10 Geography

Social Science
Contemporary
India Textbook in Geography
for Class X
II
2022-23
1068 – CONTEMPORARY INDIA ISBN 81-7450-644-6
Textbook for Class X
First Edition
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2022-23
Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that

children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They
also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system
of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one
of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode
of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of
teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to
address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and
reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the
advisory committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher
secondary level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this
book, Professor M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee.
Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are
grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to
2022-23
the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw
upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the
members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department
of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training
iv
2022-23
Textbook development committee
C HAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT

THE SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of

Calcutta, Kolkata
C HIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
ADVISOR
B. S. Butola, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Aparajita De, Lecturer, Department of Geography,
Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi
Geeta Duggal, Former Principal, Delhi Public School, Rewari
Indu Sharma, PGT, Demonstration School RIE, Ajmer
K. Jaya, PGT, Convent of Jesus and Mary, Bangla Sahib Road, New Delhi
Punam Behari, Reader, Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi
Saroj Sharma, TGT (Retd.), Mother’s International School,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
MEMBER- COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Department of Education in Social Sciences
and Humanities, NCERT, New Delhi
2022-23
2022-23
Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training

acknowledges the support of individuals and organisations as listed
below for providing various photographs and other materials such as
articles used in this textbook — Shveta Uppal, NCERT, New Delhi for
Fig. 1.11, 2.4, 4.3, 4.10, 4.11, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Kalyan Banerjee, NCERT,
New Delhi for Fig. 7.9; Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
for Fig. 2.2 (Endangered : the Nicobar megapode), 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7,
4.1, 5.14; CCSHAU, Hisar for Fig. 4.4(a), 4.13, 4.16; Directorate of
Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, I.A.R.I. Campus, New Pusa, New
Delhi for Fig. 4.2, 4.4(b), 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 (Groundnut and Mustard),
4.12 (Apple and Pomegranate), 4.15, 4.18; Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India for Fig. 2.2, 2.3, 4.17, 5.10, 6.11; Ministry
of Coal, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.11(a) and (b); Ministry of Mines, Govt. of
India for Fig. 5.3, 5.5, 5.8; Department of Road Transport and Highways,
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for
Fig. 7.2, 7.10; Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises,
Govt. of India for Fig. 5.12, 6.6, 6.9, 6.10, 6.12; Department of Shipping,
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for
Fig. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8; Kurukshetra magazine for collage on page 24; The
Times of India for collage on page 20, 24, 29, 26, 57, 91; The Hindu for
collage on page 20; Hindustan for collage on page 91; NCERT, Social
Science, Part-II, Textbook for Class-VIII for Fig. 1.12, 2.1, 3.2.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of maps
given in the textbook.
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities for her
valuable support at every stage of preparation of this textbook.
Special thanks are due to Vandana R. Singh, Consultant Editor for
going through the textbook and for giving useful suggestions.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of
Ishwar Singh, DTP Operator; Ajay Singh, Copy Editor; Dinesh Kumar,
Computer Incharge, who have helped in giving a final shape to this book.
The contribution of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly
acknowledged.
The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this textbook
1. © Government of India, Copyright 2006
2. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the
publisher.
3. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.
2022-23
4. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are
at Chandigarh.
5. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and
Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be verified.
6. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master
Copy certified by Survey of India.
7. The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar &
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by
the Governments concerned.
8. The spellings of names in these maps have been taken from various sources.
School Bhuvan–NCERT an Online web portal

Web based online e-learning Geo spatial portal School Bhuvan–NCERT has
been launched by NCERT and ISRO in collaboration to enhance geo spatial
skills among students. This online e-learning portal includes thematic maps
given in Geography textbooks. This portal enables students to use Geo-spatial
technology for better understanding of concepts in Geography. Online activities
available on the portal as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 encourage learners
from Classes VI to XII to develop neighbourhood maps and their attributes on
satellite imageries available on School Bhuvan–NCERT.
viii
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Contents
Foreword iii
1. Resources and Development 1
2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 14
3. Water Resources 23
4. Agriculture 34
5. Minerals and Energy Resources 48
6. Manufacturing Industries 63
7. Lifelines of National Economy 79
Appendix–I 92
Appendix–II 93
Glossary 94
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Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)
Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.
Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).
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The process of transformation of things
Can you identify and name the various items
available in our environment involves an
used in making life comfortable in our villages
and towns. List the items and name the interactive relationship between nature,
material used in their making. technology and institutions. Human beings
interact with nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their
Everything available in our environment economic development.
which can be used to satisfy our needs, Do you think that resources are free
provided, it is technologically accessible, gifts of nature as is assumed by many?
economically feasible and culturally They are not. Resources are a function of
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’. human activities. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They
transform material available in our
environment into resources and use them.
These resources can be classified in the
following ways –
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable
and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual,
community, national and international
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship between (d) On the basis of status of development –
nature, technology and institutions potential, developed stock and reserves.
Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources
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ponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots,
Identify at least two resources from each playgrounds in urban areas are de facto
category. accessible to all the people living there.
National Resources: Technically, all the
resources belong to the nation. The country
TYPES OF RESOURCES
has legal powers to acquire even private
On the Basis of Origin property for public good. You might have seen
Biotic Resources: These are obtained from roads, canals, railways being constructed on
biosphere and have life such as human fields owned by some individuals. Urban
beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock Development Authorities get empowered by the
etc. government to acquire land. All the minerals,
water resources, forests, wildlife, land within
Abiotic Resources: All those things which are the political boundaries and oceanic area
composed of non-living things are called abiotic up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the
resources. For example, rocks and metals. coast termed as territorial water and resources
therein belong to the nation.
On the Basis of Exhaustibility
International Resources: There are
Renewable Resources: The resources
international institutions which regulate
which can be renewed or reproduced by some resources. The oceanic resources
physical, chemical or mechanical processes beyond 200 nautical miles of the coastline
are known as renewable or replenishable of the country belong to open ocean and no
resources. For example, solar and wind individual country can utilise these without
energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc. The the concurrence of international institutions.
renewable resource may further be divided
into continuous or flow (Fig.1.2).
Non-Renewable Resources: These occur India has got the right to mine manganese
over a very long geological time. Minerals and nodules from the bed of the Indian Ocean
fossil fuels are examples of such resources. from that area which lies beyond the exclusive
These resources take millions of years in their economic zone. Identify some other resources
formation. Some of the resources like metals which are international in nature.
are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot
be recycled and get exhausted with their use.
On the Basis of the Status of Development
On the Basis of Ownership Potential Resources: Resources which are
Individual Resources: These are also owned found in a region, but have not been utilised.
privately by individuals. Many farmers own For example, the western parts of India
land which is allotted to them by government particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have
against the payment of revenue. In villages enormous potential for the development of
there are people with land ownership but wind and solar energy, but so far these have
not been developed properly.
there are many who are landless. Urban
people own plots, houses and other property. Developed Resources: Resources which are
Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in surveyed and their quality and quantity have
wells etc. are some of the examples of been determined for utilisation. The
resources ownership by individuals. Make a development of resources depends on
list of resources owned by your household. technology and level of their feasibility.
Community Owned Resources: There are Stock: Materials in the environment which
resources which are accessible to all the have the potential to satisfy human needs
members of the community. Village commons but human beings do not have the
(grazing grounds, burial grounds, village appropriate technology to access these, are
2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
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included among stock. For example, water is • Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has
a compound of two gases; hydrogen and led to global ecological crises such as, global
oxygen. Hydrogen can be used as a rich warming, ozone layer depletion,
source of energy. But we do not have environmental pollution and land
advanced technical ‘know-how’ to use it for degradation.
this purpose. Hence, it can be considered as An equitable distribution of resources has
stock. become essential for a sustained quality of life
Reserves are the subset of the stock, and global peace. If the present trend of resource
which can be put into use with the help of depletion by a few individuals and countries
existing technical ‘know-how’ but their use continues, the future of our planet is in danger.
has not been started. These can be used for Therefore, resource planning is essential
meeting future requirements. River water can for sustainable existence of all forms of life.
be used for generating hydroelectric power Sustainable existence is a component of
but presently, it is being utilised only to a sustainable development.
limited extent. Thus, the water in the dams,
forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in Sustainable development
the future. Sustainable economic development means
‘development should take place without
damaging the environment, and development
Prepare a list of stock and reserve, resources in the present should not compromise with the
that you are familiar with from your local area. needs of the future generations.’
D EVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

Resources are vital for human survival as well In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states
as for maintaining the quality of life. It was met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
believed that resources are free gifts of nature. International Earth Summit. The Summit was
A s a result, human beings used them convened for addressing urgent problems of
indiscriminately and this has led to the environmental protection and socio-
following major problems. economic development at the global level.
• Depletion of resources for satisfying the The assembled leaders signed the
greed of a few individuals. Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention
• Accumulation of resources in few hands,
endorsed the global Forest Principles and
which, in turn, divided the society into two
adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
segments i.e. haves and have nots or rich
Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
and poor.
Agenda 21
It is the declaration signed by world leaders
1. Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhausted
in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
one day, how would this affect our life style?
on Environment and Development (UNCED),
2. Plan a survey in your colony/village to
which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It
investigate people’s attitude towards
aims at achieving global sustainable
recycling of the domestic/agricultural
development. It is an agenda to combat
wastes. Ask questions about :
environmental damage, poverty, disease
(a) What do they think about resources
through global co-operation on common
they use?
interests, mutual needs and shared
(b) What is their opinion about the
responsibilities. One major objective of the
wastes, and its utilisation?
Agenda 21 is that every local government
(c) Collage your results.
should draw its own local Agenda 21.
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 3
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RESOURCE PLANNING
What resources are being developed in your
Planning is the widely accepted strategy for
surroundings by the community/village
judicious use of resources. It has importance
panchayats/ward level communities with the
in a country like India, which has enormous
help of community participation?
diversity in the availability of resources. There
are regions which are rich in certain types of
resources but are deficient in some other The availability of resources is a necessary
resources. There are some regions which can condition for the development of any region,
be considered self sufficient in terms of the but mere availability of resources in the
availability of resources and there are some absence of corresponding changes in
regions which have acute shortage of some technology and institutions may hinder
vital resources. For example, the states of development. There are many regions in our
J harkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya country that are rich in resources but these
Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. are included in economically backward regions.
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water On the contrary there are some regions which
resources but lacks in infrastructural have a poor resource base but they are
development. The state of Rajasthan is very economically developed.
well endowed with solar and wind energy but Can you name some resource rich but
lacks in water resources. The cold desert of economically backward regions and some
Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of resource poor but economically developed
the country. It has very rich cultural heritage regions? Give reasons for such a situation.
but it is deficient in water, infrastructure and The history of colonisation reveals that
some vital minerals. This calls for balanced rich resources in colonies were the main
resource planning at the national, state, attractions for the foreign invaders. It was
regional and local levels. primarily the higher level of technological
development of the colonising countries that
helped them to exploit resources of other
Prepare a list of resources found in your state regions and establish their supremacy over
and also identify the resources that are the colonies. Therefore, resources can
important but deficit in your state. contribute to development only when they are
accompanied by appropriate technological
development and institutional changes. India
Resource Planning in India has experienced all this in different phases of
Resource planning is a complex process which colonisation. Therefore, in India, development,
involves : (i) identification and inventory of in general, and resource development in
resources across the regions of the country. particular does not only involve the availability
of resources, but also the technology, quality
This involves surveying, mapping and
of human resources and the historical
qualitative and quantitative estimation and
experiences of the people.
measurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving a
planning structure endowed with appropriate Conservation of Resources: Resources are
technology, skill and institutional set up for vital for any developmental activity. But
implementing resource development plans. (iii) irrational consumption and over-utilisation
Matching the resource development plans with of resources may lead to socio-economic and
overall national development plans. environmental problems. To overcome these
India has made concerted efforts for problems, resource conservation at various
achieving the goals of resource planning right levels is important. This had been the main
from the First Five Year Plan launched after concern of the leaders and thinkers in the
Independence. past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in
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voicing his concern about resource available land for various purposes with careful
conservation in these words: “There is planning.
enough for everybody’s need and not for any India has land under a variety of relief
body’s greed.” He placed the greedy and features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains
selfish individuals and exploitative nature of and islands. About 43 per cent of the land
modern technology as the root cause for area is plain, which provides facilities for
resource depletion at the global level. He was agriculture and industry. Mountains account
against mass production and wanted to for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the
replace it with the production by the masses. country and ensure perennial flow of some
rivers, provide facilities for tourism and
At the international level, the Club of Rome ecological aspects. About 27 per cent of the
advocated resource conservation for the first area of the country is the plateau region. It
time in a more systematic way in 1968. possesses rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels
Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy and forests.
was once again presented by Schumacher
in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal LAND UTILISATION
contribution with respect to resource Land resources are used for the following
conservation at the global level was made purposes:
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987. 1. Forests
This report introduced the concept of
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated 2. Land not available for cultivation
it as a means for resource conservation, (a) Barren and waste land
which was subsequently published in a book (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
entitled Our Common Future. Another buildings, roads, factories, etc.
significant contribution was made at the Earth 3. Other uncultivated land (excluding
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
LAND RESOURCES (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops
groves (not included in net sown area),
We live on land, we perform our economic
activities on land and we use it in different (c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated
ways. Thus, land is a natural resource of for more than 5 agricultural years).
utmost importance. It supports natural 4. Fallow lands
vegetation, wild life, human life, economic (a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation
activities, transport and communication for one or less than one agricultural year),
systems. However, land is an asset of a finite (b) Other than current fallow-(left
magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
agricultural years).
5. Net sown area the physical extent of land
on which corps are sown harvested is
known as net sown area.
Area sown more than once in an
agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA

The use of land is determined both by physical
factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population
Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief density, technological capability and culture
Features and traditions etc.
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Reporting Area: 100 Per cent
Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017

Fig. 1.4
Total geographical area of India is 3.28 of such land is very high. Hence, these lands
million sq km. Land use data, however, is are cultivated once or twice in about two to
available only for 93 per cent of the total three years and if these are included in the
geographical area because the land use net sown area then the percentage of NSA in
reporting for most of the north-east states India comes to about 54 per cent of the total
except Assam has not been done fully. reporting area.
Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir The pattern of net sown area varies greatly
occupied by Pakistan and China have also from one state to another. It is over 80 per
not been surveyed. cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana
and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman
Try to do a comparison between the two pie
Nicobar Islands.
charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find
out why the net sown area and the land
under forests have changed from 1960-61 Find out reasons for the low proportion of
to 2014-15 very marginally. net sown area in these states.
The land under permanent pasture has Forest area in the country is far lower than
also decreased. How are we able to feed our the desired 33 per cent of geographical area,
huge cattle population on this pasture land as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy
and what are the consequences of it? Most of (1952). It was considered essential for
the other than the current fallow lands are maintenance of the ecological balance. The
either of poor quality or the cost of cultivation livelihood of millions of people who live on
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the fringes of these forests depends upon it. There are many ways to solve the problems
A part of the land is termed as waste land of land degradation. Afforestation and proper
and land put to other non-agricultural uses. management of grazing can help to some
Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert extent. Planting of shelter belts of plants,
areas and land put to other non-agricultural control on over grazing, stabilisation of sand
uses includes settlements, roads, railways, dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of
industry etc. Continuous use of land over a the methods to check land degradation in arid
long period of time without taking appropriate areas. Proper management of waste lands,
measures to conserve and manage it, has control of mining activities, proper discharge
resulted in land degradation. This, in turn, and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes
has serious repercussions on society and the after treatment can reduce land and water
environment. degradation in industrial and suburban areas.
L AND D EGRADATION AND CONSERVATION S OIL AS A RESOURCE

MEASURES Soil is the most important renewable natural
We have shared our land with the past resource. It is the medium of plant growth
generations and will have to do so with the and supports different types of living organisms
future generations too. Ninety-five per cent of on the earth. The soil is a living system. It
takes millions of years to form soil upto a few
our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing
cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock,
are obtained from land. Human activities have
climate, vegetation and other forms of life and
not only brought about degradation of land time are important factors in the formation of
but have also aggravated the pace of natural soil. Various forces of nature such as change
forces to cause damage to land. in temperature, actions of running water, wind
Some human activities such as and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc.
deforestation, over grazing, mining and contribute to the formation of soil. Chemical
quarrying too have contributed significantly and organic changes which take place in the
in land degradation.
Mining sites are abandoned after Top soil
excavation work is complete leaving deep scars the upper soil layer
and traces of over-burdening. In states like
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh Subsoil weathered
rocks sand and
and Odisha deforestation due to mining have
silt clay
caused severe land degradation. In states like
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main
reasons for land degradation. In the states of Substratum
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over weathered parent
irrigation is responsible for land degradation rock material
due to water logging leading to increase in
salinity and alkalinity in the soil. The mineral
processing like grinding of limestone for
cement industry and calcite and soapstone
for ceramic industry generate huge quantity
of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the
process of infiltration of water into the soil Unweathered
after it settles down on the land. In recent parent bed rock
years, industrial effluents as waste have
become a major source of land and water
pollution in many parts of the country. Fig. 1.5: Soil Profile
2022-23
soil are equally important. Soil also consists kanker nodules than the Khadar. It has more
of organic (humus) and inorganic materials fine particles and is more fertile than the
(Fig. 1.5). bangar.
On the basis of the factors responsible for Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
chemical and physical properties, the soils of of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which
India are classified in different types. are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due
Classification of Soils to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are
India has varied relief features, landforms, intensively cultivated and densely populated.
climatic realms and vegetation types. These Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and
have contributed in the development of various can be productive after proper treatment and
types of soils. irrigation.
Alluvial Soils Black Soil

This is the most widely spread and important These soils are black in colour and are also
soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for
made of alluvial soil. These have been growing cotton and is also known as black
deposited by three important Himalayan river cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition
systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the along with the parent rock material are the
Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in important factors for the formation of black
Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow soil. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan
corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
and the Kaveri rivers. Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east
direction along the Godavari and the Krishna
valleys.
Fig. 1.6: Alluvial Soil
The alluvial soil consists of various

proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles
appear some what bigger in size. In the upper
reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place
of the break of slope, the soils are coarse.
Such soils are more common in piedmont
plains such as Duars, Chos and Terai. Fig. 1.7: Black Soil
Apart from the size of their grains or
components, soils are also described on the The black soils are made up of extremely
basis of their age. According to their age fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known
alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial for their capacity to hold moisture. In
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The addition, they are rich in soil nutrients, such
bangar soil has higher concentration of as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
2022-23
India: Major Soil Types
2022-23
lime. These soils are generally poor in vegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is
phosphoric contents. They develop deep generally humus poor. They are prone to
cracks during hot weather, which helps in erosion and degradation due to their position
the proper aeration of the soil. These soils on the landscape. After adopting appropriate
are sticky when wet and difficult to work on soil conservation techniques particularly in
unless tilled immediately after the first shower the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
or during the pre-monsoon period. Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea
and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu,
Red and Yellow Soils
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks for crops like cashew nut.
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow Arid Soils
and red soils are also found in parts of Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the They are generally sandy in texture and saline
middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont in nature. In some areas the salt content is
zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop
very high and common salt is obtained by
a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate,
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
high temperature, evaporation is faster and
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower
Laterite Soil horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word because of the increasing calcium content
‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil downwards. The Kankar layer formations in
develops under tropical and subtropical the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
climate with alternate wet and dry season. water. After proper irrigation these soils
This soil is the result of intense leaching due become cultivable as has been in the case of
to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly deep western Rajasthan.
to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally
deficient in plant nutrients and occur mostly
in southern states, Western Ghats region of
Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West
Bengal and North-east regions. Where these
soils support deciduous and evergreen
forests, it is humus rich, but under sparse
Fig. 1.9: Arid Soil
Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and
mountainous areas where sufficient rain
forests are available. The soils texture varies
according to the mountain environment
where they are formed. They are loamy and
silty in valley sides and coarse grained in
Fig. 1.8: Laterite Soil the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas
2022-23
of Himalayas, these soils experience
denudation and are acidic with low humus
content. The soils found in the lower parts
of the valleys particularly on the river terraces
and alluvial fans are fertile.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and
subsequent washing down is described as soil
erosion. The processes of soil formation and
erosion, go on simultaneously and generally
there is a balance between the two. Sometimes,
this balance is disturbed due to human
activities like deforestation, over-grazing,
construction and mining etc., while natural Fig. 1.11: Gully Erosion
forces like wind, glacier and water lead to
soil is washed away. This is known as sheet
soil erosion. The running water cuts through
erosion. Wind blows loose soil off flat or
the clayey soils and makes deep channels as
sloping land known as wind erosion. Soil
gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation
erosion is also caused due to defective methods
and is known as bad land. In the Chambal
of farming. Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. up
basin such lands are called ravines.
and down the slope form channels for the
Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large
quick flow of water leading to soil erosion.
areas down a slope. In such cases the top
Ploughing along the contour lines can
decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
This is called contour ploughing. Steps can
be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western
and central Himalayas have well developed
terrace farming. Large fields can be divided
into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow
between the crops. This breaks up the force
of the wind. This method is known as strip
cropping. Planting lines of trees to create
shelter also works in a similar way. Rows of
such trees are called shelter belts. These
shelter belts have contributed significantly to
the stabilisation of sand dunes and in
Fig. 1.10: Soil Erosion stabilising the desert in western India.
State of India’s Environment

• The village of Sukhomajri and the district of Jhabua have shown that it is possible to reverse land
degradation. Tree density in Sukhomajri increased from 13 per hectare in 1976 to 1,272 per
hectare in 1992;
• Regeneration of the environment leads to economic well-being, as a result of greater resource
availability, improved agriculture and animal care, and consequently, increased incomes.
Average annual household income in Sukhomajri ranged from Rs 10,000-15,000 between
1979 and 1984;
2022-23
• People’s management is essential for ecological restoration. With people
being made the decision-makers by the Madhya Pradesh government, 2.9
million hectares or about 1 per cent of India’s land area, are being greened
across the state through watershed management.
Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report,1999 Centre of Science and Environment (CSE),
New Delhi
EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES
1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following type of resource is iron ore?
(a) Renewable (c) Flow
(b) Biotic (d) Non-renewable
(ii) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
(a) Intensive cultivation (c) Over irrigation
(b) Deforestation (d) Overgrazing
(iii) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?
(a) Punjab (c) Haryana
(b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d) Uttarakhand
(iv) In which of the following states black soil is predominantly found?
(a) Jammu and Kashmir (c) Rajasthan
(b) Maharashtra (d) Jharkhand
2022-23
2 . A nswer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
(ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three
main features of this type of soil.
(iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
(iv) What are the biotic and abiotic resources? Give some examples.
3. A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not
increased much since 1960-61?
(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of
resources?
PROJECT/ACTIVITY
1 . Make a project showing consumption and conservation of resources in your locality.
2. Have a discussion in the class – how to conserve various resources used in
your school.
3. Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this affect our life style?
4. Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.
S F G S F O B R O M S U A P J
Q G A F F O R E S T A T I O N
P N R E C P R S L D M I L N F
S N A T Q X U O V A I O L A L
O D E I D R J U J L D B N B D
T G H M I N E R A L S A X M W
B V J K M E D C R U P F M H R
L A T E R I T E M V A Z T V L
A B Z O E N M F T I S D L R C
C G N N S Z I O P A X T Y J H
K J G K D T D C S L S E G E W
(i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals.
(ii) A type of non-renewable resource.
(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.
(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.
(v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion.
(vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils.
2022-23
Flora and Fauna in India
Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
If you look around, you will be able to find
in the world of Lepchas
that there are some animals and plants which
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate are unique in your area. In fact, India is
myself to you one of the world’s richest countries in terms
Let me gather your music from the of its vast array of biological diversity. This
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests, is possibly twice or thrice the number yet
the insects and the animals to be discovered. You have already studied
Let me gather your music from the sweet in detail about the extent and variety of
breeze and offer it to you forest and wildlife resources in India. You
may have realised the importance of
Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of
these resources in our daily life. These
West Bengal diverse flora and fauna are so well
integrated in our daily life that we take
these for granted. But, lately, they are
We share this planet with millions of other under great stress mainy due to insensitivity
living beings, starting from micro-organisms to our environment.
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees,
elephants and blue whales. This entire
habitat that we live in has immense Find out stories prevalent in your region
biodiversity. We humans along with all living which are about the harmonious relationship
organisms form a complex web of ecological between human beings and nature.
system in which we are only a part and
very much dependent on this system for
our own existence. For example, the plants, Some estimates suggest that at least
animals and micro-organisms re-create the 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora
quality of the air we breathe, the water we and 20 per cent of its mammals are on
drink and the soil that produces our food the threatened list. Many of these would
without which we cannot survive. Forests now be categorised as ‘critical’, that is on
play a key role in the ecological system as the verge of extinction like the cheetah,
these are also the primary producers on pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest
which all other living beings depend. spotted owlet, and plants like madhuca
insignis (a wild variety of mahua) and
h u b b a r d i a h e p t a n e u r o n, ( a s p e c i e s o f
grass). In fact, no one can say how many
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is species may have already been lost. Today,
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated we only talk of the larger and more visible
species, diverse in form and function but animals and plants that have become
closely integrated in a system through extinct but what about smaller animals
multiple network of interdependencies. like insects and plants?
2022-23
Vulnerable Species: These are species
Vanishing Forests
whose population has declined to levels from
The dimensions of deforestation in India are where it is likely to move into the endangered
staggering. The forest and tree cover in the category in the near future if the negative
country is estimated at 807276 sq km which factors continue to operate. The examples
is 24.56 per cent of the total geographical area of such species are blue sheep, Asiatic
(dense forest 12.4 per cent; open forest 9.26 elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent).
According to the State of Forest Report Rare Species: Species with small
(2019), the dense forest cover has increased population may move into the endangered
by 3,976 sq km since 2017. However, this or vulnerable category if the negative factors
apparent increase in the forest cover is due affecting them continue to operate. The
to conservation measures, management examples of such species are the Himalayan
interventions and plantation, etc., by brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox
different agencies. and hornbill, etc.
Endemic Species: These are species which
are only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by natural or geographical
barriers. Examples of such species are the
A ndaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, A ndaman
wild pig, mithun in A runachal Pradesh.
Extinct Species: These are species which
are not found after searches of known or
likely areas where they may occur. A species
may be extinct from a local area, region,
country, continent or the entire earth.
Examples of such species are the Asiatic
Fig. 2.1
cheetah, pink head duck.
L et us now understand the different Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go?
categories of existing plants and animal The world’s fastest land mammal, the
species. Based on the International Union cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and
for Conservation of Nature and Natural specialised member of the cat family and
Resources (I U CN ), we can classify as can move at the speed of 112 km./hr. The
follows – cheetah is often mistaken for a leopard. Its
distinguishing marks are the long teardrop-
Normal Species: Species whose population shaped lines on each side of the nose from
levels are considered to be normal for the corner of its eyes to its mouth. Prior to
their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, the 20th century, cheetahs were widely
rodents, etc. distributed throughout Africa and Asia.
Endangered Species: These are species Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct
which are in danger of extinction. The due to a decline of available habitat and
survival of such species is difficult if the prey. The species was declared extinct in
negative factors that have led to a decline India long back in 1952.
in their population continue to operate. The
What are the negative factors that cause such
examples of such species are black buck,
fearful depletion of the flora and fauna?
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in If you look around, you will be able to
Manipur), etc. find out how we have transformed nature into
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15
2022-23
Fig. 2.2: A few extinct, rare and endangered species
a resource obtaining directly and indirectly through the ironically-termed “enrichment

from the forests and wildlife – wood, barks, plantation”, in which a single commercially
leaves, rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, valuable species was extensively planted
fodder, manure, etc. So it is we ourselves who and other species eliminated. For instance,
have depleted our forests and wildlife. The teak monoculture has damaged the natural
greatest damage inflicted on Indian forests forest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinus
was during the colonial period due to the roxburghii) plantations in the Himalayas
expansion of the railways, agriculture, have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius
commercial and scientific forestry and mining spp.) and Rhododendron forests.
activities. Even after I ndependence,
agricultural expansion continues to be one of
the major causes of depletion of forest Large-scale development projects have also
resources. Between 1951 and 1980, according
contributed significantly to the loss of forests.
to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq.
Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest was
km. of forest area was converted into
cleared for river valley projects. Clearing of
agricultural land all over India. Substantial
parts of the tribal belts, especially in the north- forests is still continuing with projects like
eastern and central India, have been deforested the Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya
or degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a Pradesh, which would inundate 40,000
type of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. hectares of forest. Mining is another important
factor behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger
Are colonial forest policies Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened
to be blamed? by the ongoing dolomite mining. It has
Some of our environmental activists say that disturbed the natural habitat of many species
the promotion of a few favoured species, in and blocked the migration route of several
many parts of India, has been carried others, including the great Indian elephant.
2022-23
Many foresters and environmentalists hold used to treat some cancers – the drug is now
the view that the greatest degrading factors the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the
behind the depletion of forest resources are world. The species is under great threat due
grazing and fuel-wood collection. Though, to over-exploitation. In the last one decade,
there may be some substance in their thousands of yew trees have dried up in
argument, yet, the fact remains that a various parts of Himachal Pradesh and
substantial part of the fuel-fodder demand is Arunachal Pradesh.
met by lopping rather than by felling entire
trees. The forest ecosystems are repositories
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching,
of some of the country’s most valuable forest
over-exploitation, environmental pollution,
products, minerals and other resources that
poisoning and forest fires are factors, which
meet the demands of the rapidly expanding
have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity.
industrial-urban economy. These protected
Other important causes of environmental
areas, thus mean different things to different
destruction are unequal access, inequitable
people, and therein lies the fertile ground
consumption of resources and differential
for conflicts.
sharing of responsibility for environmental
well-being. Over-population in third world
The Himalayan Yew in trouble countries is often cited as the cause of
The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is environmental degradation. However, an
a medicinal plant found in various parts of average American consumes 40 times more
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh. resources than an average Somalian. Similarly,
A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is the richest five per cent of Indian society
extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and probably cause more ecological damage
roots of this tree, and it has been successfully because of the amount they consume than
Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a

nursery at Mukhali near Silent Valley
Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk
Fig. 2.3
2022-23
the poorest 25 per cent. The former shares subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to
minimum responsibilities for environmental sound forest and wildlife conservation
well-being. The question is: who is consuming strategies.
what, from where and how much?
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in
India
Do you know that over half of India’s Conservation in the background of rapid
natural forests are gone, one-third of its decline in wildlife population and forestry has
wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its become essential. But why do we need to
surface water bodies polluted, 40 per conserve our forests and wildlife?
cent of its mangroves wiped out, and Conservation preserves the ecological diversity
with continued hunting and trade of wild and our life support systems – water, air and
animals and commercially valuable soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of
plants, thousands of plant and animal plants and animals for better growth of species
species are heading towards extinction? and breeding. For example, in agriculture,
we are still dependent on traditional crop
varieties. Fisheries too are heavily dependent
on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.
Have you noticed any activity which leads In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
to the loss of biodiversity around you? Write demanded a national wildlife protection
a note on it and suggest some measures to programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)
prevent it. Act was implemented in 1972, with various
provisions for protecting habitats. A n all-
The destruction of forests and wildlife is India list of protected species was also
not just a biological issue. The biological loss published. The thrust of the programme was
is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural towards protecting the remaining population
diversity. Such losses have increasingly of certain endangered species by banning
marginalised and impoverished many hunting, giving legal protection to their
indigenous and other forest-dependent habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
communities, who directly depend on various Subsequently, central and many state
components of the forest and wildlife for food, governments established national parks and
drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. wildlife sanctuaries about which you have
Within the poor, women are affected more already studied. The central government also
than men. In many societies, women bear announced several projects for protecting
the major responsibility of collection of fuel, specific animals, which were gravely
fodder, water and other basic subsistence threatened, including the tiger, the one-
needs. As these resources are depleted, the horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or
drudgery of women increases and sometimes hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh
they have to walk for more than 10 km to water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the
collect these resources. This causes serious Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others. Most
health problems for women and negligence recently, the Indian elephant, black buck
of home and children because of the increased (chinkara), the great Indian bustard
hours of work, which often has serious social (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have
implications. The indirect impact of been given full or partial legal protection
degradation such as severe drought or against hunting and trade throughout India.
deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the
poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a Project Tiger
direct outcome of environmental destruction. Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in
Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities
quality of life and environment in the realised that the tiger population had
2022-23
Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park
dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated beginning to find a place in conservation

55,000 at the turn of the century. The major planning. In the notification under Wildlife
threats to tiger population are numerous, Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred
such as poaching for trade, shrinking butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly
habitat, depletion of prey base species, have been added to the list of protected
growing human population, etc. The trade species. In 1991, for the first time plants were
of tiger skins and the use of their bones in also added to the list, starting with six species.
traditional medicines, especially in the
Asian countries left the tiger population on
the verge of extinction. Since India and Collect more information on the wildlife
Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds sanctuaries and national parks of India and
of the surviving tiger population in the cite their locations on the map of India.
world, these two nations became prime
targets for poaching and illegal trading. Types and Distribution of Forest and
“Project Tiger”, one of the well- Wildlife Resources
publicised wildlife campaigns in the world, Even if we want to conserve our vast forest
was launched in 1973. Tiger conservation and wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to
has been viewed not only as an effort to manage, control and regulate them. In India,
save an endangered species, but with much of its forest and wildlife resources are
equal importance as a means of either owned or managed by the government
preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude. through the Forest Department or other
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, government departments. These are classified
Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal, under the following categories.
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya
Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in (i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the
Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam total forest land has been declared
and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are reserved forests. Reserved forests are
some of the tiger reserves of India. regarded as the most valuable as far as
the conservation of forest and wildlife
resources are concerned.
The conservation projects are now (ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of
focusing on biodiversity rather than on a few the total forest area is protected forest, as
of its components. There is now a more declared by the Forest Department. This
intensive search for different conservation forest land are protected from any further
measures. Increasingly, even insects are depletion.
2022-23
Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?
(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other Community and Conservation

forests and wastelands belonging to Conservation strategies are not new in our
both government and private individuals country. We often ignore that in India, forests
and communities. are also home to some of the traditional
Reserved and protected forests are also communities. In some areas of India, local
referred to as permanent forest estates communities are struggling to conserve these
maintained for the purpose of producing habitats along with government officials,
timber and other forest produce, and for recognising that only this will secure their
protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the own long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger
largest area under permanent forests,
Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection
Jammu and Kashmir, A ndhra Pradesh,
Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are
Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, and Maharashtra have large protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting
percentages of reserved forests of its total forest government involvement. The inhabitants of
area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan
Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the
have a bulk of it under protected forests. All Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their
North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have own set of rules and regulations which do
a very high percentage of their forests as not allow hunting, and are protecting the
unclassed forests managed by local wildlife against any outside encroachments.
communities.
2022-23
Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse The famous Chipko movement in the
and rare species Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief deforestation in several areas but has also
based on the premise that all creations of shown that community afforestation with
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs indigenous species can be enormously
have preserved several virgin forests in successful. Attempts to revive the traditional
pristine form called Sacred Groves (the conservation methods or developing new
forests of God and Goddesses). These methods of ecological farming are now
patches of forest or parts of large forests have widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like
been left untouched by the local people and the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
any interference with them is banned. Navdanya have shown that adequate levels
Certain societies revere a particular tree of diversified crop production without the use
which they have preserved from time of synthetic chemicals are possible and
immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of economically viable.
Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia In India joint forest management (JFM)
latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus programme furnishes a good example for
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and involving local communities in the
Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus management and restoration of degraded
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees forests. The programme has been in formal
during weddings. To many of us, peepal and existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha
banyan trees are considered sacred. passed the first resolution for joint forest
Indian society comprises several management. JFM depends on the formation
cultures, each with its own set of traditional of local (village) institutions that undertake
methods of conserving nature and its protection activities mostly on degraded forest
creations. Sacred qualities are often land managed by the forest department. In
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants return, the members of these communities
and animals which are closely protected. You are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-
will find troops of macaques and langurs timber forest produces and share in the timber
around many temples. They are fed daily harvested by ‘successful protection’.
and treated as a part of temple devotees. In
The clear lesson from the dynamics of
and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan,
both environmental destruction and
herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and
reconstruction in India is that local
peacocks can be seen as an integral part of
communities everywhere have to be involved
the community and nobody harms them.
in some kind of natural resource
management. But there is still a long way to
go before local communities are at the centre-
Write a short essay on any practices which
stage in decision-making. Accept only those
you may have observed and practised in
economic or developmental activities, that are
your everyday lives that conserve and protect
people centric, environment-friendly and
the environment around you.
economically rewarding.
“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and

makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its
life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen
who destroy it”.
Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)
2022-23
1 . Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of flora
and fauna?
(a) Agricultural expansion.
(b) Large scale developmental projects.
(c) Grazing and fuel wood collection.
(d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.
(ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve
community participation?
(a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement
(b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries
2 . Match the following animals with their category of existence.
Animals/Plants Category of existence
Black buck Extinct

Asiatic elephant Rare
A ndaman wild pig Endangered
Himalayan brown bear Vulnerable
Pink head duck Endemic
3 . Match the following.
Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both

government and private individuals and
communities
Protected forests forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Unclassed forests forest lands are protected from any further
depletion
4 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.

(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife
in India?
(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.
2022-23
You already know that three-fourth of the W ATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER
earth’s surface is covered with water, but only C ONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater that can be put to use. This Given the abundance and renewability of
freshwater is mainly obtained from surface water, it is difficult to imagine that we may
run off and ground water that is continually suffer from water scarcity. The moment we
being renewed and recharged through the speak of water shortages, we immediately
hydrological cycle. All water moves within the associate it with regions having low rainfall
hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a or those that are drought prone. We
renewable resource. instantaneously visualise the deserts of
You might wonder that if three-fourth of Rajasthan and women balancing many
the world is covered with water and water is ‘matkas’ (earthen pots) used for collecting
a renewable resource, then how is it that and storing water and travelling long
countries and regions around the globe suffer distances to get water. True, the availability
from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that of water resources varies over space and time,
by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in mainly due to the variations in seasonal and
absolute water scarcity? annual precipitation, but water scarcity in
2022-23
most cases is caused by over-exploitation, consequent greater demands for water, and
excessive use and unequal access to water unequal access to it. A large population
among different social groups. requires more water not only for domestic
Where is then water scarcity likely to use but also to produce more food. Hence, to
occur? As you have read in the hydrological facilitate higher food-grain production, water
cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly resources are being over-exploited to expand
from precipitation, surface run of f and irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
groundwater. Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer
Is it possible that an area or region may of water. Now it is needed to revolutionise the
have ample water resources but is still facing agriculture through developing drought
water scarcity? Many of our cities are such resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an You may have seen in many television
outcome of large and growing population and advertisements that most farmers have their
Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink:

After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinking
water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent
districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,
meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and
disruted traffic.
A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in

the snow in a devastated village.
Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity
2022-23
own wells and tube-wells in their farms for long-term basis by ensuring functionality of
irrigation to increase their produce. But have the tap water connections. (Source: Economic
you ever wondered what this could result in? Survey 2020–21, p.357)
That it may lead to falling groundwater levels, India’s rivers, especially the smaller ones,
adversely affecting water availability and food have all turned into toxic streams. And even
security of the people. the big ones like the Ganga and Yamuna
Post-independent India witnessed are far from being pure. The assault on
intensive industrialisation and urbanisation, India’s rivers – from population growth,
creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and
industrial houses are as commonplace as the industrialisation – is enormous and growing
industrial units of many MNCs (Multinational by the day….. This entire life stands
Corporations). The ever-increasing number of threatened.
industries has made matters worse by exerting Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report, CSE, 1999.
pressure on existing freshwater resources.
Industries, apart from being heavy users of You may have already realised that the need
water, also require power to run them. Much of the hour is to conserve and manage our
of this energy comes from hydroelectric power. water resources, to safeguard ourselves from
Today, in India hydroeclectric power health hazards, to ensure food security,
contributes approximately 22 per cent of the continuation of our livelihoods and productive
total electricity produced. Moreover, activities and also to prevent degradation of our
multiplying urban centres with large and natural ecosystems. Over exploitation and
dense populations and urban lifestyles have mismanagement of water resources will
not only added to water and energy impoverish this resource and cause ecological
requirements but have further aggravated the
crisis that may have profound impact on
problem. If you look into the housing societies
our lives.
or colonies in the cities, you would find that
most of these have their own groundwater
pumping devices to meet their water needs. From your everyday experiences, write a short
Not surprisingly, we find that fragile water proposal on how you can conserve water.
resources are being over-exploited and have
caused their depletion in several of these cities. M U L T I -P U R P O S E R I V E R PR O J E C T S AND
So far we have focused on the quantitative INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider But, how do we conserve and manage water?
another situation where water is sufficiently Archaeological and historical records show
available to meet the needs of the people, but,
that from ancient times we have been
the area still suffers from water scarcity. This
constructing sophisticated hydraulic
scarcity may be due to bad quality of water.
structures like dams built of stone rubble,
Lately, there has been a growing concern that
reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals
even if there is ample water to meet the needs
for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have
of the people, much of it may be polluted by
continued this tradition in modern India by
domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals,
building dams in most of our river basins.
pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture,
thus, making it hazardous for human use.
Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India
Government of India has accorded highest
priority to improve the quality of life and • In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura
enhance ease of living of people especially those near Allahabad had sophisticated water
living in rual areas by announcing the Jal harvesting system channelling the flood
Jeevan Mission (JJM). The Goal of JJM is to water of the river Ganga.
enable every rural household get assured • During the time of Chandragupta Maurya,
supply of potable piped water at a service level dams, lakes and irrigation systems were
of 55 litres per capita per day regularly on extensively built.
WATER RESOURCES 25
2022-23
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works
have also been found in Kalinga, A dam is a barrier across flowing water that
(Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
(Maharashtra), etc. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure. Most dams have a section called a
• In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the spillway or weir over which or through which
largest artificial lakes of its time was built. it is intended that water will flow either
• In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, intermittently or continuously. Dams are
Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for classified according to structure, intended
supplying water to Siri Fort area. purpose or height. Based on structure and
Source: Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997. the materials used, dams are classified as
timber dams, embankment dams or masonry
dams, with several subtypes. According to
the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low
dams, medium height dams and high dams.
handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru

proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of
modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the
village economy with rapid industrialisation and
growth of the urban economy.
Find out more about any one traditional

Fig. 3.2: Hirakud Dam
method of building dams and irrigation works.
What are dams and how do they help us
in conserving and managing water? Dams
were traditionally built to impound rivers and We have sown the crops in Asar
rainwater that could be used later to irrigate We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra
agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not Floods have swollen the Damodar
just for irrigation but for electricity generation,
The sailing boats cannot sail
water supply for domestic and industrial
uses, flood control, recreation, inland Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet
navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are Reduce the floods a little
now referred to as multi-purpose projects Bhadu will come a year later
where the many uses of the impounded water Let the boats sail on your surface
are integrated with one another. For example,
(This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar
in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – valley region narrates the troubles faced by
Nangal project water is being used both for people owing to the flooding of Damodar river
hydel power production and irrigation. known as the river of sorrow.)
Similarly, the Hirakud project in the
Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of In recent years, multi-purpose projects
water with flood control. and large dams have come under great
Multi-purpose projects, launched after scrutiny and opposition for a variety of
Independence with their integrated water reasons. Regulating and damming of rivers
resources management approach, were thought affect their natural flow causing poor sediment
of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom
development and progress, overcoming the of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream
2022-23
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic Source: S. Sharma, quoted in In the Belly of
life. Dams also fragment rivers making it the River. Tribal conflicts over development in
Narmada valley, A. Baviskar, 1995.
dif ficult for aquatic fauna to migrate,
especially for spawning. The reservoirs that
are created on the floodplains also submerge
the existing vegetation and soil leading to its Sardar Sarovar Dam has been built over
decomposition over a period of time. the Narmada River in Gujarat. This is one
Multi-purpose projects and large dams of the largest water resource projects of
have also been the cause of many new India covering four states—Maharashtra,
environmental movements like the ‘Narmada Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ The Sardar Sarovar project would meet the
etc. Resistance to these projects has primarily requirement of water in drought-prone and
been due to the large-scale displacement of desert areas of Gujarat (9,490 villages and
local communities. Local people often had to 173 towns) and Rajasthan (124 villages).
give up their land, livelihood and their meagre Source: http://www.sardarsarovardam.org/
access and control over resources for the project.aspx
greater good of the nation. So, if the local
people are not benefiting from such projects Irrigation has also changed the cropping
then who is benefited? Perhaps, the pattern of many regions with farmers shifting
landowners and large farmers, industrialists to water intensive and commercial crops. This
and few urban centres. Take the case of the has great ecological consequences like
landless in a village – does he really gain from salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it
such a project? has transformed the social landscape i.e.
increasing the social gap between the richer
landowners and the landless poor. As we can
Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save see, the dams did create conflicts between
Narmada Movement is a Non Governmental people wanting different uses and benefits
Organisation (NGO) that mobilised tribal from the same water resources. In Gujarat,
people, farmers, environmentalists and the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated
human rights activists against the Sardar and almost caused a riot over the higher
Sarovar Dam being built across the priority given to water supply in urban areas,
Narmada river in Gujarat. It originally particularly during droughts. Inter-state water
focused on the environmental issues related disputes are also becoming common with
to trees that would be submerged under the regard to sharing the costs and benefits of
dam water. Recently it has re-focused the the multi-purpose project.
aim to enable poor citizens, especially
the oustees (displaced people) to get
full rehabilitation facilities from
the government. Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari
People felt that their suffering would not dispute is due to the objections raised by
be in vain… accepted the trauma of K arnataka and A ndhra Pradesh
displacement believing in the promise of governments? It is regarding the diversion
irrigated fields and plentiful harvests. So, of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra
often the survivors of Rihand told us that they government for a multipurpose project. This
accepted their sufferings as sacrifice for the would reduce downstream flow in their
sake of their nation. But now, after thirty bitter states with adverse consequences for
years of being adrift, their livelihood having agriculture and industry.
even being more precarious, they keep
asking: “Are we the only ones chosen to
make sacrifices for the nation?” Make a list of inter-state water disputes.
WATER RESOURCES 27
2022-23
India: Major Rivers and Dams
2022-23
Most of the objections to the projects arose RAINWATER HARVESTING
due to their failure to achieve the purposes
Many thought that given the disadvantages
for which they were built. Ironically, the dams
and rising resistance against the multi-
that were constructed to control floods have
purpose projects, water harvesting system was
triggered floods due to sedimentation in the
a viable alternative, both socio-economically
reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly
and environmentally. In ancient India, along
been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the with the sophisticated hydraulic structures,
time of excessive rainfall. You may have seen there existed an extraordinary tradition of
or read how the release of water from dams water-harvesting system. People had in-depth
during heavy rains aggravated the flood knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types
situation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006. and developed wide ranging techniques to
The floods have not only devastated life and harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water
property but also caused extensive soil and flood water in keeping with the local
erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the ecological conditions and their water needs.
flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural In hill and mountainous regions, people built
fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of
land degradation. It was also observed that the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
the multi-purpose projects induced ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly
earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and practised to store drinking water, particularly
pests and pollution resulting from excessive in Rajasthan. In the flood plains of Bengal,
use of water. people developed inundation channels to
Collect information about flood prone areas of the country
WATER RESOURCES 29
2022-23
irrigate their fields. In arid and semi-arid
regions, agricultural fields were converted into
rain fed storage structures that allowed the
water to stand and moisten the soil like the
‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other
parts of Rajasthan.
Fig. 3.4
(a) Recharge through Hand Pump
In the semi-arid and arid regions of
Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi
a n d B a r m e r, a l m o s t a l l t h e h o u s e s
traditionally had underground tanks or
tankas for storing drinking water. The tanks
could be as large as a big room; one
household in Phalodi had a tank that was
6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44
metres wide. The tankas were part of the
well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting
system and were built inside the main house
or the courtyard. They were connected to
the sloping roofs of the houses through a
pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops would
travel down the pipe and was stored in these
underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain
(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell was usually not collected as this would
• Rooftop rainwater is collected using a PVC pipe clean the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater
• Filtered using sand and bricks from the subsequent showers was then
• Underground pipe takes water to sump for
immediate usage collected.
• Excess water from the sump is taken to the well The rainwater can be stored in the
• Water from the well recharges the underground tankas till the next rainfall making it an
• Take water from the well (later) extremely reliable source of drinking water
Fig 3.3: Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting when all other sources are dried up,
2022-23
Fortunately, in many parts of rural and urban
India, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being
successfully adapted to store and conserve
water. In Gendathur, a remote backward village
in Mysuru, Karnataka, villagers have installed,
in their household’s rooftop, rainwater harvesting
system to meet their water needs. Nearly 200
households have installed this system and the
village has earned the rare distinction of being
rich in rainwater. See Fig. 3.6 for a better
A kul leads to a circular village tank, as the above understanding of the rooftop rainwater
in the Kaza village, from which water is released
harvesting system which is adapted here.
as and when required.
Gendathur receives an annual precipitation of
Fig 3.5: Traditional method of rainwater 1,000 mm, and with 80 per cent of collection
harvesting efficiency and of about 10 fillings, every house
can collect and use about 50,000 litres of water
particularly in the summers. Rainwater, or annually. From the 200 houses, the net amount
palar pani, as commonly referred to in of rainwater harvested annually amounts to
these parts, is considered the purest form 1,00,000 litres.
of natural water. Many houses constructed
underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’
to beat the summer heat as it would keep
the room cool.
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most

common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya.
It is interesting because Cherapunjee and
Mawsynram situated at a distance of
55 km. from Shillong receive the highest
rainfall in the world, yet the state capital
Shillong faces acute shortage of water.
Nearly every household in the city has a Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns
rooftop rainwater harvesting structure. and villages of the Thar. Rainwater that falls on the
sloping roofs of houses is taken through a pipe into
Nearly 15-25 per cent of the total water an underground tanka (circular holes in the ground).
requirement of the household comes from built in the main house or in the courtyard. The
rooftop water harvesting. picture above shows water being taken from a
neighbour’s roof through a long pipe. Here the
neighbour’s rooftop has been used for collection of
rainwater. The picture shows a hole through which
rainwater flows down into an underground tanka.
Find out other rainwater harvesting systems
existing in and around your locality. Fig. 3.6
Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the Tamil Nadu is the first state in India
practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on which has made rooftop rainwater
the decline as plenty of water is available due harvesting structure compulsory to all
to the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal, though the houses across the state. There are
some houses still maintain the tankas since legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
they do not like the taste of tap water.
WATER RESOURCES 31
2022-23
B AMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream
and spring water by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent.
About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system,
gets transported over hundreds of metres, and finally
reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.
Picture 1: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs

on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.
Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert Picture 4: If the pipes pass a road,
water to the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again they are taken high above the land.
made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of
water into the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.
Picture 5 and 6
Reduced channel sections
and diversion units are
used at the last stage of
water application. The last
channel section enables
water to be dropped near
the roots of the plant.
Fig 3.7
1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.

2. Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality.
2022-23

(i) Based on the information given below classify each of the situations as
‘suffering from water scarcity’ or ‘not suffering from water scarcity’.
(a) Region with high annual rainfall.
(b) Region having high annual rainfall and large population.
(c) Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.
(d) Region having low rainfall and low population.
(ii) Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-
purpose river projects?
(a) Multi-purpose projects bring water to those areas which suffer from
water scarcity.
(b) Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.
(c) Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss of
livelihood.
(d) Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and our
homes.
(iii) Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and rewrite them
correctly.
(a) Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban
lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.
(b) Regulating and damming of rivers does not affect the river’s natural
flow and its sediment flow.
(c) In Gujarat, the Sabarmati basin farmers were not agitated when higher
priority was given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during
droughts.
(d) Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvesting
has gained popularity despite high water availability due to the Indira
Gandhi Canal.

(i) Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.
(ii) What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?
(iii) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.

(i) Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan is
carried out.
(ii) Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods are being carried out to conserve and store water.
WATER RESOURCES 33
2022-23
India is an agriculturally important country. through natural processes; land productivity
Two-thirds of its population is engaged in in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary does not use fertilisers or other modern
activity, which produces most of the food that inputs. It is known by different names in
we consume. Besides food grains, it also different parts of the country.
produces raw material for various industries.
Can you name some such types of farmings?
Can you name some industries based on
It is jhumming in north-eastern states like
agricultural raw material?
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;
Moreover, some agricultural products like Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district
tea, coffee, spices, etc. are also exported. of Chhattishgarh, and in A ndaman and
Nicobar Islands.
TYPES OF FARMING
Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture
Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central
our country. Over these years, cultivation America, ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in
methods have changed significantly depending Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’
upon the characteristics of physical in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
environment, technological know-how and In India, this primitive form of cultivation
socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya
subsistence to commercial type. At present, Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
in different parts of India, the following ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
farming systems are practised. ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’
in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the
Primitive Subsistence Farming Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and
This type of farming is still practised in few ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
pockets of India. Primitive subsistence
agriculture is practised on small patches of
land with the help of primitive tools like hoe,
dao and digging sticks, and family/
community labour. This type of farming
depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of
the soil and suitability of other environmental
conditions to the crops grown.
It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Farmers clear a patch of land and produce
cereals and other food crops to sustain their
family. When the soil fertility decreases, the
farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land
for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil Fig. 4.1
2022-23
Rinjha lived with her family in a small village Plantation is also a type of commercial
at the outskirts of Diphu in Assam. She enjoys farming. In this type of farming, a single crop
watching her family members clearing, is grown on a large area. The plantation has
slashing and burning a patch of land for an interface of agriculture and industry.
cultivation. She often helps them in irrigating Plantations cover large tracts of land, using
the fields with water running through a capital intensive inputs, with the help of
bamboo canal from the nearby spring. She migrant labourers. All the produce is used
loves the surroundings and wants to stay as raw material in respective industries.
here as long as she can, but this little girl
In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane,
has no idea about the declining fertility of
banana, etc., are important plantation crops.
the soil and her family’s search for fresh a
Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in
patch of land in the next season.
K arnataka are some of the important
plantation crops grown in these states. Since
Can you name the type of farming Rinjha’s the production is mainly for market, a well-
family is engaged in? developed network of transport and
Can you enlist some crops which are grown communication connecting the plantation
in such farming? areas, processing industries and markets
plays an important role in the development
Intensive Subsistence Farming of plantations.
This type of farming is practised in areas of
high population pressure on land. It is labour-
intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used
for obtaining higher production.
Can you name some of the states of India
where such farming is practised?
Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading
to the division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size
uneconomical, the farmers continue to take
maximum output from the limited land in Fig. 4.2: Banana plantation in Southern
the absence of alternative source of livelihood. part of India
Thus, there is enormous pressure on
agricultural land.
Commercial Farming
The main characteristic of this type of farming
is the use of higher doses of modern inputs,
e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical
fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order
to obtain higher productivity. The degree of
commercialisation of agriculture varies from
one region to another. For example, rice is a
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but
in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
Can you give some more examples of crops
which may be commercial in one region and
may provide subsistence in another region? Fig. 4.3: Bamboo plantation in North-east
A GRICULTURE 35
2022-23
C ROPPING PATTERN watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber,
vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
You have studied the physical diversities and
almost a year to grow.
plurality of cultures in India. These are also
reflected in agricultural practices and Major Crops
cropping patterns in the country. Various
A variety of food and non food crops are
types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and
grown in dif ferent parts of the country
fruits, spices and condiments, etc. constitute depending upon the variations in soil, climate
some of the important crops grown in the and cultivation practices. Major crops grown
country. India has three cropping seasons in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,
— rabi, kharif and zaid. coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute,
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October etc.
to December and harvested in summer from
April to June. Some of the important rabi Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of
crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and the people in India. Our country is the second
mustard. Though, these crops are grown in largest producer of rice in the world after
large parts of India, states from the north China. It is a kharif crop which requires high
and north-western parts such as Punjab, temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are of less rainfall, it grows with the help of
important for the production of wheat and irrigation.
other rabi crops. Availability of precipitation
during winter months due to the western
temperate cyclones helps in the success of
these crops. However, the success of the green
revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been
an important factor in the growth of the above-
mentioned rabi crops.
K harif crops are grown with the onset of
monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October.
Important crops grown during this season
are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar),
moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and
soyabean. Some of the most important rice- Fig. 4.4 (a): Rice Cultivation
growing regions are Assam, West Bengal,
coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast)
along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently,
paddy has also become an important crop of
Punjab and Haryana. In states like Assam,
West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy
are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman
and Boro.
In between the rabi and the kharif seasons,
there is a short season during the summer
months known as the Zaid season. Some of
Fig. 4.4 (b): Rice is ready to be harvested in the
the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are
field
2022-23
India: Distribution of Rice
AGRICULTURE 37
2022-23
Rice is grown in the plains of north and
north-eastern India, coastal areas and the
deltaic regions. Development of dense network
of canal irrigation and tubewells have made
it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall
such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat: This is the second most important
cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north
and north-western part of the country. This
rabi crop requires a cool growing season and
a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It
Fig. 4.6: Bajra Cultivation
requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly-
distributed over the growing season. There
Bajra grows well on sandy soils and
are two important wheat-growing zones in the
shallow black soil. Major Bajra producing
country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the
States are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
north-west and black soil region of the Deccan.
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is
The major wheat-producing states are
a crop of dry regions and grows well on red,
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.
Major ragi producing states are: Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.
Maize: It is a crop which is used both as
food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which
requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C
and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some
states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season
also. Use of modern inputs such as HYV
seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have
contributed to the increasing production of
maize. Major maize-producing states are
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Fig. 4.5: Wheat Cultivation
Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the

important millets grown in India. Though,
these are known as coarse grains, they have
very high nutritional value. For example, ragi
is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro
nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third
most important food crop with respect to area
and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly
grown in the moist areas which hardly needs
irrigation. Major Jowar producing States are
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Fig. 4.7: Maize Cultivation
and Madhya Pradesh.
2022-23
India: Distribution of Wheat
AGRICULTURE 39
2022-23
Pulses: India is the largest producer as well sowing to harvesting. India is the second
as the consumer of pulses in the world. These largest producer of sugarcane only after
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur
diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are (jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major
tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and sugarcane-producing states are Uttar
gram. Can you distinguish which of these Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
pulses are grown in the kharif season and Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar,
which are grown in the rabi season? Pulses Punjab and Haryana.
need less moisture and survive even in dry
Oil Seeds: In 2018 India was the second
conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
largest producer of groundnut in the world
crops except arhar help in restoring soil
after China. In rapeseed production India was
fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation third largest producer in the world after
with other crops. Major pulse producing states Canada and China in 2018. Different oil seeds
in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, are grown covering approximately 12 per cent
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. of the total cropped area of the country. Main
oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut,
Food Crops other than Grains mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean,
Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and
subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and sunflower. Most of these are edible and used
humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to as cooking mediums. However, some of these
27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. are also used as raw material in the
and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
regions of low rainfall. It can be grown on a Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts
variety of soils and needs manual labour from for about half of the major oilseeds produced in
the country. Gujarat was the largest producer
of groundnut followed by Rajasthan and Tamil
Nadu in 2019–20. Linseed and mustard are rabi
crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and
rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown
both as rabi and kharif crop.
Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of
plantation agriculture. It is also an important
beverage crop introduced in India initially by
the British. Today, most of the tea plantations
are owned by Indians. The tea plant grows
well in tropical and sub-tropical climates
endowed with deep and fertile well-drained
soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea
Fig. 4.8: Sugarcane Cultivation bushes require warm and moist frost-free
Fig. 4.9: Groundnut, sunflower and mustard are ready to be harvested in the field
2022-23
climate all through the
year. Frequent showers
evenly distributed over the
year ensure continuous
growth of tender leaves.
Tea is a labour-intensive
industry. It requires
abundant, cheap and
skilled labour. Tea is
processed within
the tea garden to restore Fig. 4.10: Tea Cultivation Fig. 4.11: Tea-leaves Harvesting
its freshness. Major tea-
producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling Horticulture Crops: In 2018, India was the
and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil second largest producer of fruits and
Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal vegetables in the world after China. India is a
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
states in the country. In 2018 India was the Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,
second largest producer of tea after China. oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee
Coffee: Indian coffee is known in the world for (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
its good quality. The Arabica variety initially Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava
brought from Yemen is produced in the of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
country. This variety is in great demand all over Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh,
the world. Initially its cultivation was Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir
today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. the world over.
Fig. 4.12: Apricots, apple and pomegranate
Fig. 4.13: Cultivation of vegetables – peas, cauliflower, tomato and brinjal
Source: Pocket book of agricultural statistics, 2020, Govt. of India. Directorate of Economics and Statistics.
A GRICULTURE 41
2022-23
India is an important producer of pea, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
and potato.
Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows
Non-Food Crops well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood
Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under plains where soils are renewed every year. High
special conditions, it is also grown in tropical temperature is required during the time of
and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and
humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 Meghalaya are the major jute producing states.
cm. and temperature above 25°C. It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes,
Rubber is an important industrial raw yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its
material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar and packing materials, particularly the nylon.
islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. Technological and Institutional Reforms
It was mentioned in the previous pages that
List the items which are made of rubber and agriculture has been practised in India for
are used by us. thousands of years. Sustained uses of land
without compatible techno-institutional
Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural changes have hindered the pace of agricultural
silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. development. Inspite of development of sources
The first three are derived from the crops grown of irrigation most of the farmers in large parts
in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of of the country still depend upon monsoon and
the silkworms fed on green leaves specially natural fertility in order to carry on their
mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the agriculture. For a growing population, this
production of silk fibre is known as sericulture. poses a serious challenge. Agriculture which
provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent
Cotton: India is believed to be the original home
of its population, needs some serious technical
of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main
and institutional reforms. Thus, collectivisation,
raw materials for cotton textile industry. In
consolidation of holdings, cooperation and
2017, India was second largest producer of
abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority
cotton after China. Cotton grows well in drier
to bring about institutional reforms in the
parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
country after Independence. ‘Land reform’ was
plateau. It requires high temperature, light
the main focus of our First Five Year Plan. The
rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and
right of inheritance had already lead to
bright sun-shine for its growth. It is a kharif
fragmentation of land holdings necessitating
crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
consolidation of holdings.
Major cotton-producing states are–
The laws of land reforms were enacted but
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
the implementation was lacking or lukewarm.
The Government of India embarked upon
introducing agricultural reforms to improve
Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s.
The Green Revolution based on the use of
package technology and the White Revolution
(Operation Flood) were some of the strategies
initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture.
But, this too led to the concentration of
development in few selected areas. Therefore,
in the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land
development programme was initiated, which
Fig. 4.14: Cotton Cultivation
included both institutional and technical
2022-23
Fig. 4.15: Modern technological equipments used in agriculture
reforms. Provision for crop insurance against Once, when he was delivering a lecture at
drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease, Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some poor
establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative landless villagers demanded some land for
societies and banks for providing loan facilities their economic well-being. Vinoba Bhave
to the farmers at lower rates of interest were could not promise it to them immediately but
some important steps in this direction. assured them to talk to the Government of
Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident India regarding provision of land for them if
Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other they undertook cooperative farming.
schemes introduced by the Government of India Suddenly, Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood
for the benefit of the farmers. Moreover, special up and offered 80 acres of land to be
weather bulletins and agricultural programmes distributed among 80 land-less villagers.
for farmers were introduced on the radio and This act was known as ‘Bhoodan’. Later he
television. The government also announces travelled and introduced his ideas widely all
minimum support price, remunerative and over India. Some zamindars, owners of
procurement prices for important crops to check many villages offered to distribute some
the exploitation of farmers by speculators and villages among the landless. It was known
middlemen. as Gramdan. However, many land-owners
chose to provide some part of their land to
the poor farmers due to the fear of land
Collect information about agriculture,
ceiling act. This Bhoodan- Gramdan
horticulture, agricultural schemes, etc. from
movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also
Farmers’ Portal website https://farmer.
known as the Blood-less Revolution.
gov.in/FarmerHome.aspx. Discuss about the
benefits of the information available on
the portal. Contribution of agriculture to the national
economy, employment and output
Bhoodan – Gramdan Agriculture has been the backbone of the
Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as Indian economy though its share in the Gross
his spiritual heir. He also participated in Domestic Product (GDP) has registered a
Satyagraha as one of the foremost declining trend from 1951 onwards; According
satyagrahis. He was one of the votaries of to census of India 2011 about 54.6 per cent of
Gandhi’s concept of gram swarajya. After the total work force was engaged in agriculture
Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave and allied sector activities which makes more
undertook padyatra to spread Gandhiji’s than half of the Indian Population dependent
message covered almost the entire country. on agriculture for sustenance.
A GRICULTURE 43
2022-23
The declining share of agriculture in the agriculture sector. Subsidy on fertilisers is
GDP is a matter of serious concern because decreased leading to increase in the cost of
any decline and stagnation in agriculture will production. Moreover, reduction in import
lead to a decline in other spheres of the duties on agricultural products have proved
economy having wider implications for society. detrimental to agriculture in the country.
Considering the importance of agriculture Farmers are withdrawing their investment from
in India, the Government of India made agriculture causing a downfall in the
concerted efforts to modernise agriculture. employment in agriculture.
Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), agricultural universities,
veterinary services and animal breeding centres, When farmers have been facing so many
horticulture development, research and problems and land under agriculture is
development in the field of meteorology and decreasing, can we think of alternative
weather forecast, etc. were given priority for employment opportunities in the agriculture
improving Indian agriculture. Apart from this, sector?
improving the rural infrastructure was also
considered essential for the same. In order to
Why are farmers committing suicides in
strenghten and support agricultural sector, several states of the country?
several intiatives have been taken by
Government of India under The Atma Nirbhar Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture
Bharat Abhiyan. (Source: Economic Survey Globalisation is not a new phenomenon. It
2020–21, II Vol., p.231). Collect information was there at the time of colonisation. In the
about these and discuss in the classroom. nineteenth century when European traders
came to India, at that time too, Indian spices
Find out why an Indian farmer does not want were exported to different countries of the
his son to become a farmer. world and farmers of south India were
encouraged to grow these crops. Till today
From the Table 4.1, it is clear that though it is one of the important items of export from
the GDP growth rate is increasing over the India.
years, it is not generating sufficient During the British period cotton belts of
employment opportunities in the country. The India attracted the British and ultimately
growth rate in agriculture has been cotton was exported to Britain as a raw material
decelerating which is an alarming situation. for their textile industries. Cotton textile
Today, Indian farmers are facing a big industry in Manchester and Liverpool
challenge from international competition and flourished due to the availability of good
reduction in the public investment in quality cotton from India. You have read about
the Champaran movement which started in
Table 4.1: India: Growth Rate of GDP and
1917 in Bihar. This was started because
Major Sectors (in %)
farmers of that region were forced to grow
Sector 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 indigo on their land because it was necessary
Agriculture 1.5 4.2 -0.2* for the textile industries which were located in
Britain. They were unable to grow foodgrains
Industry 3.6 5.0 7.0* to sustain their families.
Services 8.1 7.8 9.8* Under globalisation, particularly after
1990, the farmers in India have been exposed
Total 5.6 6.6 7.4
to new challenges. Despite being an important
Source: Economic Survey of various years, producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee,
Ministry of Finance, Government of India jute and spices our agricultural products are
Note: *Data pertaining to Gross Value Added (GVA). not able to compete with the developed
2022-23
Organise a debate on food security of India, its need and efforts.
countries because of the highly subsidised controversies. It is being alleged that it has
agriculture in those countries. caused land degradation due to overuse of
chemicals, drying aquifers and vanishing
biodiversity. The keyword today is “gene
revolution”, which includes genetic
engineering.
Genetic engineering is recognised as a

powerful supplement in inventing new
hybrid varieties of seeds.
Fig. 4.16: Tissue culture of teak clones

Can you name any gene modified seed used
Today, Indian agriculture finds itself at the vastly in India?
crossroads. To make agriculture successful and Infact organic farming is much in vogue
profitable, proper thrust should be given to today because it is practised without factory
the improvement of the condition of marginal made chemicals such as fertilisers and
and small farmers. The green revolution pesticides. Hence, it does not af fect
promised much. But today it’s under environment in a negative manner.
A GRICULTURE 45
2022-23
and smaller as the population rises. India’s
rural population is about 833 million (2011)
which depends upon 250 million
(approximate) hectares of agricultural land,
an average of less than half a hectare per
person.
Indian farmers should diversify their
cropping pattern from cereals to high-value
crops. This will increase incomes and
reduce environmental degradation
simultaneously. Because fruits, medicinal
Fig. 4.17 Problems associated with heavy pesticide herbs, flowers, vegetables, bio-diesel crops
use are widely recognised in developed and like jatropha and jojoba need much less
developing countries
irrigation than rice or sugarcane. India’s
A few economists think that Indian farmers diverse climate can be harnessed to grow a
have a bleak future if they continue growing wide range of high-value crops.
foodgrains on the holdings that grow smaller
Change in cropping pattern for example from cereals to high-value crops will mean that India
will have to import food. During 1960’s this would have been seen as a disaster. But if India
imports cereals while exporting high-value commodities, it will be following successful economies
like Italy, Israel and Chile. These countries exports farm products (fruits, olives, speciality seeds
and wine) and import cereals. Are we ready to take this risk? Debate the issue.

(i) Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single
crop is grown on a large area?
(a) Shifting Agriculture
(b) Plantation Agriculture
(c) Horticulture
(d) Intensive Agriculture
(ii) Which one of the following is a rabi crop?
(a) Rice (c) Millets
(b) Gram (d) Cotton
(iii) Which one of the following is a leguminous crop?
(a) Pulses (c) Millets
(b) Jawar (d) Sesamum
2 . A nswer the following questions in 30 words.

(i) Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions
required for its growth.
(ii) Name one staple crop of India and the regions where it is produced.
2022-23
(iii) Enlist the various institutional reform programmes introduced by the government in the
interest of farmers.
(iv) The land under cultivation has got reduced day by day. Can you imagine its consequences?
3. A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Suggest the initiative taken by the government to ensure the increase in agricultural
production.
(ii) Describe the impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture.
(iii) Describe the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice.
PROJECT WORK
1 . Group discussion on the necessity of literacy among farmers.
2 . On an outline map of India show wheat producing areas.
ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.
A Z M X N C B V N X A H D Q
S D E W S R J D Q J Z V R E
D K H A R I F G W F M R F W
F N L R G C H H R S B S V T
G B C W H E A T Y A C H B R
H R T K A S S E P H X A N W
J I E S J O W A R J Z H D T
K C L A E G A C O F F E E Y
L T E F Y M T A T S S R G I
P D E J O U Y V E J G F A U
O U M H Q S U D I T S W S P
U O A C O T T O N E A H F O
Y O L F L U S R Q Q D T W I
T M U A H R G Y K T R A B F
E A K D G D Q H S U O I W H
W Q Z C X V B N M K J A S L
1 . The two staple food crops of India.

2 . This is the summer cropping season of India.
3 . Pulses like arhar, moong, gram, urad contain…
4 . It is a coarse grain.
5 . The two important beverages in India are…
6 . One of the four major fibers grown on black soils.
A GRICULTURE 47
2022-23
Haban comes to Guwahati with his father A bright smile from toothpaste
from a remote village. and minerals
He sees people getting into strange Toothpaste cleans your teeth. Abrasive
house like objects which move along the minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium
road. He also sees a “kitchen” dragging a oxide and various phosphate minerals do the
number of house along with it. He is amazed cleaning. Fluoride which is used to reduce
and asked his father “Why don’t our houses cavities, comes from a mineral fluorite. Most
move like the one we saw in Guwahati, Ba?” toothpaste are made white with titanium
Ba replies, “These are not houses, they oxide, which comes from minerals called
are buses and trains. Unlike our houses these rutile, ilmenite and anatase. The sparkle in
are not made of bricks and stones, metal like some toothpastes comes from mica. The
iron and alluminium are used in making toothbrush and tube containing the paste are
these. They do not move on their own. They made of plastics from petroleum. Find out
are driven by an engine which needs energy where these minerals are found?
to work.”
Dig a little deeper and find out how many
We use different things in our daily life made minerals are used to make a light bulb?
from metal. Can you list a number of items
used in your house made of metals. Where do
All living things need minerals
these metals come from?
You have studied that the earth’s crust is Life processes cannot occur without minerals.
made up of different minerals embedded in the Although our mineral intake represents only
rocks. Various metals are extracted from these about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of
minerals after proper refinement. nutrients, they are so potent and so important
Minerals are an indispensable part of our that without them we would not be able to
lives. Almost everything we use, from a tiny pin utilise the other 99.7 per cent of foodstuffs.
to a towering building or a big ship, all are
made from minerals. The railway lines and the Dig a little deeper and collect “Nutritional
tarmac (paving) of the roads, our implements Facts” printed on food labels.
and machinery too are made from minerals.
Cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes are What is a mineral?
manufactured from minerals and run on Geologists define mineral as a
power resources derived from the earth. Even “homogenous, natura lly occurring substance
the food that we eat contains minerals. In all with a definable internal structure.” Minerals
stages of development, human beings have are found in varied forms in nature, ranging
used minerals for their livelihood, decoration, from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
festivities, religious and ceremonial rites. Why are they so varied?
2022-23
You have already learnt about rocks. sufficient concentration to make its extraction
Rocks are combinations of homogenous commercially viable. The type of formation or
substances called minerals. Some rocks, for structure in which they are found determines
instance limestone, consist of a single mineral the relative ease with which mineral ores may
only, but majority of the rock consist of several be mined. This also determines the cost of
minerals in varying proportions. Although, extraction. It is, therefore, important for us
over 2000 minerals have been identified, only to understand the main types of formations
a few are abundantly found in most of the in which minerals occur.
rocks. Minerals generally occur in these forms:
A particular mineral that will be formed (i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks
from a certain combination of elements minerals may occur in the cracks,
depends upon the physical and chemical crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
conditions under which the material forms. occurrences are called veins and the
This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours, larger are called lodes. In most cases,
hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that they are formed when minerals in liquid/
a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use molten and gaseous forms are forced
these properties to classify the minerals. upward through cavities towards the
earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as
Study of Minerals by Geographers they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin,
and Geologists copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained
Geographers study minerals as part of the from veins and lodes.
earth’s crust for a better understanding of (ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals
landforms. The distribution of mineral occur in beds or layers. They have been
resources and associated economic activities formed as a result of deposition,
are of interest to geographers. A geologist, accumulation and concentration in
however, is interested in the formation of horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of
minerals, their age and physical and iron ore have been concentrated as a result
chemical composition. of long periods under great heat and
pressure. Another group of sedimentary
However, for general and commercial minerals include gypsum, potash salt and
purposes minerals can be classified as under. sodium salt. These are formed as a result
of evaporation especially in arid regions.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS
(iii) A nother mode of formation involves the
Where are these minerals found? decomposition of surface rocks, and the
Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The removal of soluble constituents, leaving
term ore is used to describe an accumulation a residual mass of weathered
of any mineral mixed with other elements. material containing ores. Bauxite is
The mineral content of the ore must be in formed this way.
Fig. 5.1
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 49
2022-23
(iv) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains
deposits in sands of valley floors and the of north India are almost devoid of economic
base of hills. These deposits are called minerals. These variations exist largely because
‘placer deposits’ and generally contain of the differences in the geological structure,
minerals, which are not corroded by water. processes and time involved in the formation
Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most of minerals.
important among such minerals. Let us now study the distribution of a few
(v) The ocean waters contain vast quantities major minerals in India. Always remember that
of minerals, but most of these are too widely the concentration of mineral in the ore, the ease
diffused to be of economic significance. of extraction and closeness to the market play
However, common salt, magnesium and an important role in affecting the economic
bromine are largely derived from ocean viability of a reserve. Thus, to meet the demand,
waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in a choice has to be made between a number of
manganese nodules. possible options. When this is done a mineral
‘deposit’ or ‘reserve’ turns into a mine.
Ferrous Minerals
Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most
Ferrous minerals account for about three-
of the minerals in India are nationalised
fourths of the total value of the production of
and their extraction is possible only after
metallic minerals. They provide a strong base
obtaining due permission from the
for the development of metallurgical industries.
government? But in most of the tribal
India exports substantial quantities of ferrous
areas of the north-east India, minerals are
minerals after meeting her internal demands.
owned by individuals or communities. In
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, Iron Ore
iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone
mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done of industrial development. India is endowed
by family member in the form of a long with fairly abundant resources of iron ore. India
narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat hole’ is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is
mining. The National Green Tribunal has the finest iron ore with a very high content of
declared such activities illegal and iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic
recommended that these should be qualities, especially valuable in the electrical
stopped forthwith. industry. Hematite ore is the most important
industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
Dig a little deeper: What is the difference used, but has a slightly lower iron content than
between an open pit mine, a quarry and an magnetite. (50-60 per cent). In 2018–19 almost
underground mine with shafts? entire production of iron ore (97%) accrued
from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and Jharkhand. The remaining production (3%)
varied mineral resources. However, these are was from other states.
unevenly distributed. Broadly speaking,
peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves
of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other
Kudre in Kannada means horse. The
non-metallic minerals. Sedimentary rocks on
highest peak in the western ghats of
the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula,
Karnataka resembles the face of a horse.
in Gujarat and Assam have most of the
The Bailadila hills look like the hump of
petroleum deposits. Rajasthan with the rock
an ox, and hence its name.
systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many
2022-23
Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of
very high quality, yet they are efficiently
exploited. Iron ore is exported through
Marmagao port.
Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the
manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese
alloy. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required
to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also
used in manufacturing bleaching powder,
insecticides and paints.
Andhra Others
Pradesh 2%
10%
Fig. 5.2: Iron ore mine
Karnataka
The major iron ore belts in India are: 12%
• Odisha-Jharkhand belt: In Odisha high Madhya

Pradesh
grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar 33%
mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum
Odisha
district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is
16%
mined in Gua and Noamundi.
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high
grade hematites are found in the famous Maharashtra
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district 27%
of Chhattisgarh. The range of hills Fig. 5.3: Production of Manganese showing
comprise of 14 deposits of super high state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19
grade hematite iron ore. It has the best
physical properties needed for steel
Dig a little deeper: Superimpose the maps
making. Iron ore from these mines is
showing distribution of iron ore, manganese,
exported to Japan and South Korea via
coal and iron and steel industry. Do you see
Vishakhapatnam port.
any correlation. Why?
• Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-
Tumakuru belt in Karnataka has large
reserves of iron ore. The Kudremukh mines Non-Ferrous Minerals
located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka India’s reserves and production of non-
are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudremukh ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
deposits are known to be one of the largest However, these minerals, which include
in the world. The ore is transported as copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a
slurry through a pipeline to a port near vital role in a number of metallurgical,
Mangaluru. engineering and electrical industries. Let us
• Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state study the distribution of copper and
of Goa and Ratnagiri district of bauxite.
2022-23
India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica
2022-23
Copper Madhya
Pradesh
India is critically deficient in the reserve and Maharashtra
3%
Others
6% 1%
production of copper. Being malleable, ductile
and a good conductor, copper is mainly used Chhattisgarh
6%
in electrical cables, electronics and chemical
Gujarat
9%
Odisha
65%
Jharkhand
10%
Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite showing state-wise

Fig. 5.4: Copper mines at Malanjkhand share in per cent, 2018–19
industries. The Balaghat mines in Madhya Odisha was the largest bauxite producing
Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and state in India in 2016-17. Panchpatmali
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading deposits in Koraput district are the most
producers of copper. important bauxite deposits in the state.
Bauxite
Though, several ores
contain aluminium, it
is from bauxite, a
clay-like substance
that alumina and
later aluminium is
obtained. Bauxite
deposits are formed
by the decomposition
of a wide variety of
rocks rich in
aluminium silicates.
Aluminium is an
important metal
because it combines
the strength of metals
such as iron, with
extreme lightness
and also with good
conductivity and
great malleability.
India’s bauxite
deposits are mainly Fig.5.6: Bauxite Mine
found in the
Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the Dig a little deeper: Locate the mines of
plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni. Bauxite on the physical map of India.
2022-23
Rock Minerals
Limestone is found in association with rocks
After the discovery of aluminium composed of calcium carbonates or calcium
Emperor Napoleon III wore buttons and and magnesium carbonates. It is found in
hooks on his clothes made of aluminium sedimentary rocks of most geological
and served food to his more illustrious formations. Limestone is the basic raw
guests in aluminium utensils and the material for the cement industry and
less honourable ones were served in gold essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
and silver utensils. Thirty years after this furnace.
incident aluminium bowls were most
common with the beggars in Paris. Dig a little deeper: Study the maps to explain
why Chota Nagpur is a storehouse of minerals.
Non-Metallic Minerals Others

8%
Maharashtra Rajasthan
Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates 4% 20%
or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets. These Tamil Nadu
sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be 6%
layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters
Gujarat
high. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow 7%
or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric Madhya
strength, low power loss factor, insulating Pradesh
Telangana 13%
properties and resistance to high voltage, mica
8%
is one of the most indispensable minerals used
in electric and electronic industries.
Mica deposits are found in the northern Karnataka
9% Andhra
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the 11%
13%
leading producer.
In Rajasthan, the major mica producing Fig. 5.7: Production of Limestone showing
area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19
Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer
in the country.
Hazards of Mining
Have you ever wondered about the efforts the miners make in making life comfortable
for you? What are the impacts of mining on
the health of the miners and the environment?
The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by
miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary
diseases. The risk of collapsing mine roofs,
inundation and fires in coalmines are a
constant threat to miners.
The water sources in the region get
contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste
and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, Fig. 5.8: Air pollution due to
and increase in stream and river pollution. generation of dust in mining areas
2022-23
Stricter safety regulations and required millions of years to be created and
implementation of environmental laws are concentrated. The geological processes of
essential to prevent mining from becoming a mineral formation are so slow that the rates
“killer industry”. of replenishment are infinitely small in
comparison to the present rates of
C ONSERVATION OF MINERALS consumption. Mineral resources are,
We all appreciate the strong dependence of therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich
industry and agriculture upon mineral mineral deposits are our country’s extremely
deposits and the substances manufactured valuable but short-lived possessions.
from them. The total volume of workable Continued extraction of ores leads to
mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction increasing costs as mineral extraction comes
i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust. We are from greater depths along with decrease
rapidly consuming mineral resources that in quality.
2022-23
A concerted effort has to be made in order
to use our mineral resources in a planned
and sustainable manner. Improved
technologies need to be constantly evolved to
allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and
other substitutes are steps in conserving our
mineral resources for the future.
Dig a little deeper: Make a list of items where

substitutes are being used instead of minerals.
Where are these substitutes obtained from?
Energy Resources Fig. 5.9 (a): A view from inside of a coal mine
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed
to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel
vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
Energy can be generated from fuel
minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas,
uranium and from electricity. Energy
resources can be classified as conventional
and non-conventional sources. Conventional
sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake,
coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
(both hydel and thermal). Non-conventional
sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal,
biogas and atomic energy. Firewood and cattle
dung cake are most common in rural India. Fig. 5.9 (b): A view from outside of a coal mine
According to one estimate more than 70 per
cent energy requirement in rural households time of burial. Decaying plants in swamps
is met by these two ; continuation of these is produce peat. Which has a low carbon and
increasingly becoming dif ficult due to high moisture contents and low heating
decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung capacity. Lignite is a low grade brown coal,
cake too is being discouraged because it which is soft with high moisture content. The
consumes most valuable manure which could principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil
be used in agriculture. Nadu and are used for generation of
electricity. Coal that has been buried deep
Conventional Sources of Energy and subjected to increased temperatures is
Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal
available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high
part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used grade bituminous coal which has a special
for power generation, to supply energy to value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
industry as well as for domestic needs. India Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
is highly dependent on coal for meeting its In India coal occurs in rock series of two
commercial energy requirements. main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a
As you are already aware that coal is little over 200 million years in age and in
formed due the compression of plant material tertiary deposits which are only about 55
over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is million years old. The major resources of
found in a variety of forms depending on the Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal,
degrees of compression and the depth and are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-
2022-23
India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas
Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL
(India) under “One Nation One Grid”.
2022-23
Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are gas distribution (COD) networks, natural gas
important coalfields. The Godavari, is also emerging as a preferred transport fuel
Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also (CNG) and cooking fuel (PNG) at homes. India’s
contain coal deposits. major gas reserves are found in the Mumbai
Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern High and allied fields along the west coast
states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal which are supplemented by finds in the
Pradesh and Nagaland. Cambay basin. Along the East Coast, new
Remember coal is a bulky material, which reserves of natural gas have been discovered
loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
Hence, heavy industries and thermal power The first 1,700 KM long Hazira-Vijaipur-
stations are located on or near the coalfields. Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas pipeline,
constructed by GAIL (India), linked Mumbai
Petroleum
High and Bassein gas fields with various
Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in
energy source in India after coal. It provides western and northen India. This artery
fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for provided impetus to Indian gas market
machinery and raw materials for a number of development. Overall, India’s gas infrastructure
manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries has expanded over ten times from 1,700 KM
act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, to 18,500 KM of cross-country pipelines and
fertiliser and numerous chemical industries. is expected to soon reach over 34, 000 KM as
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India Gas Grid by linking all gas sources and
are associated with anticlines and fault traps consuming markets across the country
in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In including North Eastern states.
regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it
occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the Electricity
upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous Electricity has such a wide range of
limestone or sandstone through which oil may applications in today’s world that, its percapita
flow. The oil is prevented from rising or consumption is considered as an index of
sinking by intervening non-porous layers.
development. Electricity is generated mainly in
Petroleum is also found in fault traps
two ways: by running water which drives hydro
between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas,
turbines to generate hydro electricity; and by
being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum
Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are
and natural gas to drive turbines to produce
major petroleum production areas in India.
thermal power. Once generated the electricity
From the map locate the 3 major off shore
is exactly the same.
fields of western India. Ankeleshwar is the
most important field of Gujarat. Assam is the
oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Name some river valley projects and write
Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the the names of the dams built on these rivers.
important oil fields in the state.
Natural Gas Hydro electricity is generated by fast
Natural Gas is found with petroleum deposits flowing water, which is a renewable resource.
and is released when crude oil is brought to India has a number of multi-purpose projects
the surface. It can be used as a domestic and like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley
industrial fuel. It is used as fuel in power sector corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.
to generate electricity, for heating purpose in producing hydroelectric power.
industries, as raw material in chemical, Thermal electricity is generated by using
petrochemical and fertilizer industries, as coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal
transport fuel and as cooking fuel. with the power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels
expansion of gas infrastructure and local city for generating electricity.
2022-23
Rawat Bhata
India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants
2022-23
Collect infor mation about thermal/hydel
power plants located in your state. Show
them on the map of India.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
The growing consumption of energy has
resulted in the country becoming increasingly
dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas. Rising prices of oil and gas and their
potential shortages have raised uncertainties
about the security of energy supply in future,
which in turn has serious repercussions on the Fig. 5.10: Solar operated electronic milk
testing equipment
growth of the national economy. Moreover,
increasing use of fossil fuels also causes
serious environmental problems. Hence, there Collect information about newly established
is a pressing need to use renewable energy solar power plants in India.
sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass
Wind power
and energy from waste material. These are
called non-conventional energy sources. India has great potential of wind power. The
India is blessed with an abundance of largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil
sunlight, water, wind and biomass. It has the Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Apart from
largest programmes for the development of these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,
these renewable energy resources. Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have
important wind farms. Nagarcoil and
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of
It is obtained by altering the structure of wind energy in the country.
atoms. When such an alteration is made, much
energy is released in the form of heat and this
is used to generate electric power. Uranium and
Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and
the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for
generating atomic or nuclear power. The
Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in
Thorium.
Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find
out the state in which they are located.
Solar Energy Fig. 5.11: Wind mills – Nagarcoil
India is a tropical country. It has enormous
Biogas
possibilities of tapping solar energy.
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste
directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast are used to produce biogas for domestic
becoming popular in rural and remote areas. consumption in rural areas. Decomposition
Some big solar power plants are being of organic matter yields gas, which has higher
established in different parts of India which thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene,
will minimise the dependence of rural dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants are
households on firewood and dung cakes, set up at municipal, cooperative and
which in turn will contribute to environmental individual levels. The plants using cattle dung
conservation and adequate supply of manure are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.
in agriculture. These provide twin benefits to the farmer in
the form of energy and improved quality of
2022-23
manure. Biogas is by far the most efficient geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures
use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in
manure and also prevents the loss of trees such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and
and manure due to burning of fuel wood becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to
and cow dung cakes. the earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This
steam is used to drive turbines and generate
electricity.
There are several hundred hot springs in
India, which could be used to generate
electricity. Two experimental projects have been
set up in India to harness geothermal energy.
One is located in the Parvati valley near
Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other
is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources

Energy is a basic requirement for economic
development. Every sector of the national
Fig. 5.12: Biogas Plant economy – agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic – needs inputs of
Tidal Energy energy. The economic development plans
Oceanic tides can be used to generate implemented since Independence necessarily
electricity. Floodgate dams are built across required increasing amounts of energy to
inlets. During high tide water flows into the remain operational. As a result, consumption
inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. of energy in all forms has been steadily rising
After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the all over the country.
water retained by the floodgate flows back to In this background, there is an urgent need
the sea via a pipe that carries it through a to develop a sustainable path of energy
power-generating turbine. development. Promotion of energy conservation
In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf and increased use of renewable energy sources
of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western coast are the twin planks of sustainable energy.
and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of India is presently one of the least energy
West Bengal provide ideal conditions for efficient countries in the world. We have to
utilising tidal energy. adopt a cautious approach for the judicious
use of our limited energy resources. For
Geo Thermal Energy example, as concerned citizens we can do our
Geo thermal energy refers to the heat and bit by using public transport systems instead
electricity produced by using the heat from of individual vehicles; switching off electricity
the interior of the Earth. Geothermal energy when not in use, using power-saving devices
exists because, the Earth grows progressively and using non-conventional sources of energy.
hotter with increasing depth. Where the After all, “energy saved is energy produced”.
EXERCISES EXERCISES E XERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following minerals is formed by decomposition of rocks,
leaving a residual mass of weathered material?
(a) coal (b) bauxite (c) gold (d) zinc
(ii) Koderma, in Jharkhand is the leading producer of which one of the following
minerals?
(a) bauxite (b) mica (c) iron ore (d) copper
2022-23
(iii) Minerals are deposited and accumulated in the stratas of which of the
following rocks?
(a) sedimentary rocks (c) igneous rocks
(b) metamorphic rocks (d) none of the above
(iv) Which one of the following minerals is contained in the Monazite sand?
(a) oil (b) uranium (c) thorium (d) coal
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Distinguish between the following in not more than 30 words.
(a) ferrous and non-ferrous minerals
(b) conventional and non-conventional sources of energy
(ii) What is a mineral?
(iii) How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?
(iv) Why do we need to conserve mineral resources ?
3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.
(i) Describe the distribution of coal in India.
(ii) Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?
A CTIVITY
Fill the name of the correct mineral in the crossword below:
2 1
M
2
M
4 3
M
4
T
1 5 5
T
6
o
7
y
ACROSS DOWN
1. A ferrous mineral (9) 1. Found in placer deposit (4)
2. Raw material for cement industry (9) 2. Iron ore mined in Bailadila (8)
3. Finest iron ore with magnetic properties (9) 3. Indispensable for electrical industry (4)
4. Highest quality hard coal (10) 4. Geological Age of coal found in north east
5. Aluminium is obtained from this ore (7) India (8)
6. Khetri mines are famous for this mineral (6) 5. Formed in veins and lodes (3)
7. Formed due to evaporation (6)
2022-23
On the occassion of Diwali, Harish went to IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING
a market with his parents. They purchased
Manufacturing sector is considered the
shoes and clothes for him. His mother
backbone of development in general and
purchased utensils, sugar, tea and diyas
economic development in particular mainly
(earthen lamps). Harish observed that the
because–
shops in the market were flooded with
items for sale. He wondered how so many • Manufacturing industries not only help in
items could be made in such large modernising agriculture, which forms the
quantities. His father explained that shoes, backbone of our economy, they also reduce
clothes, sugar etc. are manufactured by the heavy dependence of people on
machines in large industries, some utensils agricultural income by providing them jobs
are manufactured in small industries, while in secondary and tertiary sectors.
items like diyas are made by individual • Industrial development is a precondition
artisans in household industry. for eradication of unemployment and
poverty from our country. This was the main
Do you have some ideas about these
industries?
philosophy behind public sector industries
and joint sector ventures in India. It was
also aimed at bringing down regional
disparities by establishing industries in
Production of goods in large quantities after tribal and backward areas.
processing from raw materials to more
• Export of manufactured goods expands
valuable products is called manufacturing.
trade and commerce, and brings in much
Do you know that paper is manufactured
needed foreign exchange.
from wood, sugar from sugarcane, iron and
steel from iron ore and aluminium from • Countries that transform their raw
bauxite? Do you also know that some types materials into a wide variety of finished
of clothes are manufactured from yarn which goods of higher value are prosperous.
itself is an industrial product? India’s prosperity lies in increasing and
People employed in the secondary activities diversifying its manufacturing industries
manufacture the primary materials into as quickly as possible.
finished goods. The workers employed in steel Agriculture and industry are not exclusive
factories, car, breweries, textile industries, of each other. They move hand in hand. For
bakeries etc. fall into this category. Some instance, the agro-industries in India have
people are employed in providing services. In given a major boost to agriculture by raising
this chapter, we are mainly concerned with its productivity. They depend on the latter for
manufacturing industries which fall in the raw materials and sell their products such as
secondary sector. irrigation pumps, fertilisers, insecticides,
The economic strength of a country is pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, machines
measured by the development of and tools, etc. to the farmers. Thus,
manufacturing industries. development and competitiveness of
2022-23
manufacturing industry has not only are located in or near the cities. Thus,
assisted agriculturists in increasing their industrialisation and urbanisation go hand
production but also made the production in hand. Cities provide markets and also
processes very efficient. provide services such as banking,
In the present day world of globalisation, insurance, transport, labour, consultants
our industry needs to be more efficient and and financial advice, etc. to the industry.
competitive. Self-sufficiency alone is not Many industries tend to come together to
enough. Our manufactured goods must be make use of the advantages offered by the
at par in quality with those in the urban centres known as agglomeration
international market. Only then, will we be economies. Gradually, a large industrial
able to compete in the international market. agglomeration takes place.
In the pre-Independence period, most
Contribution of Industry to National manufacturing units were located in places
Economy from the point of view of overseas trade
Over the last two decades, the share of such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc.
manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per Consequently, there emerged certain pockets
cent of GDP – out of a total of 27 per cent for of industrially developed urban centres
the industry which includes 10 per cent for surrounded by a huge agricultural rural
mining, quarrying, electricity and gas. hinterland.
This is much lower in comparison to
some East Asian economies, where it is 25 Industry – Market Linkage
to 35 per cent. The trend of growth rate in
manufacturing over the last decade has been
around 7 per cent per annum. The desired
growth rate over the next decade is 12 per
cent. Since 2003, manufacturing is once
again growing at the rate of 9 to 10 per
cent per annum. With appropriate policy
interventions by the government and
renewed efforts by the industry to improve
productivity, economists predict that
manufacturing can achieve its target over
the next decade. The National
Manufacturing Competitiveness Council
(NMCC) has been set up with this objective.
Industrial Location
Industrial locations are complex in nature.
These are influenced by availability of raw
material, labour, capital, power and market,
etc. It is rarely possible to find all these
factors available at one place. Consequently,
manufacturing activity tends to locate at Fig. 6.1
the most appropriate place where all the
factors of industrial location are either The key to decision of the factory location
available or can be arranged at lower cost. is the least cost. Government policies and
A fter an industrial activity starts, specialised labour also influence the
urbanisation follows. Sometimes, industries location of industry.
2022-23
allowed on the assets of a unit. This limit
has changed over a period of time. At
present the maximum investment allowed
is rupees one crore.
On the basis of ownership:

• Public sector, owned and operated by
government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
• Private sector industries owned and
operated by individuals or a group of
individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd.,
Fig. 6.2 Dabur Industries.
• Joint sector industries which are jointly run
Classification of Industries by the state and individuals or a group of
individuals. Oil India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly
List the various manufactured products you
owned by public and private sector.
use in your daily life such as – transistors,
electric bulbs, vegetable oil, cement, • Cooperative sector industries are owned
glassware, petrol, matches, scooters, and operated by the producers or
automobiles, medicines and so on. If we suppliers of raw materials, workers or
classify the various industries based on a both. They pool in the resources and share
particular criterion then we would be the profits or losses proportionately. Such
able to understand their manufacturing examples are the sugar industry in
better. Industries may be classified as Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
follows:
Based on the bulk and weight of raw material
On the basis of source of raw materials and finished goods:
used: • Heavy industries such as iron and steel
• Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk • Light industries that use light raw
textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, materials and produce light goods such
edible oil. as electrical goods industries.
• Mineral based: iron and steel, cement,
aluminium, machine tools,
petrochemicals.
Classify the following into two groups on the
According to their main role: basis of bulk and weight of raw material and
• Basic or key industries are those which finished goods.
supply their products as raw materials to (i) Oil (vi) Sewing Machines
manufacture other goods e.g. iron and
(ii) Knitting needles (vii) Shipbuilding
steel and copper smelting, aluminum
smelting. (iii) Brassware (viii) Electric Bulbs
• Consumer industries that produce goods (iv) Fuse wires (ix) Paint brushes
for direct use by consumers – sugar, (v) Watches (x) Automobiles
toothpaste, paper, sewing machines,
fans etc.
Agro-based Industries
On the basis of capital investment: Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and
• A small scale industry is defined with edible oil, etc. industries are based on
reference to the maximum investment agricultural raw materials.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 65
2022-23
Fig. 6.3: Value addition in the textile industry
Textile Industry: The textile industry dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
occupies unique position in the Indian sewing. The industry by creating demands
economy, because it contributes significantly supports many other industries, such as,
to industrial production, employment chemicals and dyes, packaging materials
generation and foreign exchange earnings. It and engineering works.
is the only industry in the country, which is While spinning continues to be centralised
self-reliant and complete in the value chain in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu,
i.e., from raw material to the highest value weaving is highly decentralised to provide
added products. scope for incorporating traditional skills and
designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari,
Cotton Textiles: In ancient India, cotton embroidery, etc. I ndia has world class
textiles were produced with hand spinning production in spinning, but weaving supplies
and handloom weaving techniques. A fter low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of
the 18 th century, power-looms came into the high quality yarn produced in the country.
use. Our traditional industries suffered Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom
a setback during the colonial period and in mills.
because they could not compete with the The handspun khadi provides large scale
mill-made cloth from England. employment to weavers in their homes as a
cottage industry.
• The first successful textile mill was Why did Mahatma Gandhi lay emphasis on
established in Mumbai in 1854. spinning yarn and weaving khadi?
• The two world wars were fought in Europe, Why is it important for our country to
India was a British colony. There was a keep the mill sector loomage lower than
demand for cloth in U.K. hence, they gave power loom and handloom?
a boost to the development of the cotton
India exports yarn to Japan. Other
textile industry.
importers of cotton goods from India
are U.S.A ., U.K ., Russia, France, East
In the early years, the cotton textile European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri
industry was concentrated in the cotton Lanka, and A frican countries.
growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat. We have a large share in the world trade
Availability of raw cotton, market, transport of cotton yarn. Our spinning mills are
including accessible port facilities, labour, competitive at the global level and capable of
moist climate, etc. contributed towards its using all the fibres we produce. The weaving,
localisation. This industry has close links knitting and processing units cannot use
with agriculture and provides a living to much of the high quality yarn that is
farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers produced in the country. There are some large
engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, and modern factories in these segments, but
2022-23
India: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries
2022-23
most of the production is in fragmented small Challenges faced by the industry include
units, which cater to the local market. This stiff competition in the international market
mismatch is a major drawback for the from synthetic substitutes and from other
industry. As a result, many of our spinners competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil,
export cotton yarn while apparel/garment Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. However,
manufactures have to import fabric. the internal demand has been on the
increase due to the Government policy of
Suppose that yarn is sold at Rs. 85 per kg. If it mandatory use of jute packaging. To
is sold as a trouser it fetches Rs 800 per kg. stimulate demand, the products need to be
Value is added at every stage from fibre to diversified. The main markets are U.S.A.,
yarn to fabric and to garment. Canada, Ghana, Saudi A rabia, U.K. and
Australia. The growing global concern for
Why is it important for us to improve our e n v i r o n m e n t f r i e n d l y, b i o d e g r a d a b l e
weaving sector instead of exporting yarn in materials, has once again opened the
large quantities? opportunity for jute products.
A lthough, we have made significant
increase in the production of good quality Sugar Industry
long staple cotton, the need to import is India stands second as a world producer of
still felt. Power supply is erratic and sugar but occupies the first place in the
machinery needs to be upgraded in the production of gur and khandsari. The raw
weaving and processing sectors in material used in this industry is bulky, and
particular. Other problems are the low in haulage its sucrose content reduces. The
output of labour and stiff competition with mills are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
the synthetic fibre industry. Maharashtra, K arnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana
Jute Textiles
and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills
India is the largest producer of raw jute and are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This industry
jute goods and stands at second place as an is seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to
exporter after Bangladesh. Most of the mills the cooperative sector. Can you explain why
are located in West Bengal, mainly along the this is so?
banks of the Hugli river, in a narrow belt. In recent years, there is a tendency for
the mills to shift and concentrate in the
The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in
southern and western states, especially in
1855 at Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the
Maharashtra, This is because the cane
jute mills remained in India but three-fourth
produced here has a higher sucrose content.
of the jute producing area went to
The cooler climate also ensures a longer
Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).
crushing season. Moreover, the cooperatives
are more successful in these states.
Factors responsible for their location in
Major challenges include the seasonal
the Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute
nature of the industry, old and inefficient
producing areas, inexpensive water
methods of production, transport delay in
transport, supported by a good network of
railways, roadways and waterways to reaching cane to factories and the need to
facilitate movement of raw material to the maximise the use of baggase.
mills, abundant water for processing raw Mineral-based Industries
jute, cheap labour from West Bengal and
adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Industries that use minerals and metals as
Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban centre raw materials are called mineral-based
provides banking, insurance and port industries. Can you name some industries
facilities for export of jute goods. that would fall in this category?
2022-23
Iron and Steel Industry was only around 74.3 kg per annum against
The iron and steel industry is the basic the world average of 229.3 kg.
industry since all the other industries — heavy,
medium and light, depend on it for their
Table 6.1: Total production of finished
machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a
steel in India
variety of engineering goods, construction
material, defence, medical, telephonic, Year Production
scientific equipment and a variety of consumer (in million tonnes)
goods.
2015–16 106.60
2016–17 120.14
Make a list of all such goods made of steel
that you can think of. 2017–18 126.85
2018–19 101.29
Production and consumption of steel is
often regarded as the index of a country’s 2019–20 102.62
development. Iron and steel is a heavy
industry because all the raw materials as well Source: Ministry of Steel, Government of
as finished goods are heavy and bulky India, steel.gov.in/overview.steel_sector
entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore,
coking coal and lime stone are required in Why is the per capita consumption of steel
the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some so low in India?
quantities of manganese, are also required to
harden the steel. Where should the steel plants
Collect information about products of steel
be ideally located? Remember that the finished
plants in India.
products also need an efficient transport
network for their distribution to the markets
and consumers. Mini steel plants are smaller, have electric
In 2019 with 111 million tonnes of crude furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron.
steel production, India ranked 2nd among the They have re-rollers that use steel ingots as
world crude steel producers. It is the largest well. They produce mild and alloy steel of
producer of sponge iron. In 2019 per capita given specifications.
consumption of finished steel in the country
Processes of Manufacture of Steel
Fig. 6.4
2022-23
India: Iron and Steel Plants
2022-23
We also import good quality steel from
An integrated steel plant is large, handles other countries. However, the overall
everything in one complex – from putting production of steel is sufficient to meet our
together raw material to steel making, rolling domestic demand.
and shaping. Liberalisation and Foreign Dir ect
Investment have given a boost to the
Most of the public sector undertakings i n d u s t r y w i t h t h e e f f o r t s o f p r i vate
market their steel through Steel Authority of entrepreneurs. There is a need to allocate
India Ltd. (SAIL). resources for research and development to
In the 1950s China and India produced produce steel more competitively.
almost the same quantity of steel. Today, China
is the largest producer of steel. China is also
the world’s largest consumer of steel. Have you read about the Kalinganagar
Chhotanagpur plateau region has the controversy? Collect information from
maximum concentration of iron and steel different sources and discuss.
industries. It is largely, because of the relative
advantages this region has for the development
Aluminium Smelting
of this industry. These include, low cost of
iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, Aluminium smelting is the second most
cheap labour and vast growth potential in important metallurgical industry in India.
the home market. Though, India is an It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good
important iron and steel producing country conductor of heat, malleable and becomes
in the world yet, we are not able to perform strong when it is mixed with other metals. It
to our full potential largely due to: (a) High is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and
costs and limited availability of coking coal wires. It has gained popularity as a
(b) Lower productivity of labour (c) Irregular substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in
supply of energy and (d) Poor infrastructure. a number of industries.
Indi a China
1000 996
928.3
Production in Million Tonnes
900 870.9
803.8 808.4
800
700
600
500
400
300
200 111
89 95.6 101.5 106.5
100
0
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Year
Fig. 6.5: Crude Steel Production in India and China
Source: World Steel Association, website: www.worldsteel.org, https://steel.gov.in/overview-steel-sector
2022-23
Aluminium smelting plants in the country
are located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, A factory produces aluminium saucepans with
Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and plastic handles. It obtains aluminium from a
Tamil Nadu. smelter and a plastic component from
another factory. All the manufactured
saucepans are sent to a warehouse:
1. (a) Which raw material is likely to be most
expensive to transport and why?
(b) Which raw material is likely to be
the cheapest to transport and why?
2. Do you think the cost of transporting the
finished products after packaging is likely
to be cheaper or more expensive than the
cost of transporting aluminium and
plastic? Why?
Fig. 6.6: Strip coasting mill at smelter of NALCO
Bauxite, the raw material used in the

Chemical Industries
smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish
coloured rock. The flow chart given below The Chemical industry in India is fast growing
shows the process of manufacturing and diversifying. It comprises both large and
aluminium. Regular supply of electricity small scale manufacturing units. Rapid
and an assured source of raw material at growth has been recorded in both inorganic
minimum cost are the two prime factors and organic sectors. Inorganic chemicals
for location of the industry. include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture
Fig. 6.7
Fig. 6.8
2022-23
fertilizers, synthetic fibres, plastics, limestone, silica and gypsum. Coal and
adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, electric power are needed apart from rail
alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, transportation.
soaps and detergents, paper) and caustic
soda. These industries are widely spread Where would it be economically viable to
over the country. set up the cement manufacturing units?
Why do you think it is so?
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, The industry has strategically located
which are used for manufacturing of plants in Gujarat that have suitable access
synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, to the market in the Gulf countries.
dye-stuf fs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Organic chemical plants are located near
Find out where the plants are located in other
oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
States of India. Find their names.
The chemical industry is its own largest
c o n s u m e r. B a s i c c h e m i c a l s u n d e r g o
processing to further produce other The first cement plant was set up in
chemicals that are used for industrial Chennai in 1904. After Independence the
application, agriculture or directly for industry expanded.
consumer markets. Make a list of the Improvement in the quality has found
products you are aware of. the produce a readily available market in
East Asia, Middle East, A frica and South
Fertilizer Industry Asia apart from a large demand within the
The fertilizer industry is centred around the country. This industry is doing well in terms
production of nitrogenous fertilizers of production as well as export. Efforts are
(mainly urea), phosphatic fertilizers and being made to generate adequate domestic
ammonium phosphate (DA P) and complex demand and supply in order to sustain this
fertilizers which have a combination of industry.
nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).
The third, i.e. potash is entirely imported Automobile Industry
as the country does not have any reserves Automobiles provide vehicle for quick
of commercially usable potash or potassium transport of good services and passengers.
compounds in any form. Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters,
A fter the Green Revolution the industry three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
expanded to several other parts of the manufactured in India at various centres.
c o u n t r y. Gu j a r a t , Ta m i l Na d u , U t t a r A fter the liberalisation, the coming in of
Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute new and contemporary models stimulated
towards half of the fertilizer production. the demand for vehicles in the market,
Other significant producers are A ndhra which led to the healthy growth of the
P r a d e s h , O d i s h a , R a j a s t h a n , B i h a r, industry including passenger cars, two and
Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Goa, three-wheelers. The industry is located
Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. around Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune,
Cement Industry
Ch e n n a i , K o l k a t a , L u c k n o w, I n d o r e ,
Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
Cement is essential for construction activity
such as building houses, factories, bridges, Information Technology and
roads, airports, dams and for other Electronics Industry
commercial establishments. This industry The electronics industry covers a wide range
requires bulky and heavy raw materials like of products from transistor sets to television,
2022-23
telephones, cellular telecom, telephone and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and
exchange, radars, computers and many smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels
other equipments required by the in big and small factories that ignore pollution
telecommunication industry. Bengaluru has norms. Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous
emerged as the electronic capital of India. with long-term effects. Are you aware of the
Other important centres for electronic goods Bhopal Gas tragedy that occurred? A ir
are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, pollution adversely affects human health,
Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore. animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere
The major industry concentration is at as a whole.
B engaluru, Noida, Mumbai, Chennai, Water pollution is caused by organic and
Hyderabad and Pune. A major impact of inorganic industrial wastes and affluents
this industry has been on employment discharged into rivers. The main culprits in
generation. The continuing growth in the this regard are paper, pulp, chemical, textile
hardware and software is the key to the and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries
success of IT industry in India. and electroplating industries that let out dyes,
detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like
lead and mercury pesticides, fertilisers,
synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and
rubber, etc. into the water bodies. Fly ash,
phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are
the major solid wastes in India.
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot
water from factories and thermal plants is
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.
What would be the effect on aquatic life?
Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear
and weapon production facilities cause
cancers, birth defects and miscarriages. Soil
Fig. 6.9: Cable manufacturing facilities at HCL, and water pollution are closely related.
Rupnarainpur (West Bengal) Dumping of wastes specially glass, harmful
chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging,
Industrial Pollution and Environmental salts and garbage renders the soil useless.
Degradation Rain water percolates to the soil carrying the
Although industries contribute significantly pollutants to the ground and the ground
to India’s economic growth and development, water also gets contaminated.
the increase in pollution of land, water, air,
Noise pollution not only results in irritation
noise and resulting degradation of
and anger, it can also cause hearing
environment that they have caused, cannot
impairment, increased heart rate and blood
be overlooked. Industries are responsible for
pressure among other physiological effects.
four types of pollution: (a) Air (b) Water (c)
Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source
Land (d) Noise. The polluting industries also
of stress. Industrial and construction
include thermal power plants.
activities, machinery, factory equipment,
Air pollution is caused by the presence of generators, saws and pneumatic and electric
high proportion of undesirable gases, such drills also make a lot of noise.
as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Air-
borne particulate materials contain both solid Control of Environmental Degradation
and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist Every litre of waste water discharged by our
and smoke. Smoke is emitted by chemical industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
2022-23
India: Some Software Technology Parks
2022-23
freshwater. How can the industrial pollution of Noise absorbing material may be used apart
fresh water be reduced? Some suggestions are- f r o m p e r s o n a l u s e o f e a r p l u g s and
(i) minimising use water for processing by earphones.
reusing and recycling it in two or more The challenge of sustainable development
successive stages requires integration of economic development
with environmental concerns.
(ii) harvesting of rainwater to meet water
requirements
NTPC shows the way
(iii) treating hot water and effluents before
releasing them in rivers and ponds. NTPC is a major power providing corporation
Treatment of industrial effluents can be in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
done in three phases (Environment Management System) 14001.
The corporation has a proactive approach
(a) Primary treatment by mechanical means.
for preserving the natural environment and
This involves screening, grinding,
resources like water, oil and gas and fuels
flocculation and sedimentation.
in places where it is setting up power plants.
(b) Secondary treatment by biological process This has been possible through-
(c) Tertiary treatment by biological, (a) Optimum utilisation of equipment
chemical and physical processes. This adopting latest techniques and
involves recycling of wastewater. upgrading existing equipment.
Overdrawing of ground water reserves (b) Minimising waste generation by
by industry where there is a threat to maximising ash utilisation.
ground water resources also needs to be
(c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological
regulated legally. Particulate matter in the balance and addressing the question of
air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks special purpose vehicles for afforestation.
to factories with electrostatic precipitators,
(d) Reducing environmental pollution through
fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial
separators. Smoke can be reduced by using ash pond management, ash water recycling
oil or gas instead of coal in factories. system and liquid waste management.
Machinery and equipment can be used and (e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and on-
generators should be fitted with silencers. line database management for all its
Almost all machinery can be redesigned to power stations.
increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
Fig. 6.10: Sewage Treatment plant under Yamuna

action plan at Faridabad Fig. 6.11: Ramagundam plant
2022-23

(i) Which one of the following industries uses limestone as a raw material.
(a) A luminium (b) Cement (c) Plastic (d) Automobile
(ii) Which one of the following agencies markets steel for the public sector plants?
(a) H A IL (b) SA IL (c) TATA Steel (d) MNCC
(iii) Which one of the following industries uses bauxite as a raw material?
(a) A luminium Smelting (b) Cement (c) Paper (d) Steel
(iv) Which one of the following industries manufactures telephones, computer, etc.
(a) Steel (c) A luminium Smelting
(b) Electronic (d) Information Technology
2 . A nswer the following briefly in not more than 30 words.

(i) What is manufacturing?
(ii) Name any three physical factors for the location of the industry.
(iii) Name any three human factors for the location of an industry.
(iv) What are basic industries? Give an example.
(v) Name the important raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement?
3 . Write the answers of the following questions in 120 words.

(i) How are integrated steel plants different from mini steel plants? What
problems does the industry face? What recent developments have led to a
rise in the production capacity?
(ii) How do industries pollute the environment?
(iii) Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation
by industry?
ACTIVITY
Give one word for each of the following with regard to industry. The number of
letters in each word are hinted in brackets.
(i) Used to drive machinery (5) P...........................
(ii) People who work in a factory (6) W..........................
(iii) Where the product is sold (6) M..........................
(iv) A person who sells goods (8) R...........................
(v) Thing produced (7) P...........................
(vi) To make or produce (11) M..........................
(vii) Land, Water and Air degraded (9) P...........................
PROJECT WORK
Select one agro-based and one mineral-based industry in your area.
(i) What are the raw materials they use?
(ii) What are the other inputs in the process of manufacturing that involve
transportation cost?
(iii) A re these factories following environmental norms?
2022-23
ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden
answers.
G G G P V A R A N A S I
U O J I P G X K M Q W V
K S U G A R C A N E E N
O T T O N O Z V O P T R
A U E L U B H I L A I U
T K O C R A Q N T R L N
E I R O N S T E E L S J
E N A N O E P I T L R Y
G A N U J D R A G D T A
N T A R P O A P U E P Y
A S N A E N J D I Y S K
S M H V L I A J H S K G
1 . Textiles, sugar, vegetable oil and plantation industries deriving raw materials
from agriculture are called…
2 . The basic raw material for sugar industry.
3 . This fibre is also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
4 . Iron-ore, coking coal, and limestone are the chief raw materials of this industry.
5 . A public sector steel plant located in Chhattisgarh.
6 . Railway diesel engines are manufactured in Uttar Pradesh at this place.
2022-23
We use different materials and services in our the help of equally developed communication
daily life. Some of these are available in our system. Therefore, transport, communication
immediate surroundings, while other and trade are complementary to each other.
requirements are met by bringing things from Today, India is well-linked with the rest of
other places. Goods and services do not move the world despite its vast size, diversity and
from supply locales to demand locales on their linguistic and socio-cultural plurality.
own. The movement of these goods and services Railways, airways, waterways, newspapers,
from their supply locations to demand locations radio, television, cinema and internet, etc. have
necessitates the need for transport. Some people been contributing to its socio-economic
are engaged in facilitating these movements. progress in many ways. The trades from local
These are known to be traders who make the to international levels have added to the vitality
products come to the consumers by of its economy. It has enriched our life and
transportation. Thus, the pace of development added substantially to growing amenities and
of a country depends upon the production of facilities for the comforts of life.
goods and services as well as their movement In this chapter, you will see how modern
over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport means of transport and communication serve
are prerequisites for fast development. as lifelines of our nation and its modern
Movement of these goods and services can be economy. It is thus, evident that a dense and
over three important domains of our earth i.e. land, efficient network of transport and
water and air. Based on these, transport can also communication is a prerequisite for local,
be classified into land, water and air transport. national and global trade of today.
Fig. 7.1
For a long time, trade and transport were TRANSPORT

restricted to a limited space. With the
development in science and technology, the Roadways
area of influence of trade and transport India has second largest road networks in the
expanded far and wide. Today, the world has world, aggregating to about 62.16 lakh km
been converted into a large village with the help (2020–21). In India, roadways have preceded
of efficient and fast moving transport. railways. They still have an edge over railways
Transport has been able to achieve this with in view of the ease with which they can be built
2022-23
and maintained. The growing importance of
road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is rooted
in the following reasons; (a) construction cost
of roads is much lower than that of railway
lines, (b) roads can traverse comparatively more
dissected and undulating topography, (c) roads
can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and
as such can traverse mountains such as the
Himalayas, (d) road transport is economical in
transportation of few persons and relatively
smaller amount of goods over short distances,
(e) it also provides door-to-door service, thus Fig.7.2: Ahmedabad- Vadodara Expressway
the cost of loading and unloading is much lower,
(f) road transport is also used as a feeder to
other modes of transport such as they provide Collect information of National Highway
a link between railway stations, air and numbers (old and new) from the website
sea ports. morth.nic.in/national-highway-details.
In India, roads are classified in the
following six classes according to their • State Highways: Roads linking a state
capacity. Look at the map of the National capital with different district headquarters
Highways and find out about the significant are known as State Highways. These roads
role played by these roads. are constructed and maintained by the
• Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways: State Public Works Department (PWD) in
The government has launched a major State and Union Territories.
road development project linking Delhi- • District Roads: These roads connect the
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by district headquarters with other places
six-lane Super Highways. The North- of the district. These roads are maintained
South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu by the Zila Parishad.
& Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (Tamil • Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural
N a d u ) , a n d E a s t - We s t C o r r i d o r areas and villages with towns, are classified
connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander under this category. These roads received
(Gujarat) are part of this project. The special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
major objective of these Super Highways Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme
is to reduce the time and distance special provisions are made so that every
between the mega cities of India. These village in the country is linked to a major
highway projects are being implemented town in the country by an all season
by the National Highway Authority of motorable road.
India (NHAI).
• Border Roads: Apart from these, Border
• National Highways: National Highways Roads Organisation a Government of India
link extreme parts of the country. These undertaking constructs and maintains
are the primary road systems and are roads in the bordering areas of the
laid and maintained by the Central Public country. This organisation was established
Works Department (CPWD). A number of in 1960 for the development of the roads
major National Highways run in North- of strategic importance in the northern and
South and East-West directions. The north-eastern border areas. These roads
historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called have improved accessibility in areas of
National Highway No.1, between Delhi and difficult terrain and have helped in the
Amritsar. economic development of these area.
2022-23
India: National Highways
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 81
2022-23
and narrow. However, in recent years fast
development of road network has taken place
The World’s longest Highway tunnel-Atal in different parts of the country
Tunnel (9.02 Km) has been built by Border
Road Organisation. This tunnel connects Railways
Manali to Lahul-Spiti valley throughout the Railways are the principal mode of
year. Earlier the valley was cut off for about transportation for freight and passengers
6 months each year owing to heavy snowfall. in India. Railways also make it possible for
The tunnel is buit with ultra-modern people to conduct multifarious activities
specifications in the Pir Panjal range of like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage
Himalayas at an altitude of 3000 metres along with transportation of goods over
from the Mean Sea Level (MSL). longer distances. Apart from an important
Source: http://www.bro.gov.in/pagefimg. means of transport the Indian Railways
asp?imid=144,And PIBdelhi03October2020 have been a great integrating force for more
than 150 years. Railways in India bind the
economic life of the country as well as
accelerate the development of the industry
and agriculture.
The Indian Railways is the largest public

sector undertaking in the country. The first
train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in
1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
The Indian Railway is now reorganised into

16 zones.
Fig. 7.3: Hilly Tracts Find out the current Railway zones and their
headquarters. Also locate the headquarters
of Railway zones on the map of India.
The distribution pattern of the Railway

network in the country has been largely
influenced by physiographic, economic and
administrative factors. The northern plains with
their vast level land, high population density
and rich agricultural resources provided the most
favourable condition for their growth. However,
a large number of rivers requiring construction
of bridges across their wide beds posed some
Fig. 7.4: Traffic on north-eastern border road
obstacles. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular
(Arunachal Pradesh)
region, railway tracts are laid through low hills,
Roads can also be classified on the basis of gaps or tunnels. The Himalayan mountainous
the type of material used for their construction regions too are unfavourable for the construction
such as metalled and unmetalled roads. of railway lines due to high relief, sparse
Metalled roads may be made of cement, population and lack of economic opportunities.
concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore, Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines on
2022-23
Table 7.1: India: Railway Track
The Indian Railway network runs on multiple gauge operations
extending over 67,956 km.
Gauge in metres Route (Km)
Broad Gauge (1.676) 63950

Metre Gauge (1.000) 2,402
Narrow Gauge (0.762 and 0.610) 1,604
Total 67,956
Source: Railway Yearbook 2019–20, Ministry of Railways, Government of India.
Website: www.indianrailways.gov.in
the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules
of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, out trans-shipment losses or delays.
Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand. The There are three important networks of
contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed pipeline transportation in the country.
only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In recent • From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur
times, the development of the Konkan railway (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and
along the west coast has facilitated the movement Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to
of passengers and goods in this most important Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to
economic region of India. It has also faced a Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.
number of problem such as sinking of track in • From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in
some stretches and landslides. Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Today, the railways have become more Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali
important in our national economy than all (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and
other means of transport put together. However, other places.
rail transport suffers from certain problems as
• The first 1,700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-
well. Many passengers travel without tickets.
Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas
Thefts and damaging of railway property has
pipeline, linked Mumbai High and Bassein
not yet stopped completely. People stop the
gas fields with various ferilizer, power and
trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this
industrial complexes in western and
causes heavy damage to the railway. Think over
northern India. Overall, India’s gas pipeline
it, how we can help our railway in running as
infrastructure has expanded from 1,700 km
per the scheduled time?
to 18,500 km of cross-country pipelines.
Pipelines Waterways
Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on Since the ancient period, India was one of the
the transportation map of India. In the past, seafaring countries. Its seamen sailed far and
these were used to transport water to cities and near, thus, carrying and spreading Indian
industries. Now, these are used for transporting commerce and culture. Waterways are the
crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas cheapest means of transport. They are most
from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants. It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly
Solids can also be transported through a mode of transport. India has inland navigation
pipeline when converted into slurry. The far waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these
inland locations of refineries like Barauni, only 5685 km are navigable by mechanised
Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants vessels. The following waterways have been
could be thought of only because of pipelines. declared as the National Waterways by the
Initial cost of laying pipelines is high but Government.
2022-23
Activity
Railway line has been extended from Banihal to Baramula in the Kashmir Valley. Locate these
two towns on the map of India.
2022-23
Deendayal Port, is a tidal port. It caters to the
convenient handling of exports and imports of
highly productive granary and industrial belt
stretching across UT of Jammu and Kashmir,
and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Fig. 7.5: Inland waterways widely used in

north-eastern states
• The Ganga river between Allahabad and

Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
• The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and
Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2
• The West-Coast Canal in Kerala Fig. 7.6: Trucks being driven into the vessel at
(Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Mumbai port
Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3
Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious
• Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna
natural and well-sheltered harbour. The
rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry
Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with a view
stretch of canals (1078 km) – N.W. No.4
• Specified stretches of river Brahmani along to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi hub port for this region. Marmagao port (Goa)
and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal is the premier iron ore exporting port of the
(588 km) – N.W. No.5 country. This port accounts for about fifty per
There are some other inland water ways cent of India’s iron ore export. New Mangalore
on which substantial transportation takes port, located in Karnataka caters to the export
place. These are Mandavi, Zuari and of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and mines. Kochchi is the extreme south-western
backwaters of Kerala. port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a
natural harbour.
Apart from these, India’s trade with foreign
countries is carried from the ports located
along the coast. 95 per cent of the country’s
trade volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is
moved by sea.
Major Sea Ports
With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is
dotted with 12 major and 200 notified non-
majors (minor/intermediate) ports. These
major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s Fig. 7.7: Tanker discharging crude oil at New
Mangalore port
foreign trade.
Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port Moving along the east coast, you would see
developed soon after Independence to ease the extreme south-eastern port of Tuticorin, in
the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour
the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan and rich hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing
after the Partition. Kandla also known as the trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to
2022-23
even our neighbouring countries like Sri like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense
Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions forests and also long oceanic stretches with
of India. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial great ease. Think of the north-eastern part of
ports of the country. It is ranked next to the country, marked with the presence of big
Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and rivers, dissected relief, dense forests and
cargo. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest frequent floods and international frontiers,
landlocked and well-protected port. This port etc. in the absence of air transport. Air travel
was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron has made access easier.
ore exports. Paradwip port located in Odisha, The air transport was nationalised in 1953.
specialises in the export of iron ore. Kolkata is Air India provides domestic and international
an inland riverine port. This port serves a very air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd.
large and rich hinterland of Ganga- provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural
Brahmaputra basin. Being a tidal port, it Gas Corporation in its off-shore operations, to
requires constant dredging of Hoogly. Haldia inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the
port was developed as a subsidiary port, in north-eastern states and the interior parts of
order to relieve growing pressure on the Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Kolkata port. Uttarakhand.
Find out the names of the countries connected
by Air India.
Air travel is not within the reach of the
common people. It is only in the north-eastern
states that special provisions are made to
extend the services to the common people.
Communication
Ever since humans appeared on the earth,
they have used different means of
Fig. 7.8: Handling of oversize cargo at Tuticorin port
communication. But, the pace of change, has
been rapid in modern times. Long distance
Airways
communication is far easier without physical
The air travel, today, is the fastest, most movement of the communicator or receiver.
comfortable and prestigious mode of Personal communication and mass
transport. It can cover very difficult terrains communication including television, radio,
press, films, etc. are the major means of
communication in the country. The Indian
postal network is the largest in the world. It
handles parcels as well as personal written
communications. Cards and envelopes are
considered first-class mail and are airlifted
between stations covering both land and air.
The second-class mail includes book packets,
registered newspapers and periodicals. They
are carried by surface mail, covering land and
water transport. To facilitate quick delivery
of mails in large towns and cities, six mail
channels have been introduced recently. They
Why is air travel preferred in the north- are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel,
eastern states? Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail
Fig. 7.9 Channel and Periodical Channel.
2022-23
India: Major Ports and Some International Airports
2022-23
of India, is one of the largest terrestrial
networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety
Digital India is an umbrella programme
of programmes from entertainment,
to prepare India for a knowledge based
transformation. The focus of Digital India educational to sports, etc. for people of
Programme is on being transformative to different age groups.
realise – IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information India publishes a large number of
Technology)=IT (India Tomorrow) and is newspapers and periodicals annually. They
on making technology central to enabling are of different types depending upon their
change. periodicity. Newspapers are published in
about 100 languages and dialects. Did you
know that the largest number of newspapers
published in the country are in Hindi, followed
by English and Urdu? India is the largest
producer of feature films in the world. It
produces short films; video feature films and
video short films. The Central Board of Film
Certification is the authority to certify both
Indian and foreign films.
International Trade
The exchange of goods among people, states
and countries is referred to as trade. The
Fig.7.10 : Emergency call box on NH-8 market is the place where such exchanges
take place. Trade between two countries is
India has one of the largest telecom called international trade. It may take place
networks in Asia. Excluding urban places through sea, air or land routes. While local
more than two-thirds of the villages in India trade is carried in cities, towns and villages,
have already been covered with Subscriber state level trade is carried between two or more
Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone facility. In order states. Advancement of international trade of
to strengthen the flow of information from a country is an index to its economic
the grassroot to the higher level, the prosperity. It is, therefore, considered the
government has made special provision to economic barometer for a country.
extend twenty-four hours STD facility to every As the resources are space bound, no
village in the country. There is a uniform rate country can survive without international
of STD facilities all over India. It has trade. Export and import are the components
been made possible by integrating the of trade. The balance of trade of a country is
development in space technology with the difference between its export and import.
communication technology. When the value of export exceeds the value
Mass communication provides of imports, it is called a favourable balance
entertainment and creates awareness among of trade. On the contrary, if the value of
people about various national programmes imports exceeds the value of exports, it is
and policies. It includes radio, television, termed as unfavourable balance of trade.
newspapers, magazines, books and films. All India has trade relations with all the major
India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety trading blocks and all geographical regions
of programmes in national, regional and local of the world. The commodities exported from
languages for various categories of people, India to other countries include gems and
spread over different parts of the country. jewellery, chemicals and related products,
Doordarshan, the national television channel agriculture and allied products, etc.
2022-23
The commodities imported to India adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical
include petroleum crude and products, tourism and business tourism.
gems and jewellery, chemicals and related
products, base metals, electronic items, There is a vast potential for development of
machinery, agriculture and allied products. tourism in all parts of the country. Efforts are
India has emerged as a software giant at the being made to promote different types of
international level and it is earning large tourism for this upcoming industry.
foreign exchange through the export of
information technology.
On the map of India show important tourist
Tourism as a Trade places of your State/UT and its connectivity
Tourism in India has grown substantially over with other parts of the country by railways/
the last three decades. roadways/airways.
More than 15 million people are directly Discuss in the class:
engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism also • What type of tourism may be developed in
promotes national integration, provides your state/UT and why?
support to local handicrafts and cultural • Which areas in your state/UT you find more
pursuits. It also helps in the development of attractive for development of tourism and why?
international understanding about our • How tourism may be helpful for the economic
culture and heritage. Foreign tourists visit development of a region adopting sustainable
India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, development approach?
Prepare a project on the heritage tourism in India.
*Source: Annual Report 2016–17, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.
2022-23

(i) Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-
west corridor?
(a) Mumbai and Nagpur (c) Mumbai and Kolkata
(b) Silchar and Porbandar (d) Nagpur and Siligudi
(ii) Which mode of transportation reduces trans-shipment losses and delays?
(a) Railways (c) Pipeline
(b) Roadways (d) Waterways
(iii) Which one of the following states is not connected with the H.V.J. pipeline?
(a) Madhya Pradesh (c) Gujarat
(b) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh
(iv) Which one of the following ports is the deepest land-locked and well-
protected port along the east coast?
(a) Chennai (c) Tuticorin
(b) Paradwip (d) Vishakhapatnam
(v) Which one of the following is the most important modes of transportation
in India?
(a) Pipeline (c) Roadways
(b) Railways (d) Airways
(vi) Which one of the following terms is used to describe trade between two or
more countries?
(a) Internal trade (c) External trade
(b) International trade (d) Local trade
(i) State any three merits of roadways.
(ii) Where and why is rail transport the most convenient means of
transportation?
(iii) What is the significance of the border roads?
(iv) What is meant by trade? What is the difference between international
and local trade?
(i) Why are the means of transportation and communication called the
lifelines of a nation and its economy?
(ii) Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade in the last
fifteen years.
QUIZ DRIVE
1 . Northern terminal of the North-south corridor.
2 . The name of National Highway No.2.
3 . The headquarter of the southern railway zone.
4 . The rail gauge with a track width of 1.676 m.
5 . The southern terminal of the National Highway No.7.
6 . A Riverine Port.
7 . Busiest railway junction in Northern India.
2022-23
ACTIVITY
Start your search vertically, horizontally or diagonally and reach various
destinations across the country!
S H E R S H A H S U R I M A R G
A R T P R N X E L A T A D L A Y
J M M X I P O R A Y M P G H T X
Y C H E N N N A I I K M C A I M
O D C D A L M C S O T P O R C P
A P T R G S K J M J L E A N E R
R A E T A J P O R M W M A S X O
I L S B R O A D G A U G E L O T
A S N L C M E C U K Z M A A J E
L M U G H A L S A R A I B S N A
G O E T V R A Y F T O R E A J M
K Q A I P M N Y R Y A Y H L I N
Q K O L K A T A E U I T W B E A
N I T N K D E M O U R P N P J D
2022-23

Websites you can see
Bombay Natural History Society: http://www.bnhs.org/
Birding in India and South Asia: http://www.birding.in/
Website of Project Tiger: http://projecttiger.nic.in/
Nature Conservation Foundation: http://www.ncf-india.org/
Wildlife Conservation Society of India: http://www.wildlife.in/
Wildlife Trust of India: http://www.wildlifetrustofindia.org/
Kalpavriksh Environment Action Group: http://www.kalpavriksh.org/
Down to Earth Magazine: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/
Centre for Environment Education, India: http://www.ceeindia.org/cee/index.html
World Steel Association : http://www.worldsteel.org
2022-23

Steel Plants Year of Establishment Collaborating Location

Country
IISCO 1870-1913 (Private initially) (Nationalised Kulti and

in 1972) Burnpur (W.B.)
TISCO 1907 (Private ownership) Jamshedji Tata Jamshedpur
(Jharkhand)
VISL 1923 Private as MISCO Nationalised later Bhadravati
(Karnataka)
Bhilai 1959 (Public Sector) Soviet Union Bhilai (M.P.)
Bokaro 1972 (Public Sector) Soviet Union Bokaro
(Jharkhand)
Durgapur 1959 (Public Sector) U.K. Durgapur (W.B.)
Rourkela — (Public Sector) Germany Rourkela
(Odisha)
Vishakhapatnam — (Public Sector) — Vishakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh
Salem — (Public Sector) — Salem (T. Nadu)
Vijay Nagar — Public Sector — Karnataka
2022-23

Anticline: A fold in sedimentary strata that resembles an arch.
Gross Domestic Product: It is a monetary measure of the value of goods and services
produced within a natural economy at a given period of time. Normally it is one year.
Gross Value Added (GVA): The GVA is estimated from GDP by adding subsidies on
production and substracting indirect taxes.
Geologist: A scientist who studies the composition, structure and history of the
earth.
Geothermal Gradient: The gradual increase in temperature with depth in the

crust. The average is 30°C per kilometer in the upper crust.
Humus: Dead and decayed organic matter adds to the fertility of the top soil.
Igneous Rocks: Rocks which have solidified from molten magma.
Manganese Nodules: A type of sediment scattered on the ocean floor, consisting

mainly of manganese and iron, and usually containing small amounts of copper,
nickel and cobalt.
Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks which were originally igneous or sedimentary, but have
changed in character and appearance.
Oil Trap: A geological structure that allows for significant amounts of oil and gas to
accumulate.
Rock: A consolidated mixture of minerals
Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks which have been deposited as beds and layers of
sediments.
2022-23

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Social Science

February 2019 Phalguna 1940 108, 100 Feet Road

Published at the Publication Division by the Cover, Layout and Illustrations

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that

C HAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of

The National Council of Educational Research and Training

School Bhuvan–NCERT an Online web portal

1. Resources and Development 1

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 14

5. Minerals and Energy Resources 48

7. Lifelines of National Economy 79

Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources

D EVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 3

LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA

Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017

L AND D EGRADATION AND CONSERVATION S OIL AS A RESOURCE

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 7

Alluvial Soils Black Soil

Fig. 1.6: Alluvial Soil

The alluvial soil consists of various

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 9

Fig. 1.9: Arid Soil

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

State of India’s Environment

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 11

EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

3. A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 13

a resource obtaining directly and indirectly through the ironically-termed “enrichment

Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 17

dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated beginning to find a place in conservation

(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other Community and Conservation

“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 21

1 . Multiple choice questions.

2 . Match the following animals with their category of existence.

Animals/Plants Category of existence

Black buck Extinct

3 . Match the following.

Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both

4 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

5 . Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink:

A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in

Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity

handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru

Find out more about any one traditional

Collect information about flood prone areas of the country

Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most

Picture 1: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs

1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.

1. Multiple choice questions.

2 . A nswer the following questions in about 30 words.

3 . A nswer the following questions in about 120 words.

Fig. 4.5: Wheat Cultivation

Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the