Stoichiometry experiments must involve moles.

They nearly always use a

balanced chemical equation. Measurements include initial and final masses,
and initial and final volumes. Calculations may include the difference
between the initial and final values (on the AP Exam you can never
measure a difference). Using the formula mass and the mass in grams,
moles may be calculated (not measured). Moles may also be calculated
from the volume of a solution and its molarity.
Once the moles have been calculated (they are never measured), the
experiment will be based on further calculations using these moles.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Avogadro’s number is 6.022 × 1023 (not 10–23).

2. Be sure to know the difference between molecules and moles.
3. In empirical formula problems, be sure to get the lowest ratio of whole
numbers.
4. In stoichiometry problems, be sure to use the balanced chemical
equation.
5. The stoichiometric ratio comes from the balanced chemical equation.
6. When in doubt, convert to moles.
7. In limiting-reactant problems, don’t consider just the number of grams
or even moles to determine the limiting reactant. Use the
mol/coefficient ratio.
8. The limiting reactant is a reactant, a chemical species to the left of the
reactant arrow.
9. Use the balanced chemical equation.
10. Percent yield is the actual yield of a substance divided by the theoretical
yield of the same substance multiplied by 100%. (Normally the actual
yield is given, and the theoretical yield is calculated.)
11. Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution, not solvent.
12. Be careful when using Avogadro’s number—use it when you need or
have the number of atoms, ions, or molecules.

Review Questions
Use these questions to review the content of this chapter and practice for the
AP Chemistry Exam. First are 20 multiple-choice questions similar to what
you will encounter in Section I of the AP Chemistry Exam. Included are
questions designed to help you review prior knowledge. Following those is
a long free-response question like the ones in Section II of the exam. To
make these questions an even more authentic practice for the actual exam,
time yourself following the instructions provided.

Multiple-Choice Questions
Answer the following questions in 30 minutes. You may not use a
calculator. You may use the periodic table and the equation sheet at the back
of this book.

1. How many milliliters of 0.100 M H2SO4 are required to neutralize 50.0

mL of 0.200 M KOH?
(A) 25.0 mL
(B) 30.0 mL
(C) 20.0 mL
(D) 50.0 mL

2. A sample of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, is titrated with standard sodium

hydroxide, NaOH, solution. A total of 45.20 mL of 0.1200 M NaOH is
required to completely neutralize 20.00 mL of the acid. What is the
concentration of the acid?
(A) 0.2712 M
(B) 0.1200 M
 (C) 0.1356 M
(D) 0.2400 M

3. A solution is prepared by mixing 50.0 mL of 0.20 M arsenic acid,

H3AsO4, and 50.0 mL of 0.20 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH. Which
anion is present in the highest concentration?
(A) HAsO42–
(B) OH–
(C) H2AsO4–
(D) Na+

4. 14 H+(aq) + 6 Fe2+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) → 2 Cr3+(aq) + 6 Fe3+(aq) + 7

H2O(l)

This reaction is used in the titration of an iron solution. What is the

concentration of the iron solution if it takes 45.20 mL of 0.1000 M
Cr2O72– solution to titrate 50.00 mL of an acidified iron solution?
(A) 0.5424 M
(B) 0.1000 M
(C) 1.085 M
(D) 0.4520 M

5. Which of the following best represents the balanced net ionic equation
for the reaction of silver carbonate with concentrated hydrochloric acid?
Silver ions have a 1+ charge. In this reaction, all silver compounds are
insoluble.
(A) 2 AgCO3(s) + 4 H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → Ag2Cl(s) + CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
(B) Ag2CO3(s) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 Cl–(aq) → 2 AgCl(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(C) AgCO3(s) + 2 H+(aq) → Ag+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(D) Ag2CO3(s) + 4 Cl–(aq) → 2 AgCl2(s) + CO32–(aq)

6. Vanadium forms several oxides. In which of the following oxides is the

vanadium-to-oxygen mass ratio 2.39:1.00?
 (A) VO
(B) V2O3
(C) V3O4
(D) VO2

7. A student takes a beaker containing 25.0 mL of 0.10 M magnesium

nitrate, Mg(NO3)2, and adds, with stirring, 25.0 mL of a 0.10 M
potassium hydroxide, KOH. A white precipitate of magnesium
hydroxide immediately forms. Which of the following correctly
indicates the relative concentrations of the other ions’ concentrations?
(A) [K+] > [Mg2+] > [NO3–]
(B) [Mg2+] > [NO3–] > [K+]
(C) [K+] > [NO3–] > [Mg2+]
(D) [NO3–] > [K+] > [Mg2+]

8. Sodium sulfate forms several hydrates. A sample of a hydrate is heated

until all the water is removed. What is the formula of the original
hydrate if it loses 43% of its mass when heated?
(A) Na2SO4 H2O
(B) Na2SO4 2H2O
(C) Na2SO4 6H2O
(D) Na2SO4 8H2O

9. 3 Cu(s) + 8 HNO3(aq) → 3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H2O(l)

Copper metal reacts with nitric acid according to the above equation. A
0.30-mole sample of copper metal and 10.0 mL of 12 M nitric acid are
mixed in a flask. How many moles of NO gas will form?
(A) 0.060 mole
(B) 0.030 mole
(C) 0.010 mole
(D) 0.20 mole
10. Gold(III) oxide, Au2O3, can be decomposed to gold metal, Au, plus
oxygen gas, O2. How many moles of oxygen gas will form when 221 g
of solid gold(III) oxide is decomposed? The formula mass of gold(III)
oxide is 442 g/mole.
(A) 0.250 mole
(B) 0.500 mole
(C) 0.750 mole
(D) 1.00 mole

11. Which of the following is the correct net ionic equation for the reaction
of nitrous acid, HNO2, with sodium hydroxide, NaOH?
(A) HNO2(aq) + OH–(aq) → NO2–(aq) + H2O(l)
(B) HNO2(aq) + Na+(aq) → NaNO2(s) + H+(aq)
(C) HNO2(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO2(s) + H2O(l)
(D) H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)

12. 2 KMnO4(aq) + 5 H2C2O4(aq) + 3 H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2

MnSO4(aq) + 10 CO2(g) + 8 H2O(l)

How many moles of MnSO4 are produced when 1.0 mole of KMnO4,
5.0 moles of H2C2O4, and 3.0 moles of H2SO4 are mixed?
(A) 4.0 moles
(B) 5.0 moles
(C) 2.0 moles
(D) 1.00 mole

13. When the following equation is balanced, it is found that 1.00 mole of
C8H18 reacts with how many moles of O2?

_____ C8H18(g) + _____ O2(g) → _____ CO2(g) + _____ H2O(g)

(A) 12.5 moles
(B) 10.0 moles
(C) 25.0 moles
(D) 37.5 moles
14. Ca(s) + 2 H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Calcium reacts with water according to the above reaction. What

volume of hydrogen gas, at 25°C and 1.00 atm, is produced from 0.200
mole of calcium?
(A) 4.48 L
(B) 4.89 L
(C) 3.36 L
(D) 0.410 L

15. 2 CrO42–(aq) + 3 SnO22–(aq) + H2O(l) → 2 CrO2–(aq) + 3 SnO32–(aq) +

2 OH–(aq)
How many moles of OH– form when 50.0 mL of 0.100 M CrO42– is
added to a flask containing 50.0 mL of 0.100 M SnO22–?
(A) 0.100 mole
(B) 6.66 × 10–3 mole
(C) 3.33 × 10–3 mole
(D) 5.00 × 10–3 mole

16. A solution containing 0.20 mole of KBr and 0.20 mole of MgBr2 in 2.0
L of water is provided. How many moles of Pb(NO3)2 must be added to
precipitate all the bromide as insoluble PbBr2?
(A) 0.10 mole
(B) 0.50 mole
(C) 0.60 mole
(D) 0.30 mole

17. Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n, where
n ≥ 3. If a 0.560-g sample of any alkene is combusted in excess oxygen,
how many moles of water will form?
(A) 0.0400 mole
(B) 0.600 mole
(C) 0.0200 mole
 (D) 0.400 mole

18. For which of the following substances is the formula mass the same for
both the empirical and molecular formulas?
(A) H2C2O4
(B) C6H12O6
(C) CO2
(D) H2O2

19. How many grams of Ti2(SO4)3 are necessary to make 500.0 mL of a

solution that is 0.1000 M Ti3+?
(A) 38.393 g
(B) 9.598 g
(C) 17.42 g
(D) 19.20 g

20. A chemist performs the following reaction: Mg(s) + I2(s) → MgI2(s)

She begins with 2.30 grams of Mg and 26.0 grams of I2 and produces
2.63 g of MgI2.

Which of the following will lead to more MgI2 being produced?

(A) Adding I2(s)
(B) Increasing the pressure
(C) Adding Mg(s)
(D) Decreasing the temperature

Answers and Explanations

It is possible to simplify the calculations by replacing the definition of
molarity with the equivalent expression
1. D—The reaction is H2SO4(aq) + 2 KOH(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l).
The calculation is:

This calculation simplifies to (50.0 mL base)

Make sure you understand why the simplified calculation works. If you
did not balance the equation, you probably used the wrong mole ratio
and obtained 100.0 mL.

2. C—The reaction is H2C2O4(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) → Na2C2O4(aq) + 2

H2O(l).

As in question 1, if you do not balance the equation, you get the wrong
mole–mole ratio. The calculation is:

As always, round the values to get an estimate and pick the closest
answer.

3. C—

Answer B cannot be correct because the base is the limiting reagent.

 There is enough base to react completely with only one of the ionizable
hydrogen ions from the acid. This leaves H2AsO4–. The net ionic
equation is:

Answer D cannot be correct because it is a cation.

4. A— The balanced chemical equation is given, and the calculation is:

This is a perfect example of where simplification is important. Change

the above calculation to:

This becomes:

Next, round and simplify to:

It is unnecessary to write everything shown here; you need only

write/do the final calculation.
 Since the 45.20 was rounded up, the answer is slightly high; therefore,
pick the closest answer that is slightly lower.

5. B—The question states that in this reaction, all silver compounds are
insoluble, which means that Ag+ is not a possible product since it must
come from a compound. Silver carbonate is insoluble, and its formula
should be written as Ag2CO3. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, so it
should be written as separate H+ and Cl– ions. Silver chloride, AgCl, is
insoluble, and carbonic acid, H2CO3, quickly decomposes to CO2 and
H2O. Answers C and D are not balanced.

6. C—Begin by dividing each value in the given ratio by the atomic mass
of the element:

Divide by the smaller value (0.0469):

It is necessary to have a whole-number ratio. The value 1.33 is too far

from a whole number to round; therefore, it is necessary to multiply by
the smallest value leading to a whole number. Multiplying both by 3
gives 3 V and 4 O, which corresponds to answer C.

7. D—The doubling of the volume will result in halving the concentrations

(Mg2+ = 0.050 M, NO3– = 0.10 M, K+ = 0.050 M, and OH– = 0.050 M ).
The reaction is:

After the reaction, some of the magnesium remains (the remainder

precipitated, leaving < 0.050 M ), the potassium does not change
 (soluble, so still 0.050 M ), and there are two nitrate ions (soluble, so
still 0.10 M ) per magnesium nitrate.

8. C—The calculation is a percent composition calculation. This

technically should be done for all four answers; however, you probably
will not need more than two. For answer C, the calculation is:

The numerator gives the mass of the water molecules present, and the
denominator is from the molar mass of the formula. The percentages for
the other compounds are 11% (A), 20% (B), and 50% (D). As in other
calculations, rounding will simplify the work. As an alternative, it is
possible to solve this problem using an empirical formula calculation
based on 43% H2O and (100 – 43)% = 57% Na2SO4. In this case,
assume 100 g of sample (which makes the percentages equal to the
grams present):

Dividing each of the moles by the smaller value (0.40 mol) gives 1
Na2SO4 for 6 H2O.

9. B—Calculate the moles of acid to compare to the 0.30 mole of Cu:

 The acid is the limiting reactant, because 0.30 mole of copper requires
0.80 mole of acid. Use the limiting reactant to calculate the moles of
NO formed:

10. C—The balanced chemical equation is 2 Au2O3(s) → 4 Au(s) + 3

O2(g).

Note the 2:1 relationship between the formula mass and the mass of
reactant.
11. A—The molecular equation is HNO2(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO2(aq) +
H2O(l).

Nitrous acid is a weak acid; as such, it should remain as HNO2. Sodium

hydroxide is a strong base, so it will separate into Na+ and OH– ions.
Any sodium compound that might form is soluble and will yield Na+
ions. The sodium ions are spectator ions and are left out of the net ionic
equation. Answer D only works for a strong acid and a strong base.
12. D—The KMnO4 is the limiting reagent (2.0 moles of KMnO4 are
required to react with the given amounts of the other reactants). Each
mole of KMnO4 will produce a mole of MnSO4.
13. A—The balanced equation is 2 C8H18(g) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18
H2O(g). The calculation is:
14. B—Use the ideal gas equation (PV = nRT) and rearrange to isolate the
volume:

Answer D is the result of not converting from °C to K. Answer A is the

result of using 22.4 L mol–1 when you are not at STP.

15. C—There are of

CrO42– and an equal number of moles of SnO22–. Thus, SnO22– is the

limiting reactant (larger coefficient in the balanced reaction).

16. D—The volume of water is irrelevant. 0.20 mole of KBr will require
0.10 mole of Pb(NO3)2, and 0.20 mole of MgBr2 will require 0.20 mole
of Pb(NO3)2. Total the two yields to get the final answer.

17. A—One mole of a cycloalkane, CnH2n, will form n moles of water.

It is possible to determine the value of n by dividing the mass of the

cycloalkane by the empirical formula mass (CH2 = 14 g/mole). This
gives:
18. C—For the formula mass of the empirical formula to be the same as
that of the molecular formula, the two formulas must be the same. All
the molecular formulas except CO2 can be simplified to give an
empirical formula that is different from the molecular formula.
19. B—The molar mass of Ti2(SO4)3 is

Since you are not allowed to use a calculator, rounding simplifies

everything:

(Since the rounded answer is slightly higher, using it will produce an

answer that is too high.)
To determine the necessary grams:

(Using the rounded molar mass gives 9.7 g.)

The 17.42 g answer comes if you accidently read Ti as Tl in the
formula (we have seen many variations of this on actual exams).
The 19.20 g answer comes if you skip the 2 in the formula (second
step in the calculation). We see students doing this on the exam when
they do not bother to write out the units while working problems. A
 similar answer results if you forget to include the volume of the
solution.
The 38.393 answer comes from an incorrect volume conversion
(dividing 1,000 by 500.0, another error we have seen on exams we have
graded, mainly because there were no units written).

20. C—The quantities of more than one reactant are given; therefore it is
necessary to determine which reactant is limiting. To determine the
limiting reactant, it is necessary to convert the mass of the reactants to
moles:

Instead of doing the calculations shown, rounding might help. Noticing

that the masses given are slightly below 0.1 mole for the Mg and
slightly above 0.1 mole for I2, is really all that is necessary. Since the
reaction has 1:1 stoichiometry, the reactant with the fewer moles (Mg)
is limiting.
Adding more limiting reactant (Mg) will increase the yield.
Adding more excess reactant (I2) will not increase the yield.
Increasing the pressure is irrelevant since no gases are involved.
Decreasing the temperature may result in it taking longer before the
reaction goes to completion, but it will not change the yield.

Free-Response Question
You have 15 minutes to answer the following question. You may use a
calculator and the tables in the back of the book.
Question
The analysis of a sample of a monoprotic acid found that the sample
contained 40.0% C and 6.71% H. The remainder of the sample was oxygen.
(a) Determine the empirical formula of the acid. Show all work.
(b) A 0.2720-g sample of the acid, HA, was titrated with standard sodium
hydroxide, NaOH, solution. Determine the molecular weight of the acid
if the sample required 45.00 mL of 0.1000 M NaOH for the titration.
Show all work.
(c) A second sample of HA was placed in a flask. The flask was placed in a
hot water bath until the sample vaporized. It was found that 1.18 g of
vapor occupied 300.0 mL at 100°C and 1.00 atm. Determine the
molecular weight of the acid. Show all work.
(d) Using your answer from part (a), determine the molecular formula for
part (b) and for part (c).
(e) Account for any differences in the molecular formulas determined in
part (d).

Answer and Explanation

(a) The percent oxygen (53.3%) is determined by subtracting the carbon
and the hydrogen from 100%. Assuming there are 100 g of sample gives
the grams of each element as being numerically equivalent to the
percent. Dividing the grams by the molar mass of each element gives the
moles of each.
 This gives the empirical formula CH2O.
You get 1 point for correctly determining any of the elements and 1
point for getting the complete empirical formula correct if you show
your work. The symbols do not need to be in the order shown here.
(b) Using HA to represent the monoprotic acid, the balanced equation for
the titration reaction is:

The moles of acid may then be calculated:

The molecular mass is:

You get 1 point for the correct number of moles of HA (or NaOH) and 1
point for the correct final answer, if you show your work.
(c) There are several methods to solve this problem. One way is to use the
ideal gas equation, as done here. The equation and the value of R are in
the exam booklet. First, find the moles: n = PV/RT. Do not forget that
you MUST change temperature to kelvin.

The molecular mass is:

 You get 1 point for getting any part of the calculation correct and 1 point
for getting the correct final answer, if you show your work. If you used a
different method and got the correct results you will still get credit.
(d) The approximate formula mass from the empirical (CH2O) formula is:

You get 1 point for each correct molecular formula. If you got the wrong
answer in part (a), you could still get credit for one or both molecular
formulas if you used the part (a) value correctly.
(e) The one formula is double the formula of the other. Thus, the smaller
molecule dimerizes (forms a pair) to produce the larger molecule.
You get 1 point for pointing to any relationship between the two
formulas. You get 1 point if you note the second formula is two of the
lighter molecules added together.
Total your points. There are 10 points possible.

Rapid Review
• The mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of
particles as exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• Avogadro’s number is the number of particles per mole, 6.022 × 1023
particles.
• A mole is also the formula (atomic, molecular) mass expressed in grams.
• If you have any one of the three—moles, grams, or particles—you can
calculate the others.
• The empirical formula indicates which elements are present and the
lowest whole-number ratio.
• The molecular formula tells which elements are present and the actual
number of each.
• Be able to calculate the empirical formula from percent composition data
or quantities from chemical analysis.
• Stoichiometry is the calculation of the amount of one substance in a
chemical equation by using another substance from the equation.
• Always use the balanced chemical equation in reaction stoichiometry
problems.
• Be able to convert from moles of one substance to moles of another,
using the stoichiometric ratio derived from the balanced chemical
equation.
• In working problems that involve a quantity other than moles, sooner or
later it will be necessary to convert to moles.
• The limiting reactant is the reactant that is used up first.
• Be able to calculate the limiting reactant using the mol/coefficient ratio.
• Percent yield is the actual yield (how much was actually formed in the
reaction) divided by the theoretical yield (the maximum possible amount
of product formed) times 100%.
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of a solute (species
present in smaller amount) and a solvent (species present in larger
amount).
• Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Don’t
confuse molarity, M or [ ], with moles, n or mol.
• Be able to work reaction stoichiometry problems using molarity.
• Always use the balanced chemical equation in reaction stoichiometry
problems.
• Watch your units. The mass of one substance will not cancel the mass of
another substance. The moles of one substance will never cancel the
moles of a different substance. A mole ratio is required.