes and compensators speaks high precision of

measurements, big sensitivity and opportunity measurements of various parameters of an
electric circuit.

Bridge schemes
 The most exact measurements resistance of direct current are carried out by means of
bridges. Bridges are divided into two groups: unary and double. Unary bridge called by
Uitston Bridge is applied for measurements of resistance from 1 Ohms to 100 Megohms.
Double bridge called by Thompson Bridge is used for measurements of small sizes of
resistance – less than 1 Ohm. Unary Bridge consists of 4 shoulders:

three known resistance in bridge shoulders together with the measured resistance form
the closed two-port network. In the measuring diagonal of the bridge the index of
balance as which use is included magneto electric galvanometer. Joins in other diagonal
of the bridge source of a direct current.

G Zero organ

Selection of resistance try to obtain lack of current through galvanometer.

R2 R 4
R x R3 =R 2 R 4 R x =
R3

In equilibrium state of the bridge the condition is satisfiedhe error of measurement

depends on the measured range, On a measure increases in the measured resistance the
device sensitivity decreases influence of resistance of isolation increases. Lower limit
measurements is limited to influence of resistance of connecting wires. These errors are
excluded in the double bridge. The bridge is called double, as contains two sets of
shoulders of the relation. At the same time is implemented differential principle of
measurement

For creation of bridge circuits on an alternating current use transformer and capacitive
measuring circuits. Use for measurements of the pure resistance, inductivity and capacity.
Equilibrium of such bridge is reached in case of execution of a condition:
 Z1 Z 3 =Z 2 Z 4

φ 1+ φ3=φ2+ φ4

Follows from this condition that for equilibration of the bridge withcomplex resistance is
necessary adjustment active and jet components. But face equation with what property
must be have shoulders of bridge to provide balance of bridge circuit. Bridge circuit are
also use electrical or non-electrical values.

To review, the bridge circuit works as a pair of two-component voltage

dividers connected across the same source voltage, with a null-
detector meter movement connected between them to indicate a
condition of “balance” at zero volts:

A balanced bridge shows a “null”, or minimum reading, on the indicator.

Anyone of the four resistors in the above bridge can be the resistor of unknown value, and its value
can be determined by a ratio of the other three, which are “calibrated,” or whose resistances are
known to a precise degree.
When the bridge is in a balanced condition (zero voltage as indicated by the null detector), the
ratio works out to be this:

In a condition of balance:
One of the advantages of using a bridge circuit to measure resistance is that the voltage of the
power source is irrelevant.
Practically speaking, the higher the supply voltage, the easier it is to detect a condition of
imbalance between the four resistors with the null detector, and thus the more sensitive it will be.
A greater supply voltage leads to the possibility of increased measurement precision. However,
there will be no fundamental error introduced as a result of a lesser or greater power supply
voltage unlike other types of resistance measurement schemes.

Impedance Bridge
Impedance bridges work the same, only the balance equation is with complex quantities, as both
magnitude and phase across the components of the two dividers must be equal in order for the
null detector to indicate “zero.”
The null detector, of course, must be a device capable of detecting very small AC voltages. An
oscilloscope is often used for this, although very sensitive electromechanical meter movements and
even headphones (small speakers) may be used if the source frequency is within audio range.

Null Detector for AC

One way to maximize the effectiveness of audio headphones as a null detector is to connect them
to the signal source through an impedance-matching transformer.

Headphone speakers are typically low-impedance units (8 Ω), requiring substantial current to drive,
and so a step-down transformer helps “match” low-current signals to the impedance of the
headphone speakers.
An audio output transformer works well for this purpose: (Figure below)

Wien Bridge
An example of a little extra complexity added to compensate for real-world
effects can be found in the so-called Wien bridge, which uses a parallel
capacitor-resistor standard impedance to balance out an unknown series
capacitor-resistor combination. (Figure below)
All capacitors have some amount of internal resistance, be it literal or
equivalent (in the form of dielectric heating losses) which tend to spoil their
otherwise perfectly reactive natures.
This internal resistance may be of interest to measure, and so the Wien bridge
attempts to do so by providing a balancing impedance that isn’t “pure” eithe

Wein Bridge measures both capacitive Cx and resistive Rx components of “real” capacitor.

Being that there are two standard components to be adjusted (a resistor and
a capacitor) this bridge will take a little more time to balance than the others we’ve seen
so far.
The combined effect of Rs and Cs is to alter the magnitude and phase angle until the
bridge achieves a condition of balance.
Once that balance is achieved, the settings of Rs and Cs can be read from their
calibrated knobs, the parallel impedance of the two determined mathematically, and the
unknown capacitance and resistance determined mathematically from the balance
equation (Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4).
It is assumed in the operation of the Wien bridge that the standard capacitor has
negligible internal resistance, or at least that resistance is already known so that it can
be factored into the balance equation.
Wien bridges are useful for determining the values of “lossy” capacitor designs like
electrolytics, where the internal resistance is relatively high.
They are also used as frequency meters because the balance of the bridge is frequency-
dependent.

Construction and working principles of measurement compensator. Measuring

current and voltage with devices by directly estimating are provided in any with the best
case by errors of 0.05%. most accuracy measurement of this values ispossible by help
with compansition devices. Direct current compansitor are use for directly measurement
e.m.f. an also to undirectly measurement of resistance,power,current.

In this circuit there are 3 nodes-contours. The first element called normal element node.
The second working node and the third measuring node. The voltage measuring is
conducted on 2 stage. The first is set up the working current,value which was determined
and is unchanged for each compansitor type. From this purpose switched 2 is transfered
to switched 1 position. And by help of reostat is determined. So value of working current
in the second node in which voltage drop in loading resistance will be equal to
electromoving force of normal element. So this moment zero-indicator will indicate
absent in the current in the circuit of the first node. After this procces switched into
position 2. And the by adjusting of calibrated resistance in the third node is achieved the
measured voltage compasition. And estimating of reostat position is possible to
determined unknown voltage. Accuracy of this measurement procces depend on
following factors. 1)Set-upping error and supporting enchanging of working current;

2)Then constructing error of regulating and sample resistance;

3)Sensitivity of zero-indicator.

Lecture 8

Digital measurement instrumentsThe Digital Instruments (DI) it is multirange,the

universal instruments intended for measurement of different physical quantities, for
exmple:alternating and direct current and voltage , capacities, inductance, temporal
parameters of signals (frequencies, period, duration of pulses) and registration of a
waveform, its range, etc.In DMİ the input measured analog value automaticallyit will be
transformed to the appropriate discrete value with subsequent representation of
measurement result in the digital form.By method of converter analogue signal digital
court DMI are devided into following subgroups:

-Devices with bitwise

-By time pulse coding method

-By frequency pulse converting

By the working principle of action and design digital devices divide on

electromechanical and electronic. Electromechanical devices have high precision, but
small speed of measurements. In electronic devices the modern base of electronics is
used. Despite circuit and design features, the principle of construction DMIis identical.

The measured value (X) arrives on the input device of the instrument İD where there is a
scale conversion of a signal, then it arriveson the analog digital convertor (ADC), where
analog signal will be transformed to the appropriate code which is displayed in the
appropriate code and then in the form of numerical value on digital reading device
(DRD).

The structure circuits of DMİ , intended for measurement voltage (a), duration of
intervals of time and frequency of following pulses (b), a phase difference of signals
(in)has follovwingbasic structural elements :

PGSF – the pulse generator of the stabilized frequency; K – a key; SD – the scaling
device; Tr – the trigger; RD – the reading device; F – pulse former; SUTI – the
separation unit of time intervals GLChV – the generator of linearly changing voltage :
CD- the computing device; CprD – the comparing device, etc.

Let’s consider some sutructurencircuit of digital measuring devices (DMI)

For examp. DMI to measure voltage has following view

According the voltage measuring circuit on the start impulse trigger switch on key and
GLCV as the same time begin comparing procces of GLCV voltage with unknown
voltage. When 2 voltages are equal from comparing devices stop signal transfering to the
trigger and trigger up the switched of GLCV and closed key. During the comparing time
witch the corresponding to the measuring voltage value PGSF produced pulses quantetee
which of the corresponding measuring value and the reading device shows digital code
that estimates measuring voltage. Another circuit that is used to measure time duration or
length of time interval has following view.

Phase difference measuring device

Application of microprocessor systems in measuring instruments allows to increase
significantly their accuracy, expands opportunities and simplifies process control of
measurements, automates calibration and check of instruments, allows to execute
computing operations, to create completely automated instruments.

Lecture 9

9. Electric circuits parameters measurement methods and tools .

9.1 Measurement of a direct current and voltage . For performance of technical

measurements of a direct current and voltage still widely uses now magnetoelectric
ampermeters and voltmeters with limits of measurements 0,1 mka … 6 kA and 0,3 mV
… 1,5 kV, as well as other types of electromechanical devices. For determination of
small amounts of electricity the fast-proceeding impulses of current use ballistic
galvanometers, and for large amounts of electricity – a kulonmetra. But these devices are
forced out easier to use, reliable, exact, not expensive digital measurement
device( DMD).

9.1. Measurement of current and voltage with use a direct assessment method.
This method is implemented by means of direct-reading devices. The voltmeter is
connected parallel to that site of a circuit on which it is necessary to measure voltage.
Voltage measurement always is followed by an error which size depends on internal
voltmeter resistance () v R. Turning on of the voltmeter in the studied circuitdistorts an
operating mode of this circuit. For example, for a measuring circuit of a look

voltage on the resistor R2 before switching on of the voltmeter is defined by expression

R2
UR = U
2
R1 + R2 x
 U∗R2
U 'R =

( ) R2
2

R+ 1+ + R2
R1

The systematic error caused by the realized method measurements, the it is more, than
voltmeter resistance is less

R 2 /R V R2
δ= ≈−
R2 RV
1+ + R 2 /R 1
RV

Thus, it is possible to draw a conclusion that for increase accuracy of voltage

measurement needs to use voltmeters with high-resistance entrance, with small
consumption of energy from the object of measurement. At measurement of current the
measurement error also depends from ratios of resistance of the ampermeter and loading.
But at the same time, than less internal resistance of the ampermeter, the less will be
relative error of measurements

RA RA
δ A= ≈−
Ri + R A RL

Current and voltage measurement used comparison method with measure-sample. This
measurement method is based on comparing the measuring voltage with no voltage high
accuracy. The most common used way for this method is zero-comparison

The essence of this method is to balance the unknown voltage on the sample resistance
included in the circuit of stabilized source-supply(normal element) Compensationmoment
is determined by the zero-reading of galvanometer. The measurement accuracy in this
method depends on

1) accuracy of normal element e.m.f.

2) sensitivity of galvanometer and auxiliary source accuracy.

Advantages of this method are following at the compensation moment, the current from
the measuring voltage source and in the compensation circuit is absent. So practically is
measured e.m.f on the terminals of the voltage source. Second the absence of the current
of the galvanometer circuit eliminates the influence resistance of the connecting wires to
the measurements results. Third with full compensation the power from the measurement
object isn’t consumed. Power of measurement object is consumed. This principle also can
be used to measure AC voltage but in this case for the compensation are used different
active resistance.

Lecture 10

Measurement of electrical power and energy

With the help of instruments of various systems measure active (P = UI cosϕ), reactive (Q
= UI sinϕ) and full- apperance (S = P2 + Q2)power in DC, single phase and three phase
circuits alternating current, instantaneous power values, and quantities electricity over a
wide range. In this case, the range of measured capacities can range from a fraction of
microwatts to tens of GW. For indirect power measurements in dc circuits use the method
of voltmeter and ammeter. In this case, instruments maybe included in two ways.
Depends on in which loading resistance is applied are used following connection circuits.
The method is simple, reliable, economical, but has a number of significant
disadvantages:

• the need to take readings on two instruments; • the need to make calculations; • low
accuracy due to summation of instrument errors.

Electronic wattmeters

Electronic wattmeters based on electronic voltmeters are parametrical and nominational

types. Parametric wattmeters divided into wattmeters direct and modulation
types.Theprinciple of operation of parametric wattmeters with a direct converting are
based on the realization of the functional dependence of the form:

2
(U ¿ ¿ 1+U 2) ²−( U 1−U 2 ) =4 U 1 U 2 ¿

Thus, as a result of performing the specified mathematical operations with two signals,
you can get their product as required when measuring signal power. For this purpose, the
current pre-converted to voltage, and the erection of values signals squared by special
converters.

The structure of process have following the view

Modulation wattmeters based on double modulation of pulse signals.

Wattmeters connecting sircuits

Lecture 11

Electrical circuit elements parameters measurement

Devices that are used for this purpose are divided into following groups. Full resistance-
meters inductivity-meters, resistance-meters, frequency-meters, universal parameter
meters and parameters converters. Devices that are used to measuring this parameters
include electromechanical analogue and digital electronic devices.

~Electromechanical Ohmmeters

Creation methods of electromechanical ohmmeters are submitted by the following

circuits.

First ohmmeter circuit with series connection:

The action principle of electromechanical ohmmeters is based on depends of the current

conducting through the device from the measured resistance value that is connected to
measuring circuit. In series connection of measuring circuit the value of circuit current
that flows from device is inversely proportional the value of measured resistance. And so
series measuring circuit as usually are applied to measure relatively high resistance.
Because in this type circuits. Law resistance very low influenced to the current that flows
through measuring circuit. In parallel connection of measured resistance the current that
flows through measuring device with increase that the measuring resistance also
increased so scale of measuring device is directly and uniform grows. Both forms of
device scale isn’t uniform parallel connection circuit of measuring devices are used to
measure comparely for low resistance. For indirectly measuring of resistance voltmeter
and ammeters are widely used. Depend on which device are used as a based device.
There are 2 main circuits for undirectly measuring of resistance:

First-voltmeter method;
Second-ampermeter method.

The main advantage of this method is that the resistor the resistance which must be
measured is possible to test in real working conditions. Method is very simple,reliable but
is characterized by low accuracy.

~Electronic Ohmmeters

The working principle of electronic ohmmeters is based as a rule on a methods:

The first method of the stabilized current in a devider chain.

Second method to convert yhe value of measuring resistance to proportionally voltage.

The circuit of ohmmeter that is created by the method of voltage divider circuit current
stabilized has following view.

But another method where the value of resistance is converted to voltage is applied
operational amplifier with minus-negative feedback. By the following circuit:
The Measurement methods of signal frequency

The frequency measurement method determined depend on frequency range required

measurement accuracy value and form of signals and signal source power. Most spreader
and practical method of signal measurement frequency is resonance method of frequency
measurement. This method only use of resonance phenomena and is apply to measure
high and over high frequency. The basic elements of measurement circuit of device are
tuned oscillation contour and resonance indicator simplify circuit of resonance
frequencymeter has following view

The working principle of device is based on the tuning of the oscillation contour
resonance frequency of researched signal. And then determined of contour circuit
parameters on the state of indicator maximum readings. The value of the measured signal
frequency is estimated by scale of varying capacitor. But another way to measure of
signal frequency is to compare frequencies essence of this method is based by the
compare frequency of researched signal by the sample references frequency. Realizing
circuit by this method has following view
 Lecture12

Information measuring systems

IMS are intended for collecting, transfer, processing and storage measuringinformation
obtained from sensors and also for delivery of managing director signals to actuation
Important characteristics of IIS are:
• efficiency, • completeness of the carried-out functions, • reliability, • speed
-The efficiency is understood as improvement of work of an object later
introductions of IMS.
The coefficient of completeness of the carried-out functions shows what part controlled
object it is captured by measuring system:
N
P=
N0

N – number of the parameters of an object captured by measuring system;

Nₒ - the total number of controlled parameters of an object.

The reliability of information obtained by means IMS isthe generalized characteristic of

expediency IMSu.Treat the most essential factors of reliability:

• measurement accuracy; • control depth; • reliability; • noise stability of system

Reliability is the assessment considering an average operating time systems on refusal,
average time of restoration, failure rate, probability of no-failure operation, probability of
restoration duringthe set time, availability quotient of system

The speed of system is characterized by average time performance of operations, time of

a cycle of measurements, performance time auxiliary operations

The following types of IMS are most widespread:

• multichannel; • geared up; • scanning; • multipoint;• multidimensional; • approximating.

Multichannel IMS (parallel action) are characterized high reliability, speed, possibility of
selection of means measurements, but have the increased complexity and cost.

The geared-up IMS (with the total model value) systems with the developing
equilibration have smaller number of elements, than multichannel IMS, but smaller
speed. In such systemsthe measured size is compared to linearly changing size, andtime
intervals corresponding to the measured levels are defined signals.

The scanning IMS (consecutive action) by means of one the channel carry out
consistently measurements of a set of sizes and have the scanner (SKU) which moves the
sensor in space. The trajectory of the movement when scanning can be programmed or to
change depending on the obtained information.

Multipoint IMS (serial-parallel action) apply in difficult objects with a large number of
the measured parameters. Structure schemes of this type systems with one and 2 switches
has following view
 Lecture13

Measurement of non-electrical parameters

Electrometric and capacitor sensors of situation and movement of objects
Potentiometer and capacitance sensors of space state and movement of objects.
Sensors of situation and relocation often are implemented on the basis of the linear or
turning potentiometers. Operation principle of such devices is based on dependence
implementation of resistor resistance on movement objectssituation .

The variable potentiometer transducer has the shortcoming causednon-

uniformity of voltage output of wire variable resistor. The energy spread for
relocation of the slider is dissapated on the heat view.Wire potentiometers
make of a thin wire diameter about 0,01 mm. Resolution at the same time is
about 1% fromfull scale of measurement.Permission of a film potentiometer is
limited to heterogeneity
resistive material. Such devices make of carrying outplastic, carbon films,
(kermt) mixes of metal and ceramics.Shortcomings of potentiometers:
• considerable mechanical loading;• need for mechanical contact with an
object;
• low speed;• heating of a potentiometer;• low resistance to the influencing
factors.
Capacitor sensors of movements have wide scope of application. They can
be used as independently for measurement of movements, and to be a part of
other sensors. Can measure movement of objects made of various materials.
The principle of operation of sensors is based on change of geometry of the
condenseror on change of dielectric properties of the environment located
between it facings. Sensors can consist of one or several condensers
(differential option or pavement).

In
case of measurement of small relocation operating characteristic of the device
the almost linear.In practice in case of measurement of relocation of an
electrowire object, it the surface often plays a condenser plate role. Own the
plate of the condenser shall be screened that allows to raise linearity of
conversion and to reduce influence of edge effects.The standard sensor of
relocation works at frequencies within severalmegahertz therefore can register
fast relocation of an object
Lecture 14
6.2 Capacitor sensors of pressure
Capacitor sensors of pressure are implemented on the basis of silicon
diaphragms.In such sensors movement of a diaphragm rather basic plates are
changed by capacity between them. Capacitor sensors workmost effectively
with low pressure.
The monolithic capacitor sensors of pressure manufactured from silicon
crystals, have the maximum stability of workers characteristics. Movement of
a diaphragm can provide to 25% change capacities in the wide range of values
that does possible carrying out direct digitization of results of measurements

1 — a capillary; 2, 3 — a diaphragm; 4, 5 —
the base; 6 — the insulator, 7 — cone (condenser plate); 8 — a
condenser plate,
9 — a spacer; 10 — the submembrane camera
6.3 Tenzorezistivny pressure sensors
Two components are a part of sensors of this kind: plate the known area
and the detector which output signal is proportionalto the applied force.The
pressure sensor with a silicon diaphragm consists of the diaphragmand
piezoresistive transformers which are built in it by a diffusion method. As
monocrystal silicon possesses very muchgood characteristics of elasticity, in
such sensor is absent creep and hysteresis even in case of high pressure.
The silicon tenzorezistivny coefficient many times over exceeds
similar coefficient of the thin metal conductor. Usually
tensoresistors turn on according to the diagram of the Witstone bridge.The
maximum voltage output of such sensors usually makesseveral cells of
millivolts therefore on their output are put signals amplifiers. Silicon resistors
possess the quite strong temperaturesensitivity, therefore always by
development of sensors on their basisit is necessary to provide circuits of a
temperature compensation.

Tenzorezistivny sensor of pressure on silicon diaphragm

Methods and means of an expens measurement
For control of streams of liquids and gases in various branches
the industries are applied sensors of a stream and flowmeters.
the concept of a stream can be defined differently, for example mass
stream or volume, laminar or turbulent. Expense mass (m Q),
volume ( Qv) is the amount of substance passing through known
section in unit of time: (8.1)expression

Usually want to find out amount of substance in a stream and if liquid

has constant density, the volume stream is usually measured,
as it is easier to measure him. Many technologies of measurement it is
successful
others cope with measurement of streams of gases and liquids, however are
specific to the fact that measure. The expense is usually calculated, measuring
the speed of a current of liquid in a pipe and multiplying it by the known
cross-sectional area of a pipe in a measurement point.
Measurement of an expense on pressure difference
The greatest distribution was gained by a method of measurement of an
expense on to pressure difference on the narrowing device. According to
Bernoulli's equation,in streams, stationary without friction, sum kinetic,
potential
energy and pressure along a stream is constant.

For a stationary stream of the

nonviscous and incompressible environment it is possible

to use Bernoulli's equation:

Ratios between pressure difference on the narrowing device and

speed of a stream has the following appearance:
Q ~ ϑ ~ ΔP. (8.6)
Thus, on pressure difference on the narrowing device it is possible
to perform measurement of speed of a stream and, respectively, an expense.
This simplified formula doesn't consider a set of factors,
for example, narrowing of a stream, loss of energy on internal friction and on
turbulences in a stream therefore the real dependence has more difficult
look.
Selection of pressure is made in the field of the narrowing device. Place
arrangements of points of selection influences indications of a flowmeter.
Structurally narrowing devices can be in the form of a nozzle with
smooth narrowing of section of a pipe that allows to form a stream in
avoidance of losses on turbulence in a stream.

Lecture 15
Methods and toolsfortemperaturemeasurement
For temperature measurement use various effects in
solid, liquid and gaseous environments. It, for example, change
geometrical sizes of bodies, physical, chemical and electrical
characteristics of substances, frequency change of oscillations of resonators
and
speeds of distribution of waves in the environments in case of change of their
temperature.
Total characteristic of methods:
• the range of the taken temperatures makes from 0 °К to 105K; Methods and
gages of temperature
• the registered speed of temperature change, reaches hundredsdegrees a
second;
• the registered frequency of pulsations of temperature is tens kilohertz;
• the maximum measuring accuracy reaches 10−4%.
General characteristic of the most widely used sensors temperatures:
Control over temperature make a basis of many technological processes.
Measurement of temperature of liquid, gas, firm surface or loose powder -
each case has the feature which needs to be understood that measurements as
much as possible corresponded to an objective. There is a set of sensors
temperatures, various physical constructed with use laws. One of them
perfectly cope with a specific objective on to measurement of temperature,
others are intended for universal uses.
If to consider temperature sensors for industrial
applications, it is possible to allocate their main classes:
• silicon sensors of temperature, • bimetallic sensors, • liquid and gas
thermometers,
• heat indicators, • thermistors, • thermocouples, • resistance thermometers,
• infrared sensors of temperature.

Electrical contact thermometry

Electrical contact thermometry is based on use thermometers of
resistance, thermocouples, semiconductor items in quality of temoconvertors
it and quartz thermometry
 6.2.1 Thermocouples Now were widely used wire and thin-film
thermocouples. At the same time diameter of a wire can be several
millimeters, and thickness of a film to reach several micrometers. In the first
case of the thermocouple intend for heavy service conditions, and in the
second – for control fast-proceeding low-power-intensive thermal processes.

Thermocouple design: 1- accustom to drinking conductors, 2 - the case;3

insulator

Thermocouples represent two wires from various metals, welded among

hemselves on one of the ends, f to connect two conductors from diverse
metals in such a way that they would form the closed chain and to support
places of contacts
conductors at a different temperature,in a chain the direct current will begin to
flow.
Semiconductor temperature sensors on the basis of transition p-
n.Characteristics of the semiconductor diode and the transistor strongly
depend from temperatures. The voltage output removed with transition p-n,
practically linearly depends on temperature
The advantage of such sensors is thelinearityoutputcharacteristics

Thermocouple Gauge

The thermocouple gauge is one of a group of gauges working on the thermal

conductivity principle. At low pressure, the kinematic theory of gases predicts a linear
relationship between pressure and thermal conductivity. Thus measurement of thermal
conductivity gives an indication of pressure. Figure 15.8 shows a sketch of a
thermocouple gauge. Operation of the gauge depends on the thermal conduction of heat
between a thin hot metal strip in the center and the cold outer surface of a glass tube (that
is normally at room temperature). The metal strip is heated by passing a current through it
and its temperature is measured by a thermocouple. The temperature measured depends
on the thermal conductivity of the gas in the tube and hence on its pressure. A source of
error in this instrument is the fact that heat is also transferred by radiation as well as
conduction. This error is of a constant magnitude, independent of pressure. Hence, it can
be measured, and thus correction can be made for it. However, it is usually more
convenient to design for low radiation loss by choosing a heated element with low
emissivity. Thermocouple gauges are typically used to measure pressures in the range
104 mbar up to 1 mbar
The capacitive method of level measurement is based on the fact that the electric
capacitance of a special capacitor installed in a tank with a liquid depends on its level.

Depending on the electrical characteristics of the liquid, the level of which is measured by the
capacitive method, they are divided into non-conductive and conductive.

In fig. 2.163, a device of a capacitive transducer for measuring the level of non-conductive
liquid is shown.
An electrode 1, isolated from the housing by a sleeve 3, is omitted . The second electrode is
the grounded housing of the converter 2. Thus, the converter consists of two parallel-
connected capacitors: a capacitor C w , a part formed. The electrode and the dielectric - the
liquid whose level is measured, and the capacitor C in , formed by the rest of the electrode and
the dielectric - air.

The measurement of electric capacitance C d is performed by an inductive-capacitive bridge

(Fig. 2.163, b), consisting of the inductors of the two secondary windings of the transformer
T p , capacitors C s , C 2 and C d . The measuring bridge is powered by a generator of 100 Hz
frequency. With a change in the liquid level, the immersion depth of the electrode changes,
which causes a change in the capacitance C d and the unbalance of the bridge.

An unbalance signal proportional to the liquid level is fed to the input of the amplifier, the output
voltage of which is measured by a secondary VP device (potentiometer or milliammeter).

The measuring range depends on the type of electrode, its length, and the characteristics of
the measured fluid.

The Wien Bridge measurement of capacitance.

Now almost every universal multimeter has the ability to measure the
capacitance of capacitors. This is especially useful when dealing with
capacitors whose markings are unreadable or missing. In this case, a
measurement with an accuracy of several percent is sufficient, because, firstly,
the capacitors themselves are not so accurate, and secondly, this is enough for
devices. But sometimes it is necessary to know the exact value of the
capacitance of a capacitor. After all, precision capacitors are difficult to obtain
and quite expensive. Therefore, we just take the packaging of the same and
select the appropriate ones
 The Wien Bridge can accurately measure both capacitance and resistance.
And after converting to a Maxwell bridge, there is also inductance. All analog
RLC bridges are based on the principle of this circuit.

he Uwe input is connected to a fixed or variable frequency sine wave

generator. A voltmeter is connected to Uwy. Rx and Cx are the required
resistance and capacitance. R3 and C2 are known and constant. R2 and R4 are
potentiometers equipped with scales from which the Rx and Cx values are
read. These potentiometers are adjusted until the bridge is balanced and the
voltmeter reads zero. Then two dependencies are satisfied:
The measurement accuracy depends on the stability of the generator supplying
the bridge, and the knowledge of the resistor value and C2 capacitance. Using
the known Rx and Cx values, it can be calibrated.