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Bio-Based Fire Retardant for Coco Lumber using Aloe barbadensis miller (Aloe
Vera), Mangifera indica (Mango), or Persea americana (Avocado) and Boron
Additives

Article in Sinaya A Philippine Journal for Senior High School Teachers and Students · November 2023
DOI: 10.59588/3027-9283.1053

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 03
Hannah Luisa B. Mallillin
John Gabriel B. Bolivar
Niccolo Armando C. De Castro
Seo Eun Kim
Isabel Angelica A. Sanchez
Antonio Agustin F. Singian
Zaki Mitzrael L. Santos
Esther Joy G. Valle
Jose Mari M. Calamlam
Gerald B. Gamboa

De La Salle Santiago Zobel School – Vermosa Campus, Imus City, Cavite

Abstract: Accidental fires are prevalent in low-income communities and one of the
solutions to decrease fire risk is to apply fire retardants on combustible materials.
While extensive research were available in creating fire retardants with inorganic
chemicals, further studies are needed for bio-based fire retardants. The development
of bio-based fire retardants involves testing organic matter for the presence of fire-
retardant compounds such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and polyphenols. This study
sought to determine the effectiveness of the peels of Aloe barbadensis miller (aloe
vera), Mangifera indica (mangoes), and Persea americana (avocados) in creating
bio-based fire retardants for coco lumber. Maceration was used to get the fruit and
plant extracts. Boric acid and borax were also added as additives to boost fire
retarding properties. The burning behavior of the lumber was observed in a modified
horizontal flammability test and a modified flame spread test and measured in terms
of mass loss, smoke density, char yield, and charring rate. The results revealed that
among the fruits, the mango-based fire-retardant inhibited mass loss the most (M =
0.006, SD = 0.003), while the avocado-based fire-retardant inhibited smoke the most
(M = 0.036, SD = 0.016). No significant difference was found among the groups as
determined by One-way ANOVA and MANOVA (p > 0.05). An indirect relationship
was found between smoke density and char yield, which may be examined to
improve the smoke suppressing ability of commercial fire retardants. Future studies
may also refine the plant extracts and use standard flammability tests.

Keywords: bio-based fire retardants; mass loss of wood; smoke density; char yield
of wood; charring rate of wood

Vol. 1, No. 3, 2022, pp. 94-130

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INTRODUCTION

House fires commonly occur in the Philippines and disadvantaged communities are

especially vulnerable to them. Light construction materials are more commonly used in

impoverished residential areas due to their significant lack of income to provide better housing for

their families (Ballesteros, 2010). In England, Dean et al. (2015) found that impoverished young

families and urban populations experienced the most fatalities due to fire incidents. This increases

the need for the implementation of cost-efficient fire prevention methods in disadvantaged

communities.

One of the strategies in reducing fire risk, targeting the combustible properties of structural

materials since this impacts the spread of fire, is the application of fire retardants (Wahlqvist &

Hees, 2016). Fire retardant chemicals such as boron, nitrogen, phosphorus, and metals are mixed

or chemically-bonded (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [NIEHS], n.d.; Vahabi

et al., 2020). When applied, materials are subject to heat and their fire retarding properties were

observed.

Several studies succeeded in making cellulosic material fire resistant by chemically binding

the fire retardant onto the material (Al Hokayem et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2020; Yan, Xu, & Wang,

2019). Alternatively, other studies have used organic materials to create fire retardants. Basak and

Ali (2019) created a novel fire retardant for cotton fabric using pomegranate rind. An examination

of the pomegranate rind’s chemical composition revealed the presence of nitrogen, potassium,

aluminum, silicon, sulfur, chlorine, calcium. Consequently, the combination of nitrogen and

phosphorus created thermally stable residues (Ghomi et al., 2020). Furthermore, Basak and Ali

(2017) stated that polyphenolic compounds helped improve the char formation ability of

pomegranate. Similarly, Xia et al. (2018) stated that when subject to heat, polyphenols increase
96

char formation. In addition, char formation improves the fire retardancy of the material because it

serves as a protective barrier against heat and prevents the release of combustible particles in the

air (Browne, 1958; Salasinska et al., 2017).

03 Although fruits and plants contain high levels of polyphenol, nitrogen, and phosphorus

content, they have not been studied for fire retarding properties. An analysis done by Haque et al.

(2014) showed that the Aloe Vera leaves contained 1.90 mg/g of phosphorus. Masibo and Qian

(2008) found that polyphenolic compounds present in mangoes amount to 4066 mg/kg. In a study

done by Haas (1945), the nitrogen content in avocados ranged from 0.07% to 0.56% in a fresh

pulp, while the dry pulp nitrogen content ranged from 0.21% to 1.82%. The phosphorus content

ranged from 509 parts per million (ppm) to 1122 ppm for a fresh pulp, and the range of a dry pulp

was from 2063 ppm to 3243 ppm.

Another factor to consider in the creation of fire retardants are fire retardant additives.

Wang et al., (2010) mentioned in their study that individually, chemicals with fire retarding

properties are not sufficient in making a fire retardant. They also mentioned the need to integrate

fire retardant chemicals into their base fire retardants to improve their ability to suppress smoke

and flame. Boric acid and borax were used as additives due to their fire retarding properties.

According to a study done by Wang et al. (2004), boric acid accelerates oxygen diluting reactions

in the wood at about 100-300 degrees Celsius, which is a desirable effect in a fire retardant. Their

study revealed that boric acid is usually paired with borax because it can inhibit flame spread but

promotes smoldering, which boric acid can suppress. Given these results from both boron

compounds, boric acid and borax were integrated into the bio-based fire retardant.

Several gaps exist in fire retardant research. First, controlled experiments cannot account

for numerous variables that affect an actual fire in current fire-retardant tests. Variables such as

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 97

humidity impact the flame spread rate of a material (Dietenberger & Hasburgh, 2016). Thus, the

behavior of fire retardants in buildings and homes may not be accurately predicted using results

from previous studies. Second, few studies have developed plant-based fire retardants for wood.

Third, fire retardants, specifically created for lumber from tropical regions, are lacking.

To address these limitations, the researchers created an alternative bio-based fire retardant

for coco lumber using Aloe barbadensis miller (aloe vera), Mangifera indica (mango), or Persea

americana (avocado) and boron additives. The plant-based fire retardants were developed using

mixtures and physical reactions, and their performance was judged based on mass loss-the weight

loss of the wood due to combustion (Yan et al., 2019), char yield-the amount of char produced,

measured by the amount of char from the burned samples in grams, smoke density- smoke density

is the amount of carbon in the smoke (Champagne, 1971), and charring rate- the speed of char

formation or char depth over a constant period of time (Maraveas et al., 2013). Char depth is

measured using optical density, the amount of light that passes through the smoke (Wellhausen et

al., 2013).

The study addressed the limitation of controlled experiments by acclimatizing the samples

before performing modified tests outdoors. The standard fire tests were modified due to pandemic-

related constraints. Through the development of a bio-based fire retardant, the study aimed to lower

the risk of fire in domestic places to prevent people from losing one of their basic needs, which is

shelter.

From the experiments, the following research questions were answered:

1. What are the effects of fire retardants made from plant/fruit skin extracts on the burning

timber in terms of the following;

a. mass loss;
98

b. char yield;

c. charring rate; and

d. smoke density?

03 2. Is there a significant difference between the mass loss, char yield, charring rate, and

smoke density of fire retardants treated with different plant/fruit extracts?

3. Is there a significant difference in the mass loss, char yield, charring rate, and smoke

density of the experimental group compared to the control group?

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

A one-factor research design was used to assess the effects of different types of plant/fruit

extracts and an 8% concentration of boric acid and borax on the flammability of the coco lumber

samples. The independent variable, i.e., plant/fruit extract, had four categorical levels: three

experimental groups and a negative control group. Furthermore, a positive control group made of

samples treated with a Class A fire retardant was also present. In total, five groups underwent the

horizontal flammability test and flame spread test to assess their fire retardancy in terms of the

dependent variables: mass loss, char yield, smoke density, and charring rate.

Research Locale and Samples

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, particular adaptations were made in the research locale,

sample size, and procurement. Material development was done in the researchers’ respective

homes in the cities of Cavite, Las Pinas, and Muntinlupa, while the testing procedures were

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conducted in Quezon City. All materials and equipment were purchased online from established

shops. Each experimental group included five timber samples. The sample size was limited to five

due to financial constraints, though it was within the acceptable range suggested by James et al.

(2007) for experiment trials.

Development of fire-retardant-treated timber

The development of fire-retardant-treated timber consisted of four stages. First, the fire-

retardant additives were prepared. Boric acid and borax were mixed in boiling water in a ratio of

1:1:8 until they were fully dissolved. Second, plant extracts were obtained using maceration. The

fruit peels were cleaned using distilled water and cut into small pieces (Albrigi, n.d.). The cut

pieces were then oven-dried at a temperature of 50°C, until they reached a moisture content of

10% (Safdar et al., 2016). Once the moisture content of the peels reached 10%, they underwent

maceration by storing the dried fruit/plant rind in an airtight water-filled container for three days

with frequent shaking (Waghmare & Deshmukh, 2017). After three days, the mixture was filtered

via straining to remove insoluble materials from the liquid. Third, the fire retardants were

formulated. Ninety-two percent plant extract and eight percent boron additives were rapidly

blended according to the optimal ratio studied by Ayrilmis et al. (2012). The fire retardants were

then stored in sanitized and airtight glass jars during transport to the research area. Fourth, coco

lumber was prepared and treated with the fire retardants. A 330 x 50 mm. board was used for the

horizontal flammability test, a modification made from the UL94 Horizontal Flammability Tester

(TESTEX, n.d.). A 4 x 0.26 ft. board was used for the flame spread test, which was proportionate

to the size used in the Steiner Tunnel Test (Eickner, 1977). The sample groups were coated with

five (5) fire retardants and dried outdoors for 24 hours. The negative control group received a boric

acid and borax treatment and was acclimatized with the other groups for 24 hours. The positive
100

control group was treated with a Flame Shield, Class A fire retardant, and was dried outdoors

according to the instructions specified on the product.

03
Instruments and Data Gathering Procedures

For data collection, the samples' mass loss, smoke density, char yield, and charring rate

when burned were measured in the horizontal flammability and flame spread tests.

Five sample groups were tested based on the factorial design of the research. Table 1 shows

the contents of each group and how the independent variable was separated into categorical levels,

with a control variable of 8% concentration of boric acid and borax.

Table 1

Experimental groups with levels of plant/fruit extract and FR additives

Plant/fruit extract Boric acid + Borax

Concentration of 8%

None Negative Control Group

Aloe Vera Experimental Group 1

Mango Experimental Group 2

Avocado Experimental Group 3

Class A fire retardant Positive Control Group

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Smoke density, mass loss, charring rate, and char yield were measured to determine the fire

retardants' effectiveness. Ten (10) samples from each experiment group, standard group, and

control group underwent the horizontal flammability test and the modified flame spread test; five

(5) underwent the former test while the other five (5) underwent the last test.

The Horizontal Flammability Test was used in this study to collect data on mass loss, char

formation, and smoke density. According to the article Flammability Test Methods (n.d.), the

horizontal flammability test is a procedure that examines how easily a material would catch fire

and how they behave when introduced to fire. The material was positioned above the bunsen burner

horizontally, which allowed the researchers to distinguish whether the material will remain burning

after the test flame was removed. The rate at which the materials burn could be determined as well.

A simplified version of the horizontal flammability test was constructed using horizontal support

and a butane torch, based on TESTEX (n.d). The horizontal support was used to keep the specimen

in place throughout the experiment or adjust the specimen when burning. Adjustment of the sample

was made to increase or decrease the concentration on any part of the material. The butane torch

was used to ignite the wood to start the burning process and collect the needed data for the

dependent variables.

Conducting the horizontal flammability test involved several steps. First, the sample was

suspended above the ground using horizontal support with a butane torch placed over it. Second,

the light intensity and the weight of the sample were measured using the light meter and weighing

scale before the test. Third, the sample was burned for thirty seconds (30 sec.). Light intensity was

measured again during the test. Fourth, once the test was completed, char was scraped off the wood

to weigh the sample and the char for mass loss and char yield. Accordingly, the procedure of the

horizontal flammability test is complete, illustrated in Figure 1:

102

Figure 1

Modified Horizontal Flammability Test

03

The modified flame spread test, adapted from the Steiner Tunnel Test, was used to observe

the charring rate of the wood samples. The Steiner Tunnel measures how far and how fast flames

spread across the 25 ft length of the test sample, ending after 10 minutes (Eickner, 1977). Due to

financial constraints, the wood’s dimensions were reduced to 4 x 0.26 ft, and the test only lasted

2.20 minutes. In this study, the researchers constructed the tunnel using concrete, a fire-resistant

material (CLM Fireproofing, n.d.). However, the structure of the tunnel was modified to

accommodate the dimensions of the wood samples. The tunnel was 4 ft. long, and the inner

chamber was 12 x 18 inches. Openings on either end of the tunnel measured 12 x 18 inches to

properly ventilate the chamber. The wood sample was attached to the chamber ceiling, with a

butane torch placed at one end of the specimen.

The flame spread test started once the flames came into contact with one end of the sample.

The sample was burned for 2.20 minutes. Using a measuring tape, char length was taken after the

test, and this data was processed to get the charring rate of the sample. Figure 2.2 shows an

illustration of the modified flame spread test.

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Figure 2

Modified Flame Spread Test

Data Analysis Procedures

Equations 1 and 2 were used to obtain the mass loss value (Zamboni, 2020):

Mass loss percentage = final mass / initial mass (Eq. 1)

Average mass loss = initial mass average - final mass average (Eq. 2)

The ratio between the weight of char and the initial weight of the sample was calculated

to obtain the char yield value (Guizani et al., 2017). This equation was used to obtain light

intensity values for smoke density (Meredith & Massey, 1977):

Light intensity = initial light intensity / final light intensity (Eq. 3)

The data was then analyzed using the Jamovi software to determine the most effective fire

retardant. First, descriptive statistics determined the general increase or decrease in the dependent

variables per group. Subsequently, significant differences between the sample groups according to

mass loss, smoke density, char yield, and charring rate were drawn using One-way ANOVA and

its non-parametric alternative, the Kruskal-Wallis H test. Lastly, significant differences between

the experimental and control groups were compared using One-way ANOVA and MANOVA.

From this data analysis procedure, the researchers will determine the optimal bio-based material
104

and fire retardant by choosing the treated group with the most significant positive effects compared

to the negative control group and the most negligible difference compared to the positive control

group.

03
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effects of fire retardants on burning timber

In terms of mass loss

When a material undergoes combustion, mass is lost in the process (Yan et al., 2019).

Therefore, mass loss is used to determine the ability of fire retardants to prevent thermal

decomposition or convert the mass into char (Karaseva et al., 2019).

To treat the wood and test for mass loss, the plant extracts of aloe vera, avocado, and mango

peels were obtained using maceration. Boric acid and borax were diluted in water at 100°C, in a

1:1:8 ratio. The plant extract and boron solution were then blended together and coated on a 330

x 50 mm board of coco lumber. Mass loss was measured using the modified horizontal

flammability test, wherein the board was suspended above the ground horizontally and subjected

to heat for 30 seconds. The weight of the board was measured before and after it was burned. These

two variables were then used to calculate the mass loss of the wood (see Equations 1 and 2).

Figure 3

Mass Loss among the Sample

Groups

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Figure 3 presents the mass loss of the treated wood. Aloe vera (M = 0.01, SD = 0.009)

had the highest mass loss and was closest to the negative (M = 0.007, SD = 0.002) , while mango

(M = 0.006, SD = 0.003) had the lowest mass loss and was closest to the positive (M = 0.006, SD

= 0.003).

Among the fruits, the mango-based fire-retardant significantly lessened mass loss because

it was closest to the results of the positive control group. Yan et al. (2019) notes that mass loss

decreases when the char yield increases because it acts as a barrier, protecting the material from

any damage. In addition to char formation, the polyphenols, as well as the boron compounds from

the additives, improved the thermal stability of the wood, which prevented mass loss. These

compounds were also observed to lessen the mass loss in previous studies (Karaseva et al., 2019;

Xu, et al., 2018).

In terms of smoke density

Smoke emissions is one of the properties that fire retardants aim to suppress due to their

life-threatening effects on the human respiratory system (Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.)

For this study, smoke density was measured using optical density, which is the amount of light

that can pass through smoke despite the obstruction of the light path by the fumes (Wellhausen et

al., 2013). By measuring the smoke density or the concentration of smoke particles produced, the

researchers can determine if a particular fire retardant or fire prevention method is effective in fire

suppression.

Smoke density is measured during the modified horizontal flammability test. The sample

lies between a light source and a light meter. As the sample is being burned, the light meter

measures the amount of light that penetrates the smoke emissions. Smoke density is then calculated

using Equation 3.
106

Figure 4

Smoke Density among the Sample Groups

Figure 4 presents the smoke density values of samples treated with different fire retardants.

The positive control group (M = 0.050, SD = 0.024) had the highest smoke density value, while

the aloe vera fire retardant (M=0.034, SD = 0.023) exhibited the smallest smoke production.

Avocado (M = 0.036, SD = 0.016) had the second-lowest smoke density but is considered more

effective due to its smaller standard deviation.

The plant-based fire retardants were found to suppress smoke density the most and create

the most char yield compared to the control groups. These results are aligned with the increased

char yield theory because the char layer traps smoke particles, causing lower smoke density

(Browne, 1958). The polyphenol, nitrogen, and phosphorus content of the plant/fruits may have

encouraged char growth since similar results were observed in other studies that focused on these

elements (Basak and Ali, 2019; Karaseva et al., 2019).

In terms of char yield

Char formation is a crucial variable in the development of fire retardants. Several studies

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have found that the char layer protects the wood from heat and further decomposition (Mariappan

et al., 2017; Salasinska et al, 2017); Al Hokayem et al., 2020). Char formation was measured using

char yield, which is the percent weight of char formed after burning the wood in the horizontal

flammability test.

Figure 5

Char Yield among the Sample Groups

Figure 5 presents the char yield of the treated wood. Aloe vera (M = 0.006, SD = 0.004)

had the highest char yield and was closest to the negative (M = 0.004, SD = 0.002), while avocado

(M = 0.004, SD = 0.003) had the lowest char yield and was closest to the positive (M = 0.003, SD

= 0.002).

Intumescent char, which swells under heat to protect the underlying wood from thermal

decomposition (Kandola et al., 2020), was one of the expected observations in the experiments.

Unfortunately, the char residues of all experimental and control groups were not intumescent

because char almost accounted for all mass loss. As both groups use boric acid and borax, a

contradiction is found with previous studies that state that the two additives were observed to form
108

intumescent char (Ghomi, 2020; Xu et al., 2018). This may imply that the properties in the char

cannot suppress mass loss. The rate of air change was found to have a direct relationship with the

rate of mass loss, leading to the conclusion that mass loss rate relies on air flow and oxygen

concentration.

In terms of charring rate

Maraveas et al. (2013) defines charring rate as char depth over a constant period of time.

The researchers found that charring rate was an important indicator of the structural strength of the

wood because char cannot support any additional load. To measure charring rate, wood samples

(4 x 0.26 ft) were coated with the fire retardants, placed in a concrete tunnel, and burned at the

edge for 2.20 minutes. The length of the char was taken after the test, and charring rate was

presented as the length of the char over 2.20 minutes.

Figure 6

Charring Rate among the Sample Groups

Figure 6 presents the charring rates of the treated wood. Mango-treated wood (M = 1.476,

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SD = 0.116) had the fastest charring rate, followed by the positive group (M = 1.400, SD = 0.121).

The negative group (M = 1.333; SD = 0.111) had the slowest charring rate, with the second slowest

being the avocado-treated wood (M = 1.333, SD = 0.153).

The charring rate of wood is affected by the amount of heat applied on the material

(Maraveas et al., 2013), therefore fire retardants must reduce the charring rate by heat dissipation

or absorption according to the thermal theories (LeVan, 1984).

The negative control group composed of borax and boric acid exhibited the lowest charring

rate compared to the positive control group, followed closely by the avocado. The positive effect

of the negative control group and avocado may be due to the boron additives increasing its thermal

stability, as observed in a study done by Ghomi et al. (2021). Browne (1958) also said that borax

may absorb heat into its water crystals, which may aid the negative control and avocado groups in

decreasing the charring rate.

When testing the fire retardants on the burning timber, it was found that the different

plant/fruit extracts showed different effects. Mango was the most efficient in inhibiting mass loss,

avocado had the lowest smoke density, and aloe vera created the most char, while the negative

group had the lowest charring rate.

The mass loss, smoke density, char yield, and charring rate values of the different treated

timber groups reflected some deviation from the conceptual framework. For instance, aloe vera

was not consistent in the results, unlike the other groups. This may mean that it had no effect on

the timber, and results were instead affected by the wood density and weather variables. Due to

some limitations, precise tests and instruments were not used, which may have caused

inconsistencies in the data. Hagen, et al. (2009) states that techniques such as the cone calorimeter

test and the thermogravimetric analyzer may be used to obtain precise flammability and
110

degradation properties of substances; however, these are inaccessible due to the pandemic.

Furthermore, during the process of maceration and filtration, the plant/fruit extract was not as

refined after the pulverizing process because laboratory equipment was not accessible. This

reduced the solubility of the powdered plant/fruit in maceration. Ideally, maceration is conducted

until bioactive compounds are completely solubilized in the solvent (Garcias-Salas et al., 2010).

Examination of significant difference between the mass loss, char yield, charring rate, and

smoke density of fire retardants treated with different plant/fruit extracts

Table 2

Kruskal-Wallis H Test Results on Mass Loss among the Groups

χ² df p ε²

Mass loss (g) 3.2271 4 0.521 0.13446

Table 2 shows the statistical significance of the plant-based fire retardants in terms of mass

loss. The fire retardant found to have the most mass loss was aloe vera (M= 0.010, SD= 0.009),

closely followed by avocado (M= 0.010, SD= 0.004), and finally the mango fire retardant (M=

0.006, SD= 0.003). There was no significant difference between the three fire retardants based on

the Kruskal-Wallis H test, H(4) = 3.227, p = 0.521.

Table 3

One-way ANOVA Results on Smoke Density among the Groups

F df1 df2 p

Smoke density (lux) Fisher's 0.36252 4 20 0.832

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Table 3 shows the statistical significance of the plant-based fire retardants in terms of

smoke density. The fire retardant found to have the highest smoke density was mango (M= 0.039,

SD= 0.030), then avocado (M= 0.036, SD= 0.016), and aloe vera (M= 0.034, SD= 0.023). The

difference between the smoke density of all the fire retardants was insignificant based on One-way

ANOVA, F(4)= 0.363, p= 0.832.

Table 4

Kruskal-Wallis H Test Results on Char Yield among the Groups

χ² df p ε²

Char yield (%g) 2.4886 4 0.647 0.10369

Table 4 shows the statistical significance of the plant-based fire retardants in terms of char

yield. The fire retardant that had the greatest char yield was Aloe Vera (M= 0.006, SD= 0.004),

followed by Mango (M= 0.005, SD= 0.004), then Avocado (M= 0.004, SD= 0.003). There was no

significant difference between the three fire retardants based on the Kruskal-Wallis H test, H(4) =

2.489, p = 0.647.

Table 5

One-way ANOVA Results on Charring Rate among the Groups

F df1 df2 p

Charring rate (mm/s) Fisher's 0.58017 4 20 0.680

Table 5 shows the statistical significance of the plant-based fire retardants in terms of

charring rate. The fire retardant with the fastest charring rate was Mango (M= 1.476, SD= 0.116),

followed by Aloe Vera (M= 1.377, SD= 0.292), then Avocado (M=1.333, SD= 0.153). The

difference between the charring rate of all the fire retardants was determined to be insignificant
112

after using One-way ANOVA, F(4)= 0.580, p= 0.680.

A number of limitations may have led to the insignificant difference. Consultations with

professionals regarding the data gathering procedures were restricted due to the COVID-19

pandemic. Furthermore, the ripeness of the fruit may have played a big factor in the precision and

validity of the results since some of the mangoes were not completely ripe when they were opened.

A confounding variable that affected all the plant-based fire retardants was the solvent used

during the maceration. The plant/fruits may have lost some of its phenolic content during the

maceration process (López et al., 2013; Masibo & Qian, 2018). In an experiment performed by

Jovanović et al. (2017), the results showed that the least amount of phenolic content was acquired

during maceration. The ideal solvent would be methanol, but due to its high flammability water

was used instead (Methanol: systematic Agent NIOSH CDC, n.d.; Safdar et al., 2017). This may

have led to the insignificant difference in the dependent variables.

Polyphenols have traits which promote the creation of char during burning (Xia et al.,

2018). When the polyphenols are lost during creation of the fire retardant, it decreases its efficacy.

A decrease in char yield and charring rate will lead to less protection from the fire, affecting the

dependent variables -- this is confirmed by the increased char theory. The confounding variables

that affect the char yield and charring rate will also change the results of the smoke density.

As for mass loss, the confounding variable was stated when addressing research question

one. The air flow and oxygen concentration are directly related to mass loss which created the

insignificant difference between the three groups.

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Examination of significant difference in the mass loss, char yield, charring rate, and smoke

density of the experimental group compared to the control group

Table 6

Dwass-Steel-Critchlow-Fligner Pairwise Comparison on Mass Loss

K-W p-value

Positive Negative 1.03397 0.949

Positive Aloe vera 1.03397 0.949
Positive Avocado 2.21565 0.519
Positive Mango 0.44313 0.998
Negative Aloe vera -0.14771 1.000
Negative Avocado 1.62481 0.780
Negative Mango -1.32939 0.882
Aloe vera Avocado 0.73855 0.985
Aloe vera Mango -0.44313 0.998
Avocado Mango -1.92023 0.655

Table 6 shows the difference in the Mass Loss among the experimental and control groups

(Aloe Vera, Mango, Avocado, Positive, and Negative). According to pairwise comparisons,

Positive and Aloe vera had a p-value of 0.949, Positive and Mango had a p-value of 0.998, Positive

and Avocado had a p-value of 0.519, Negative and Aloe vera had a p-value of 1.000, Negative and

Mango had a p-value of 0.780, and Negative and Avocado had a p-value of 0.882. There was no

significant difference between the groups as determined by One-way ANOVA, df = 4, p = 0.521.

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Table 7

Dwass-Steel-Critchlow-Fligner Pairwise Comparison on Char Yield

K-W p-value

Positive Negative 1.03397 0.949

Positive Aloe vera 1.92023 0.655
Positive Avocado 0.73855 0.985
Positive Mango 1.62481 0.780
Negative Aloe vera 0.14771 1.000
Negative Avocado -0.73855 0.985
Negative Mango -0.14771 1.000
Aloe vera Avocado -1.32939 0.882
Aloe vera Mango -1.32939 0.882
Avocado Mango 0.73855 0.985

Table 7 shows the difference in the Char Yield among the experimental and control groups

(Aloe Vera, Mango, Avocado, Positive, and Negative). According to Pairwise comparisons,

Positive and Aloe Vera had a p-value of 0.655, Positive and Mango had a p-value of 0.780, Positive

and Avocado had a p-value of 0.985, Negative and Aloe Vera had a p-value of 1.000, Negative and

Mango had a p-value of 1.000, and Negative and Avocado had a p-value of 0.985. There was no

significant difference between the groups as determined by One-way ANOVA, df = 4, p = 0.647.

Table 8

Dwass-Steel-Critchlow-Fligner Pairwise Comparison on Charring Rate

K-W p-value

Positive Negative -1.64487 0.773

Positive Aloe vera -0.44448 0.998

Science and Technology (Vol. 1, No. 3, 2022)

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Positive Avocado -1.03712 0.949

Positive Mango 1.95000 0.642
Negative Aloe vera 0.44313 0.998
Negative Avocado -0.44313 0.998
Negative Mango 2.37781 0.446
Aloe vera Avocado -1.03397 0.949
Aloe vera Mango 1.33343 0.880
Avocado Mango 2.08059 0.581

Table 8 shows the difference in the Charring Rate among the experimental and control

groups (Aloe Vera, Mango, Avocado, Positive, and Negative). According to Pairwise

comparisons, Positive and Aloe vera had a p-value of 0.998, Positive and Mango had a p-value of

0.642, Positive and Avocado had a p-value of 0.949, Negative and Aloe vera had a p-value of

0.998, Negative and Mango had a p-value of 0.446, and Negative and Avocado had a p-value of

0.998. Results revealed no significant difference between the groups as determined by One-way

ANOVA, df = 4, p = 0.388.

Table 9

Dwass-Steel-Critchlow-Fligner Pairwise Comparison on Smoke Density

K-W p-value

Positive Negative -1.62481 0.780

Positive Aloe vera -1.62481 0.780
Positive Avocado -1.62481 0.780
Positive Mango -1.03397 0.949
Negative Aloe vera -0.44313 0.998
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Negative Avocado -0.73855 0.985

Negative Mango 0.14771 1.000
Aloe vera Avocado 0.14771 1.000
Aloe vera Mango 0.44313 0.998
Avocado Mango -0.44313 0.998

Table 9 shows the difference in the Smoke Density among the experimental and control

groups (Aloe Vera, Mango, Avocado, Positive, and Negative). According to Pairwise

comparisons, Positive and Aloe Vera had a p-value of 0.780, Positive and Mango had a p-value of

0.949, Positive and Avocado had a p-value of 0.780, Negative and Aloe Vera had a p-value of

0.998, Negative and Mango had a p-value of 1.000, and Negative and Avocado had a p-value of

0.985. There was no significant difference between the groups as determined by One-way

ANOVA, df = 4, p = 0.744.

Table 10

MANOVA Results on the Overall Significant Difference between the Sample Groups

value F df1 df2 p

Pillai's Trace 0.32717 0.44540 16 80 0.965

Wilks' Lambda 0.70059 0.40589 16 53 0.975
Hotelling's Trace 0.38858 0.37644 16 62 0.983
Roy's Largest Root 0.24941 1.2471 4 20 0.323

Lastly, MANOVA was performed to determine the correlation between the independent

and dependent variables (Table 10). There was no statistically significant difference between the

fire retardant on the combined dependent variables, F(16, 53) = 0.40589, p = .975, Wilks' Λ = .70.

Science and Technology (Vol. 1, No. 3, 2022)

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After running the data analysis, the researchers found no significant difference in the

comparisons, making the null hypothesis true. This does not mean, however, that the bio-based

fire retardants are not as good as the commercial ones (Gibbs, 2013). There are many factors to

consider as to why the p-value was so high. Due to the inability to use machines or equipment to

collect accurate data, the possibility of human error is likely no matter how meticulous the

researchers may be.

Just like the two previous research questions, weather and humidity could have played a

role in the reason for the insignificant difference. These may have affected the chemical reactions

during the experiment because heat is an important part of fire (Song et al., 2014). Furthermore,

in a study done by Bahrani et al. (2018) it was concluded that the weathering exposure reduced the

effectiveness of fire protection in their coatings.

The tests were carried out in an uncontrolled environment so there are variables that

affected the results. Controlled environments where humidity and temperature could be

manipulated to the needs of the researchers is plausible as seen in the research of Forney and

Brandi (1992) where they used glycerol water solution to control the humidity. Though there were

many factors that need to be modified to get more accurate results, the finding still stands with the

methodology. The ideal fire retardant coatings for wood should show minimal spread of flame,

little to no release of smoke, be easily applied, and provide low cost of production and application

(Mariappan, 2016).
118 84

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This research was focused on exploring the efficiency of plant and fruit-based fire

retardants as opposed to a commercial fire retardant and boric acid-boron fire retardant. According

to the results of this research, it was concluded that the plant and fruit-based fire retardants had

beneficial effects on the smoke density and char yield of the material. The mango-based fire

retardant decreased the mass loss of the material and the avocado-based fire retardant inhibited

smoke density as a result of high char yield. However, the results were significantly affected by

confounding variables, such as humidity, temperature, and airflow, which caused the data to be

insignificant. Therefore, future researchers may use the standard flammability tests when

performing the experiments to see better results. Furthermore, future research should also analyze

the commercial fire retardant’s poor smoke density and reduced char yield compared to the bio-

based fire retardants. The smoke suppression property of commercial fire retardants may then be

improved. Lastly, future research may control the ripeness of the fruit before extraction and refine

the plant extracts and boron additive solution to yield results similar to the results of other studies.

Using proper extraction methods to remove flammable compounds such as cellulose, they may

isolate the fire-retarding organic compounds in mango and avocado.

Science and Technology (Vol. 1, No. 3, 2022)

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to the following individuals who helped us

to successfully complete this research paper. We praise God and thank Him for His guidance,

strength, and intervention. Through Him, we were able to see this work to completion. Sincere

gratitude goes to our research advisers for their invaluable support and guidance. Mr. Jose Mari

Calamlam, who helped us in finalizing our research proposal, and Mr. Gerald Gamboa, who aided

us in completing our research paper. We greatly appreciate our families, who supported us during

all stages of the project, especially when we began our material development and experimentation

procedures. We would like to thank the Research Department of De La Salle Santiago Zobel

School - Vermosa Campus for giving us this special opportunity to create a research project which

benefits the disadvantaged communities of the Philippines. May our study truly have an impact on

our beneficiaries.

Science and Technology (Vol. 1, No. 3, 2022)

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Hannah Luisa B. Mallillin

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include fire prevention and air pollution.

John Gabriel B. Bolivar

Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School, research interests include the

prevention of fire.

Niccolo Armando C. De Castro

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include bio-based materials and effects of COVID-19 on education.

Seo Eun Kim

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include bio-based materials and effects of COVID-19 on fire.

Isabel Angelica A. Sanchez

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include modern environmentalism and the effects of COVID-19 on people in poverty.

Antonio Agustin F. Singian

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include fire prevention and effects of COVID-19 on the health of students.
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Zaki Mitzrael L. Santos

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include fire prevention and effects of COVID-19 on education.

Esther Joy G. Valle

A Grade 12 STEM Student of De La Salle Santiago Zobel School-Vermosa Campus. Research

interests include fire prevention.

Jose Mari M. Calamlam

Jose Mari Calamlam is a Grade 12 Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Teacher of

De La Salle Zobel School-Vermosa Campus.

Gerald B. Gamboa

Gerald Gamboa is a Grade 12 Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Teacher of

De La Salle Zobel School-Vermosa Campus.

Science and Technology (Vol. 1, No. 3, 2022)

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