Physics Part 1 Class 12
Physics Part 1 Class 12
Physics Part 1 Class 12
PART – I
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XII
2019-20
2019-20
PHYSICS
PART – I
2019-20
ISBN 81-7450-631-4
First Edition
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2019-20
FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s life at school must
be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish
learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and
community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly
further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on
Education (NPE), 1986.
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to
encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions.
We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging
with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis
of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in
learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in
the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the
required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching
and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried
to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different
stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on
experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard
work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the
Chairperson of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the
Chief Advisor for this book, Professor A.W. Joshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for
making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to
the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary
and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of
Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As
an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2006 Research and Training
2019-20
2019-20
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHIEF ADVISOR
A.W. Joshi, Honorary Visiting Scientist, National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA), Pune
University Campus, Pune (Formerly Professor at Department of Physics, University of Pune)
MEMBERS
A.K. Ghatak, Emeritus Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi
Alika Khare, Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Anjali Kshirsagar, Reader, Department of Physics, University of Pune, Pune
Anuradha Mathur, PGT , Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi
Atul Mody, Lecturer (S.G.), VES College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Chitra Goel, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Tyagraj Nagar, New Delhi
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.C. Pradhan, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre of Science Education (TIFR), Mumbai
N. Panchapakesan, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of
Delhi, Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S. Rai Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi
S.K. Upadhyay, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Muzaffar Nagar
S.N. Prabhakara, PGT, DM School, Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Mysore
V.H. Raybagkar, Reader, Nowrosjee Wadia College, Pune
Vishwajeet Kulkarni, Teacher (Grade I ), Higher Secondary Section, Smt. Parvatibai Chowgule
College, Margao, Goa
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
V.P. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
2019-20
Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)
Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.
Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).
2019-20
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the valuable
contribution of the individuals and organisations involved in the development of Physics Textbook
for Class XII. The Council also acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics
for reviewing and refining the manuscripts of this book:
Anu Venugopalan, Lecturer, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, GGSIP University, Delhi;
A.K. Das, PGT, St. Xavier’s Senior Secondary School, Delhi; Bharati Kukkal, PGT, Kendriya
Vidyalaya, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi; D.A. Desai, Lecturer (Retd.), Ruparel College, Mumbai;
Devendra Kumar, PGT, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Yamuna Vihar, Delhi; I.K. Gogia, PGT,
Kendriya Vidyalaya, Gole Market, New Delhi; K.C. Sharma, Reader, Regional Institute of Education
(NCERT), Ajmer; M.K. Nandy, Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of
Technology, Guwahati; M.N. Bapat, Reader, Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Mysuru;
R. Bhattacharjee, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati; R.S. Das, Vice-Principal (Retd.), Balwant
Ray Mehta Senior Secondary School, Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi; Sangeeta D. Gadre, Reader, Kirori
Mal College, Delhi; Suresh Kumar, PGT, Delhi Public School, Dwarka, New Delhi; Sushma Jaireth,
Reader, Department of Women’s Studies, NCERT, New Delhi; Shyama Rath, Reader, Department
of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi; Yashu Kumar, PGT, Kulachi Hans Raj
Model School, Ashok Vihar, Delhi.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics
for the editing and finalisation of this book: B.B. Tripathi, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics,
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi; Dipan K. Ghosh, Professor, Department of Physics,
Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai; Dipanjan Mitra, Scientist, National Centre for Radio
Astrophysics (TIFR), Pune; G.K. Mehta, Raja Ramanna Fellow, Inter-University Accelerator
Centre, New Delhi; G.S. Visweswaran, Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology, New Delhi; H.C. Kandpal, Head, Optical Radiation Standards, National
Physical Laboratory, New Delhi; H.S. Mani, Raja Ramanna Fellow, Institute of Mathematical
Sciences, Chennai; K. Thyagarajan, Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of
Technology, New Delhi; P.C. Vinod Kumar, Professor, Department of Physics, Sardar Patel
University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat; S. Annapoorni, Professor, Department of Physics and
Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi; S.C. Dutta Roy, Emeritus Professor, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi; S.D. Joglekar, Professor,
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur; and V. Sundara Raja, Professor,
Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
The Council also acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following academics for
refining the text in 2017: A.K. Srivastava, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi; Arnab
Sen, Assistant Professor, NERIE, Shillong; L.S. Chauhan, Assistant Professor, RIE, Bhopal;
O.N. Awasthi, Professor (Retd.), RIE, Bhopal; Rachna Garg, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New
Delhi; Raman Namboodiri, Assistant Professor, RIE, Mysuru; R.R. Koireng, Assistant Professor,
DCS, NCERT, New Delhi; Shashi Prabha, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi; and S.V. Sharma,
Professor, RIE, Ajmer.
Special thanks are due to Hukum Singh, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT for his support.
The Council also acknowledges the support provided by the APC office and the administrative
staff of the DESM; Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station; Inder Kumar, DTP Operator;
Mohd. Qamar Tabrez, Copy Editor; Ashima Srivastava, Proof Reader in shaping this book.
The contributions of the Publication Department in bringing out this book are also duly
acknowledged.
2019-20
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
2019-20
PREFACE
It gives me pleasure to place this book in the hands of the students, teachers and the public at
large (whose role cannot be overlooked). It is a natural sequel to the Class XI textbook which
was brought out in 2006. This book is also a trimmed version of the textbooks which existed so
far. The chapter on thermal and chemical effects of current has been cut out. This topic has also
been dropped from the CBSE syllabus. Similarly, the chapter on communications has been
substantially curtailed. It has been rewritten in an easily comprehensible form.
Although most other chapters have been based on the earlier versions, several parts and
sections in them have been rewritten. The Development Team has been guided by the feedback
received from innumerable teachers across the country.
In producing these books, Class XI as well as Class XII, there has been a basic change of
emphasis. Both the books present physics to students without assuming that they would pursue
this subject beyond the higher secondary level. This new view has been prompted by the various
observations and suggestions made in the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005.
Similarly, in today’s educational scenario where students can opt for various combinations of
subjects, we cannot assume that a physics student is also studying mathematics. Therefore,
physics has to be presented, so to say, in a standalone form.
As in Class XI textbook, some interesting box items have been inserted in many chapters.
They are not meant for teaching or examinations. Their purpose is to catch the attention of the
reader, to show some applications in daily life or in other areas of science and technology, to
suggest a simple experiment, to show connection of concepts in different areas of physics, and
in general, to break the monotony and enliven the book.
Features like Summary, Points to Ponder, Exercises and Additional Exercises at the end of
each chapter, and Examples have been retained. Several concept-based Exercises have been
transferred from end-of-chapter Exercises to Examples with Solutions in the text. It is hoped
that this will make the concepts discussed in the chapter more comprehensible. Several new
examples and exercises have been added. Students wishing to pursue physics further would
find Points to Ponder and Additional Exercises very useful and thoughtful. To provide resources
beyond the textbook and to encourage eLearning, each chapter has been provided with
some relevant website addresses under the title ePhysics. These sites provide additional
material on specific topics and also provide learners with opportunites for interactive
demonstrations/experiments.
The intricate concepts of physics must be understood, comprehended and appreciated.
Students must learn to ask questions like ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how do we know it’. They will find
almost always that the question ‘why’ has no answer within the domain of physics and science
in general. But that itself is a learning experience, is it not? On the other hand, the question
‘how’ has been reasonably well answered by physicists in the case of most natural phenomena.
In fact, with the understanding of how things happen, it has been possible to make use of many
phenomena to create technological applications for the use of humans.
For example, consider statements in a book, like ‘A negatively charged electron is attracted
by the positively charged plate’, or ‘In this experiment, light (or electron) behaves like a wave’.
You will realise that it is not possible to answer ‘why’. This question belongs to the domain of
philosophy or metaphysics. But we can answer ‘how’, we can find the force acting, we can find
2019-20
the wavelength of the photon (or electron), we can determine how things behave under different
conditions, and we can develop instruments which will use these phenomena to our advantage.
It has been a pleasure to work for these books at the higher secondary level, along with a
team of members. The Textbook Development Team, Review Team and Editing Teams involved
college and university teachers, teachers from Indian Institutes of Technology, scientists from
national institutes and laboratories, as well as, higher secondary teachers. The feedback and
critical look provided by higher secondary teachers in the various teams are highly laudable.
Most box items were generated by members of one or the other team, but three of them were
generated by friends and well-wishers not part of any team. We are thankful to Dr P.N. Sen of
Pune, Professor Roopmanjari Ghosh of Delhi and Dr Rajesh B Khaparde of Mumbai for allowing
us to use their box items, respectively, in Chapters 3, 4 (Part I) and 9 (Part II). We are thankful
to the members of the review and editing workshops to discuss and refine the first draft of the
textbook. We also express our gratitude to Prof. Krishna Kumar, Director, NCERT, for entrusting
us with the task of presenting this textbook as a part of the national effort for improving science
education. I also thank Prof. G. Ravindra, Joint Director, NCERT, for his help from time-to-
time. Prof. Hukum Singh, Head, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT,
was always willing to help us in our endeavour in every possible way.
We welcome suggestions and comments from our valued users, especially students and
teachers. We wish our young readers a happy journey into the exciting realm of physics.
A. W. JOSHI
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
xii
2019-20
CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
PREFACE xi
CHAPTER ONE
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Electric Charge 1
1.3 Conductors and Insulators 5
1.4 Charging by Induction 6
1.5 Basic Properties of Electric Charge 8
1.6 Coulomb’s Law 10
1.7 Forces between Multiple Charges 15
1.8 Electric Field 18
1.9 Electric Field Lines 23
1.10 Electric Flux 25
1.11 Electric Dipole 27
1.12 Dipole in a Uniform External Field 31
1.13 Continuous Charge Distribution 32
1.14 Gauss’s Law 33
1.15 Applications of Gauss’s Law 37
CHAPTER TWO
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
2.1 Introduction 51
2.2 Electrostatic Potential 53
2.3 Potential due to a Point Charge 54
2.4 Potential due to an Electric Dipole 55
2.5 Potential due to a System of Charges 57
2.6 Equipotential Surfaces 60
2.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges 61
2.8 Potential Energy in an External Field 64
2.9 Electrostatics of Conductors 67
2.10 Dielectrics and Polarisation 71
2.11 Capacitors and Capacitance 73
2.12 The Parallel Plate Capacitor 74
2.13 Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance 75
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Physics
1.5 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
We have seen that there are two types of charges, namely positive and
negative and their effects tend to cancel each other. Here, we shall now
describe some other properties of the electric charge.
If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to the
distances between them, we treat them as point charges. All the
charge content of the body is assumed to be concentrated at one point
in space.
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5.4 The Earth’s Magnetism 185
5.5 Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity 189
5.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials 191
5.7 Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets 195
CHAPTER SIX
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
6.1 Introduction 204
6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and Henry 205
6.3 Magnetic Flux 206
6.4 Faraday’s Law of Induction 207
6.5 Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy 210
6.6 Motional Electromotive Force 212
6.7 Energy Consideration: A Quantitative Study 215
6.8 Eddy Currents 218
6.9 Inductance 219
6.10 AC Generator 224
CHAPTER SEVEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT
7.1 Introduction 233
7.2 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor 234
7.3 Representation of AC Current and Voltage by
Rotating Vectors — Phasors 237
7.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor 237
7.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor 241
7.6 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit 244
7.7 Power in AC Circuit: The Power Factor 252
7.8 LC Oscillations 255
7.9 Transformers 259
CHAPTER EIGHT
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
8.1 Introduction 269
8.2 Displacement Current 270
8.3 Electromagnetic Waves 274
8.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum 280
ANSWERS 288
xv
2019-20
COVER DESIGN
(Adapted from http://nobelprize.org and
the Nobel Prize in Physics 2006)
BACK COVER
(Adapted from http://www.iter.org and
http://www.dae.gov.in)
2019-20
Chapter One
ELECTRIC CHARGES
AND FIELDS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All of us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearing a crackle when
we take off our synthetic clothes or sweater, particularly in dry weather.
This is almost inevitable with ladies garments like a polyester saree. Have
you ever tried to find any explanation for this phenomenon? Another
common example of electric discharge is the lightning that we see in the
sky during thunderstorms. We also experience a sensation of an electric
shock either while opening the door of a car or holding the iron bar of a
bus after sliding from our seat. The reason for these experiences is
discharge of electric charges through our body, which were accumulated
due to rubbing of insulating surfaces. You might have also heard that
this is due to generation of static electricity. This is precisely the topic we
are going to discuss in this and the next chapter. Static means anything
that does not move or change with time. Electrostatics deals with the
study of forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges.
2019-20
Physics
on rubbing could attract light objects
like straw, pith balls and bits of papers.
You can perform the following activity
at home to experience such an effect.
Cut out long thin strips of white paper
and lightly iron them. Take them near a
TV screen or computer monitor. You will
see that the strips get attracted to the
screen. In fact they remain stuck to the
screen for a while.
It was observed that if two glass rods
rubbed with wool or silk cloth are
brought close to each other, they repel
each other [Fig. 1.1(a)]. The two strands
FIGURE 1.1 Rods and pith balls: like charges repel and of wool or two pieces of silk cloth, with
unlike charges attract each other.
which the rods were rubbed, also repel
each other. However, the glass rod and
wool attracted each other. Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s
http://demoweb.physics.ucla.edu/content/100-simple-electrostatic-
fur repelled each other [Fig. 1.1(b)] but attracted the fur. On the other
hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod [Fig. 1.1(c)] and repel the silk
or wool with which the glass rod is rubbed. The glass rod repels the fur.
If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two small pith balls
(now-a-days we can use polystyrene balls) suspended by silk or nylon
Interactive animation on simple electrostatic experiments:
thread, then the balls repel each other [Fig. 1.1(d)] and are also repelled
by the rod. A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched with a
glass rod rubbed with silk [Fig. 1.1(e)]. A dramatic observation is that a
pith ball touched with glass rod attracts another pith ball touched with
plastic rod [Fig. 1.1(f )].
These seemingly simple facts were established from years of efforts
and careful experiments and their analyses. It was concluded, after many
careful studies by different scientists, that there were only two kinds of
an entity which is called the electric charge. We say that the bodies like
glass or plastic rods, silk, fur and pith balls are electrified. They acquire
an electric charge on rubbing. The experiments on pith balls suggested
that there are two kinds of electrification and we find that (i) like charges
repel and (ii) unlike charges attract each other. The experiments also
demonstrated that the charges are transferred from the rods to the pith
balls on contact. It is said that the pith balls are electrified or are charged
experiments
2019-20
Electric Charges
and Fields
neutralise or nullify each other’s effect. Therefore, the charges were named
as positive and negative by the American scientist Benjamin Franklin.
We know that when we add a positive number to a negative number of
the same magnitude, the sum is zero. This might have been the
philosophy in naming the charges as positive and negative. By convention,
the charge on glass rod or cat’s fur is called positive and that on plastic
rod or silk is termed negative. If an object possesses an electric charge, it
is said to be electrified or charged. When it has no charge it is said to be
electrically neutral.
In olden days, electricity and magnetism were treated as separate subjects. Electricity
dealt with charges on glass rods, cat’s fur, batteries, lightning, etc., while magnetism
described interactions of magnets, iron filings, compass needles, etc. In 1820 Danish
scientist Oersted found that a compass needle is deflected by passing an electric current
through a wire placed near the needle. Ampere and Faraday supported this observation
by saying that electric charges in motion produce magnetic fields and moving magnets
generate electricity. The unification was achieved when the Scottish physicist Maxwell
and the Dutch physicist Lorentz put forward a theory where they showed the
interdependence of these two subjects. This field is called electromagnetism. Most of the
phenomena occurring around us can be described under electromagnetism. Virtually
every force that we can think of like friction, chemical force between atoms holding the
matter together, and even the forces describing processes occurring in cells of living
organisms, have its origin in electromagnetic force. Electromagnetic force is one of the
fundamental forces of nature.
Maxwell put forth four equations that play the same role in classical electromagnetism
as Newton’s equations of motion and gravitation law play in mechanics. He also argued
that light is electromagnetic in nature and its speed can be found by making purely
electric and magnetic measurements. He claimed that the science of optics is intimately
related to that of electricity and magnetism.
The science of electricity and magnetism is the foundation for the modern technological
civilisation. Electric power, telecommunication, radio and television, and a wide variety
of the practical appliances used in daily life are based on the principles of this science.
Although charged particles in motion exert both electric and magnetic forces, in the
frame of reference where all the charges are at rest, the forces are purely electrical. You
know that gravitational force is a long-range force. Its effect is felt even when the distance
between the interacting particles is very large because the force decreases inversely as
the square of the distance between the interacting bodies. We will learn in this chapter
that electric force is also as pervasive and is in fact stronger than the gravitational force
by several orders of magnitude (refer to Chapter 1 of Class XI Physics Textbook).
2019-20
Physics
Electric field E1 at r due to q1 at r1 is given by
1 q1
E1 = r̂1P
4 πε 0 r12P
where r̂1P is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to P,
and r1P is the distance between q1 and P.
In the same manner, electric field E2 at r due to q2 at
r2 is
1 q2
E2 = r̂2P
4 πε 0 r22P
where r̂2P is a unit vector in the direction from q2 to P
FIGURE 1.12 Electric field at a and r 2P is the distance between q 2 and P. Similar
point due to a system of charges is expressions hold good for fields E3, E4, ..., En due to
the vector sum of the electric fields charges q3, q4, ..., qn.
at the point due to individual By the superposition principle, the electric field E at r
charges. due to the system of charges is (as shown in Fig. 1.12)
E(r) = E1 (r) + E2 (r) + … + En(r)
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
= rˆ +
2 1P 2
rˆ2 P + ... + rˆnP
4 πε 0 r1P 4 πε 0 r2 P 4 πε 0 rn2P
1 n
q
E(r) =
4π ε 0
∑ r 2i r̂i P (1.10)
i =1 i P
E is a vector quantity that varies from one point to another point in space
and is determined from the positions of the source charges.
2019-20
Electric Charges
and Fields
by gaining electrons. When we rub a glass rod with silk, some of the
electrons from the rod are transferred to the silk cloth. Thus the rod gets
positively charged and the silk gets negatively charged. No new charge is
created in the process of rubbing. Also the number of electrons, that are
transferred, is a very small fraction of the total number of electrons in the
material body. Also only the less tightly bound electrons in a material
body can be transferred from it to another by rubbing. Therefore, when
a body is rubbed with another, the bodies get charged and that is why
we have to stick to certain pairs of materials to notice charging on rubbing
the bodies.
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electric current from the power station and the third is earthed by
connecting it to the buried metal plate. Metallic bodies of the electric
appliances such as electric iron, refrigerator, TV are connected to the
earth wire. When any fault occurs or live wire touches the metallic body,
the charge flows to the earth without damaging the appliance and without
causing any injury to the humans; this would have otherwise been
unavoidable since the human body is a conductor of electricity.
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[This happens even when the light object is not a conductor. The
mechanism for how this happens is explained later in Sections 1.10 and
2.10.] The centres of the two types of charges are slightly separated. We
know that opposite charges attract while similar charges repel. However,
the magnitude of force depends on the distance between the charges
and in this case the force of attraction overweighs the force of repulsion.
As a result the particles like bits of paper or pith balls, being light, are
pulled towards the rods.
Example 1.1 How can you charge a metal sphere positively without
touching it?
Solution Figure 1.5(a) shows an uncharged metallic sphere on an
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/estatics/itsn.cfm
Interactive animation on charging a two-sphere system by induction:
insulating metal stand. Bring a negatively charged rod close to the
metallic sphere, as shown in Fig. 1.5(b). As the rod is brought close
to the sphere, the free electrons in the sphere move away due to
repulsion and start piling up at the farther end. The near end becomes
positively charged due to deficit of electrons. This process of charge
distribution stops when the net force on the free electrons inside the
metal is zero. Connect the sphere to the ground by a conducting
wire. The electrons will flow to the ground while the positive charges
at the near end will remain held there due to the attractive force of
the negative charges on the rod, as shown in Fig. 1.5(c). Disconnect
the sphere from the ground. The positive charge continues to be
held at the near end [Fig. 1.5(d)]. Remove the electrified rod. The
positive charge will spread uniformly over the sphere as shown in
Fig. 1.5(e).
FIGURE 1.5
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1.5 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
We have seen that there are two types of charges, namely positive and
negative and their effects tend to cancel each other. Here, we shall now
describe some other properties of the electric charge.
If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to the
distances between them, we treat them as point charges. All the
charge content of the body is assumed to be concentrated at one point
in space.
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where n is any integer, positive or negative. This basic unit of charge is the
charge that an electron or proton carries. By convention, the charge on an
electron is taken to be negative; therefore charge on an electron is written
as –e and that on a proton as +e.
The fact that electric charge is always an integral multiple of e is termed
as quantisation of charge. There are a large number of situations in physics
where certain physical quantities are quantised. The quantisation of charge
was first suggested by the experimental laws of electrolysis discovered by
English experimentalist Faraday. It was experimentally demonstrated by
Millikan in 1912.
In the International System (SI) of Units, a unit of charge is called a
coulomb and is denoted by the symbol C. A coulomb is defined in terms
the unit of the electric current which you are going to learn in a subsequent
chapter. In terms of this definition, one coulomb is the charge flowing
through a wire in 1 s if the current is 1 A (ampere), (see Chapter 2 of Class
XI, Physics Textbook , Part I). In this system, the value of the basic unit of
charge is
e = 1.602192 × 10–19 C
Thus, there are about 6 × 1018 electrons in a charge of –1C. In
electrostatics, charges of this large magnitude are seldom encountered
and hence we use smaller units 1 µC (micro coulomb) = 10–6 C or 1 mC
(milli coulomb) = 10–3 C.
If the protons and electrons are the only basic charges in the universe,
all the observable charges have to be integral multiples of e. Thus, if a
body contains n1 electrons and n 2 protons, the total amount of charge on
the body is n 2 × e + n1 × (–e) = (n 2 – n1) e. Since n1 and n2 are integers, their
difference is also an integer. Thus the charge on any body is always an
integral multiple of e and can be increased or decreased also in steps of e.
The step size e is, however, very small because at the macroscopic
level, we deal with charges of a few µC. At this scale the fact that charge of
a body can increase or decrease in units of e is not visible. In this respect,
the grainy nature of the charge is lost and it appears to be continuous.
This situation can be compared with the geometrical concepts of points
and lines. A dotted line viewed from a distance appears continuous to
us but is not continuous in reality. As many points very close to
each other normally give an impression of a continuous line, many
small charges taken together appear as a continuous charge
distribution.
At the macroscopic level, one deals with charges that are enormous
compared to the magnitude of charge e. Since e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, a charge
of magnitude, say 1 µC, contains something like 1013 times the electronic
charge. At this scale, the fact that charge can increase or decrease only in
units of e is not very different from saying that charge can take continuous
values. Thus, at the macroscopic level, the quantisation of charge has no
practical consequence and can be ignored. However, at the microscopic
level, where the charges involved are of the order of a few tens or hundreds
of e, i.e., they can be counted, they appear in discrete lumps and 9
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Solution (a) Field at P due to charge +10 µC
10 −5 C 1
= ×
4 π (8.854 × 10 −12 2
C N −1
m ) −2
(15 − 0.25)2 × 10 −4 m 2
6 –1
= 4.13 × 10 N C along BP
Field at P due to charge –10 µC
10 –5 C 1
= × 2
−12 2 −1
4 π (8.854 × 10 C N m ) −2
(15 + 0.25) × 10 −4 m 2
= 3.86 × 106 N C–1 along PA
The resultant electric field at P due to the two charges at A and B is
= 2.7 × 105 N C–1 along BP.
In this example, the ratio OP/OB is quite large (= 60). Thus, we can
expect to get approximately the same result as above by directly using
the formula for electric field at a far-away point on the axis of a dipole.
For a dipole consisting of charges ± q, 2a distance apart, the electric
field at a distance r from the centre on the axis of the dipole has a
magnitude
2p
E = (r/a >> 1)
4 πε 0r 3
where p = 2a q is the magnitude of the dipole moment.
The direction of electric field on the dipole axis is always along the
direction of the dipole moment vector (i.e., from –q to q). Here,
p =10–5 C × 5 × 10–3 m = 5 × 10–8 C m
Therefore,
2 × 5 × 10−8 C m 1
E = −12 2 −1 −2
×
(15) × 10 −6 m 3
3 = 2.6 × 105 N C–1
4 π (8.854 × 10 C N m )
along the dipole moment direction AB, which is close to the result
obtained earlier.
(b) Field at Q due to charge + 10 µC at B
10−5 C 1
= 4 π (8.854 × 10 −12 C 2 N −1 m −2 ) × [152 + (0.25)2 ] × 10 −4 m 2
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spheres. When the separation between two spheres is much
larger than the radius of each sphere, the charged spheres
may be regarded as point charges. However, the charges
on the spheres were unknown, to begin with. How then
could he discover a relation like Eq. (1.1)? Coulomb
thought of the following simple way: Suppose the charge
on a metallic sphere is q. If the sphere is put in contact
with an identical uncharged sphere, the charge will spread
over the two spheres. By symmetry, the charge on each
sphere will be q/2*. Repeating this process, we can get
charges q/2, q/4, etc. Coulomb varied the distance for a
fixed pair of charges and measured the force for different
separations. He then varied the charges in pairs, keeping
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Since force is a vector, it is better to write
Coulomb’s law in the vector notation. Let the
position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2
respectively [see Fig.1.6(a)]. We denote force on
q1 due to q2 by F12 and force on q2 due to q1 by
F21. The two point charges q1 and q2 have been
numbered 1 and 2 for convenience and the vector
leading from 1 to 2 is denoted by r21:
r21 = r2 – r1
In the same way, the vector leading from 2 to
1 is denoted by r12:
r12 = r1 – r2 = – r21
The magnitude of the vectors r21 and r12 is
denoted by r21 and r12 , respectively (r12 = r21). The
direction of a vector is specified by a unit vector
along the vector. To denote the direction from 1
to 2 (or from 2 to 1), we define the unit vectors:
FIGURE 1.6 (a) Geometry and r r
(b) Forces between charges.
r 21 = 21 ,
r 12 = 12 ,
r 21 =
r 12
r21 r12
Coulomb’s force law between two point charges q1 and q2 located at
r1 and r2 is then expressed as
1 q1 q 2
F21 = 2
r 21 (1.3)
4 π εo r21
1 q1 q 2
F12 = 2
r 12 = −F21
4 π ε0 r12
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Example 1.4 Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force between two point
charges and Newton’s law for gravitational force between two
stationary point masses, both have inverse-square dependence on
the distance between the charges and masses respectively.
(a) Compare the strength of these forces by determining the ratio of
their magnitudes (i) for an electron and a proton and (ii) for two
protons. (b) Estimate the accelerations of electron and proton due to
the electrical force of their mutual attraction when they are
1 Å (= 10-10 m) apart? (mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg)
Solution
(a) (i) The electric force between an electron and a proton at a distance
http://webphysics.davidson.edu/physlet_resources/bu_semester2/menu_semester2.html
Interactive animation on Coulomb’s law:
r apart is:
1 e2
Fe = −
4 πε 0 r 2
where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive. The
corresponding gravitational force (always attractive) is:
mp me
FG = −G
r2
where mp and me are the masses of a proton and an electron
respectively.
Fe e2
= = 2.4 × 1039
FG 4 πε 0Gm pm e
(ii) On similar lines, the ratio of the magnitudes of electric force
to the gravitational force between two protons at a distance r
apart is:
Fe e2
= = 1.3 × 1036
FG 4πε 0Gm p m p
However, it may be mentioned here that the signs of the two forces
are different. For two protons, the gravitational force is attractive
in nature and the Coulomb force is repulsive. The actual values
of these forces between two protons inside a nucleus (distance
between two protons is ~ 10-15 m inside a nucleus) are Fe ~ 230 N,
whereas, FG ~ 1.9 × 10–34 N.
The (dimensionless) ratio of the two forces shows that electrical
forces are enormously stronger than the gravitational forces.
(b) The electric force F exerted by a proton on an electron is same in
magnitude to the force exerted by an electron on a proton; however,
the masses of an electron and a proton are different. Thus, the
magnitude of force is
1 e2
|F| = = 8.987 × 109 Nm2/C2 × (1.6 ×10–19C)2 / (10–10m)2
4 πε 0 r 2
= 2.3 × 10–8 N
Using Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, the acceleration
that an electron will undergo is
a = 2.3×10–8 N / 9.11 ×10–31 kg = 2.5 × 1022 m/s2
Comparing this with the value of acceleration due to gravity, we
EXAMPLE 1.4
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Example 1.5 A charged metallic sphere A is suspended by a nylon
thread. Another charged metallic sphere B held by an insulating
handle is brought close to A such that the distance between their
centres is 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 1.7(a). The resulting repulsion of A
is noted (for example, by shining a beam of light and measuring the
deflection of its shadow on a screen). Spheres A and B are touched
by uncharged spheres C and D respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.7(b).
C and D are then removed and B is brought closer to A to a
distance of 5.0 cm between their centres, as shown in Fig. 1.7(c).
What is the expected repulsion of A on the basis of Coulomb’s law?
Spheres A and C and spheres B and D have identical sizes. Ignore
the sizes of A and B in comparison to the separation between their
centres.
EXAMPLE 1.5
14 FIGURE 1.7
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EXAMPLE 1.5
1 (q / 2 )(q ′ / 2) 1 (qq ′ )
F′ = = =F
4 πε 0 (r / 2)2 4 πε 0 r 2
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2 EA = σA/ε0
or, E = σ/2ε0
Vectorically,
σ
E= ˆ
n (1.33)
2ε 0
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it.
E is directed away from the plate if σ is positive and toward the plate
if σ is negative. Note that the above application of the Gauss’ law has
brought out an additional fact: E is independent of x also.
For a finite large planar sheet, Eq. (1.33) is approximately true in the
middle regions of the planar sheet, away from the ends.
σ R2 q
Or, E = 2
=
ε0 r 4 π ε0 r 2
where q = 4 π R2 σ is the total charge on the spherical shell.
Vectorially,
q FIGURE 1.31 Gaussian
E= rˆ (1.34)
4 πε 0 r 2 surfaces for a point with
(a) r > R, (b) r < R.
The electric field is directed outward if q > 0 and inward if
q < 0. This, however, is exactly the field produced by a charge
q placed at the centre O. Thus for points outside the shell, the field due
to a uniformly charged shell is as if the entire charge of the shell is
concentrated at its centre.
(ii) Field inside the shell: In Fig. 1.31(b), the point P is inside the
shell. The Gaussian surface is again a sphere through P centred at O. 39
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Thus,
3 Qq
Force F1 on Q due to charge q at A = along AO
4 πε 0 l2
3 Qq
Force F2 on Q due to charge q at B = 4 πε along BO
0 l2
3 Qq
Force F3 on Q due to charge q at C = 4 πε 2 along CO
0 l
3 Qq
The resultant of forces F 2 and F 3 is 4 πε 2 along OA, by the
0 l
3 Qq
parallelogram law. Therefore, the total force on Q = 4 πε 2 ( rˆ − rˆ )
0 l
EXAMPLE 1.6
= 0, where r̂ is the unit vector along OA.
It is clear also by symmetry that the three forces will sum to zero.
Suppose that the resultant force was non-zero but in some direction.
Consider what would happen if the system was rotated through 60°
about O.
FIGURE 1.10
q2
same magnitude F =
4 π ε0 l 2
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Similarly the total force on charge –q at C is F3 = 3 F n̂ , where n̂ is
the unit vector along the direction bisecting the ∠BCA.
It is interesting to see that the sum of the forces on the three charges
EXAMPLE 1.7 is zero, i.e.,
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
The result is not at all surprising. It follows straight from the fact
that Coulomb’s law is consistent with Newton’s third law. The proof
is left to you as an exercise.
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at that point. The charge Q, which is producing the electric field, is
called a source charge and the charge q, which tests the effect of a
source charge, is called a test charge. Note that the source charge Q
must remain at its original location. However, if a charge q is brought
at any point around Q, Q itself is bound to experience an electrical
force due to q and will tend to move. A way out of this difficulty is to
make q negligibly small. The force F is then negligibly small but the
ratio F/q is finite and defines the electric field:
F
E = lim (1.9)
q →0 q
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Electric field E1 at r due to q1 at r1 is given by
1 q1
E1 = r̂1P
4 πε 0 r12P
where r̂1P is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to P,
and r1P is the distance between q1 and P.
In the same manner, electric field E2 at r due to q2 at
r2 is
1 q2
E2 = r̂2P
4 πε 0 r22P
where r̂2P is a unit vector in the direction from q2 to P
FIGURE 1.12 Electric field at a and r 2P is the distance between q 2 and P. Similar
point due to a system of charges is expressions hold good for fields E3, E4, ..., En due to
the vector sum of the electric fields charges q3, q4, ..., qn.
at the point due to individual By the superposition principle, the electric field E at r
charges. due to the system of charges is (as shown in Fig. 1.12)
E(r) = E1 (r) + E2 (r) + … + En(r)
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
= rˆ +
2 1P 2
rˆ2 P + ... + rˆnP
4 πε 0 r1P 4 πε 0 r2 P 4 πε 0 rn2P
1 n
q
E(r) =
4π ε 0
∑ r 2i r̂i P (1.10)
i =1 i P
E is a vector quantity that varies from one point to another point in space
and is determined from the positions of the source charges.
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arise instantaneously. There will be some time delay between the effect
(force on q2) and the cause (motion of q1). It is precisely here that the
notion of electric field (strictly, electromagnetic field) is natural and very
useful. The field picture is this: the accelerated motion of charge q1
produces electromagnetic waves, which then propagate with the speed
c, reach q2 and cause a force on q2. The notion of field elegantly accounts
for the time delay. Thus, even though electric and magnetic fields can be
detected only by their effects (forces) on charges, they are regarded as
physical entities, not merely mathematical constructs. They have an
independent dynamics of their own, i.e., they evolve according to laws
of their own. They can also transport energy. Thus, a source of time-
dependent electromagnetic fields, turned on for a short interval of time
and then switched off, leaves behind propagating electromagnetic fields
transporting energy. The concept of field was first introduced by Faraday
and is now among the central concepts in physics.
FIGURE 1.13
Solution In Fig. 1.13(a) the field is upward, so the negatively charged
electron experiences a downward force of magnitude eE where E is
the magnitude of the electric field. The acceleration of the electron is
ae = eE/me
where me is the mass of the electron.
Starting from rest, the time required by the electron to fall through a
2h 2h m e
distance h is given by t e = =
ae eE
For e = 1.6 × 10–19C, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg,
E = 2.0 × 104 N C–1, h = 1.5 × 10–2 m,
te = 2.9 × 10–9s
In Fig. 1.13 (b), the field is downward, and the positively charged
proton experiences a downward force of magnitude eE . The
EXAMPLE 1.8
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2h 2h m p
tp = = = 1.3 × 10 –7 s
ap eE
Thus, the heavier particle (proton) takes a greater time to fall through
the same distance. This is in basic contrast to the situation of ‘free
fall under gravity’ where the time of fall is independent of the mass of
the body. Note that in this example we have ignored the acceleration
due to gravity in calculating the time of fall. To see if this is justified,
let us calculate the acceleration of the proton in the given electric
field:
eE
ap =
mp
= 1.9 × 1012 m s –2
which is enormous compared to the value of g (9.8 m s –2), the
acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration of the electron is even
greater. Thus, the effect of acceleration due to gravity can be ignored
in this example.
Example 1.9 Two point charges q1 and q2, of magnitude +10–8 C and
–10–8 C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m apart. Calculate the electric
fields at points A, B and C shown in Fig. 1.14.
FIGURE 1.14
Solution The electric field vector E1A at A due to the positive charge
q1 points towards the right and has a magnitude
(9 × 109 Nm 2C-2 ) × (10 −8 C)
E1A = = 3.6 × 104 N C–1
(0.05 m)2
The electric field vector E2A at A due to the negative charge q2 points
EXAMPLE 1.9
towards the right and has the same magnitude. Hence the magnitude
of the total electric field EA at A is
EA = E1A + E2A = 7.2 × 104 N C–1
EA is directed toward the right.
22
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The electric field vector E1B at B due to the positive charge q1 points
towards the left and has a magnitude
(9 × 109 Nm2 C –2 ) × (10 −8 C)
E1B = = 3.6 × 104 N C–1
(0.05 m)2
The electric field vector E2B at B due to the negative charge q2 points
towards the right and has a magnitude
(9 × 109 Nm 2 C –2 ) × (10 −8 C)
E 2B = = 4 × 103 N C–1
(0.15 m)2
The magnitude of the total electric field at B is
EB = E1B – E2B = 3.2 × 104 N C–1
EB is directed towards the left.
The magnitude of each electric field vector at point C, due to charge
q1 and q2 is
(9 × 109 Nm 2C –2 ) × (10−8 C)
E1C = E2C = = 9 × 103 N C–1
(0.10 m)2
The directions in which these two vectors point are indicated in
EXAMPLE 1.9
Fig. 1.14. The resultant of these two vectors is
π π
E C = E1 cos + E 2 cos = 9 × 103 N C–1
3 3
EC points towards the right.
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It is the relative density of lines in different regions which is
important.
We draw the figure on the plane of paper, i.e., in two-
dimensions but we live in three-dimensions. So if one wishes
to estimate the density of field lines, one has to consider the
number of lines per unit cross-sectional area, perpendicular
to the lines. Since the electric field decreases as the square of
the distance from a point charge and the area enclosing the
charge increases as the square of the distance, the number
of field lines crossing the enclosing area remains constant,
whatever may be the distance of the area from the charge.
We started by saying that the field lines carry information
about the direction of electric field at different points in space.
FIGURE 1.16 Dependence of
Having drawn a certain set of field lines, the relative density
electric field strength on the
distance and its relation to the (i.e., closeness) of the field lines at different points indicates
number of field lines. the relative strength of electric field at those points. The field
lines crowd where the field is strong and are spaced apart
where it is weak. Figure 1.16 shows a set of field lines. We
can imagine two equal and small elements of area placed at points R and
S normal to the field lines there. The number of field lines in our picture
cutting the area elements is proportional to the magnitude of field at
these points. The picture shows that the field at R is stronger than at S.
To understand the dependence of the field lines on the area, or rather
the solid angle subtended by an area element, let us try to relate the
area with the solid angle, a generalisation of angle to three dimensions.
Recall how a (plane) angle is defined in two-dimensions. Let a small
transverse line element ∆l be placed at a distance r from a point O. Then
the angle subtended by ∆l at O can be approximated as ∆θ = ∆l/r.
Likewise, in three-dimensions the solid angle* subtended by a small
perpendicular plane area ∆S, at a distance r, can be written as
∆Ω = ∆S/r2. We know that in a given solid angle the number of radial
field lines is the same. In Fig. 1.16, for two points P1 and P2 at distances
r1 and r2 from the charge, the element of area subtending the solid angle
∆Ω is r12 ∆Ω at P1 and an element of area r22 ∆Ω at P2, respectively. The
number of lines (say n) cutting these area elements are the same. The
number of field lines, cutting unit area element is therefore n/( r12 ∆Ω) at
P1 and n/( r22 ∆Ω) at P2 , respectively. Since n and ∆Ω are common, the
strength of the field clearly has a 1/r 2 dependence.
The picture of field lines was invented by Faraday to develop an
intuitive non-mathematical way of visualising electric fields around
charged configurations. Faraday called them lines of force. This term is
somewhat misleading, especially in case of magnetic fields. The more
appropriate term is field lines (electric or magnetic) that we have
adopted in this book.
Electric field lines are thus a way of pictorially mapping the electric
field around a configuration of charges. An electric field line is, in general,
* Solid angle is a measure of a cone. Consider the intersection of the given cone
with a sphere of radius R. The solid angle ∆Ω of the cone is defined to be equal
24 2
to ∆S/R , where ∆S is the area on the sphere cut out by the cone.
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a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at each
point is in the direction of the net field at that point. An
arrow on the curve is obviously necessary to specify the
direction of electric field from the two possible directions
indicated by a tangent to the curve. A field line is a space
curve, i.e., a curve in three dimensions.
Figure 1.17 shows the field lines around some simple
charge configurations. As mentioned earlier, the field lines
are in 3-dimensional space, though the figure shows them
only in a plane. The field lines of a single positive charge
are radially outward while those of a single negative
charge are radially inward. The field lines around a system
of two positive charges (q, q) give a vivid pictorial
description of their mutual repulsion, while those around
the configuration of two equal and opposite charges
(q, –q), a dipole, show clearly the mutual attraction
between the charges. The field lines follow some important
general properties:
(i) Field lines start from positive charges and end at
negative charges. If there is a single charge, they may
start or end at infinity.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken
to be continuous curves without any breaks.
(iii) Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did,
the field at the point of intersection will not have a
unique direction, which is absurd.)
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.
This follows from the conservative nature of electric
field (Chapter 2).
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we place a small planar element of area ∆S
normal to E at a point, the number of field lines
crossing it is proportional* to E ∆S. Now
suppose we tilt the area element by angle θ.
Clearly, the number of field lines crossing the
area element will be smaller. The projection of
the area element normal to E is ∆S cosθ. Thus,
the number of field lines crossing ∆S is
proportional to E ∆S cosθ. When θ = 90°, field
lines will be parallel to ∆S and will not cross it
at all (Fig. 1.18).
The orientation of area element and not
merely its magnitude is important in many
contexts. For example, in a stream, the amount
of water flowing through a ring will naturally
depend on how you hold the ring. If you hold
it normal to the flow, maximum water will flow
FIGURE 1.18 Dependence of flux on the
inclination θ between E and n̂ . through it than if you hold it with some other
orientation. This shows that an area element
should be treated as a vector. It has a
magnitude and also a direction. How to specify the direction of a planar
area? Clearly, the normal to the plane specifies the orientation of the
plane. Thus the direction of a planar area vector is along its normal.
How to associate a vector to the area of a curved surface? We imagine
dividing the surface into a large number of very small area elements.
Each small area element may be treated as planar and a vector associated
with it, as explained before.
Notice one ambiguity here. The direction of an area element is along
its normal. But a normal can point in two directions. Which direction do
we choose as the direction of the vector associated with the area element?
This problem is resolved by some convention appropriate to the given
context. For the case of a closed surface, this convention is very simple.
The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken
to be in the direction of the outward normal. This is the convention used
in Fig. 1.19. Thus, the area element vector ∆S at a point on a closed
surface equals ∆S n̂ where ∆S is the magnitude of the area element and
n̂ is a unit vector in the direction of outward normal at that point.
We now come to the definition of electric flux. Electric flux ∆φ through
an area element ∆S is defined by
∆φ = E.∆S = E ∆S cosθ (1.11)
which, as seen before, is proportional to the number of field lines cutting
the area element. The angle θ here is the angle between E and ∆S. For a
closed surface, with the convention stated already, θ is the angle between
FIGURE 1.19 E and the outward normal to the area element. Notice we could look at
Convention for the expression E ∆S cosθ in two ways: E (∆S cosθ ) i.e., E times the
defining normal
n̂ and ∆S. * It will not be proper to say that the number of field lines is equal to E∆S. The
number of field lines is after all, a matter of how many field lines we choose to
draw. What is physically significant is the relative number of field lines crossing
26 a given area at different points.
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projection of area normal to E, or E⊥ ∆S, i.e., component of E along the
normal to the area element times the magnitude of the area element. The
unit of electric flux is N C–1 m2.
The basic definition of electric flux given by Eq. (1.11) can be used, in
principle, to calculate the total flux through any given surface. All we
have to do is to divide the surface into small area elements, calculate the
flux at each element and add them up. Thus, the total flux φ through a
surface S is
φ ~ Σ E.∆S (1.12)
The approximation sign is put because the electric field E is taken to
be constant over the small area element. This is mathematically exact
only when you take the limit ∆S → 0 and the sum in Eq. (1.12) is written
as an integral.
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The total field at P is
q 1 1
E = E +q + E − q = 2
− p
4 π ε0 (r − a ) (r + a )2
q 4a r
= p (1.14)
4 π εo ( r 2 − a 2 )2
For r >> a
4qa
E= ˆ
p (r >> a) (1.15)
4 π ε 0r 3
q 1
E –q = [1.16(b)]
4 πε 0 r + a 2
2
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the situation in this case is more involved – the movement of the charge
carriers is affected both by the external electric field as also by the
so-called chemical forces (see Chapter 3). We shall restrict our discussion
to metallic solid conductors. Let us note important results regarding
electrostatics of conductors.
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Solution (a) Field at P due to charge +10 µC
10 −5 C 1
= ×
4 π (8.854 × 10 −12 2
C N −1
m ) −2
(15 − 0.25)2 × 10 −4 m 2
6 –1
= 4.13 × 10 N C along BP
Field at P due to charge –10 µC
10 –5 C 1
= × 2
−12 2 −1
4 π (8.854 × 10 C N m ) −2
(15 + 0.25) × 10 −4 m 2
= 3.86 × 106 N C–1 along PA
The resultant electric field at P due to the two charges at A and B is
= 2.7 × 105 N C–1 along BP.
In this example, the ratio OP/OB is quite large (= 60). Thus, we can
expect to get approximately the same result as above by directly using
the formula for electric field at a far-away point on the axis of a dipole.
For a dipole consisting of charges ± q, 2a distance apart, the electric
field at a distance r from the centre on the axis of the dipole has a
magnitude
2p
E = (r/a >> 1)
4 πε 0r 3
where p = 2a q is the magnitude of the dipole moment.
The direction of electric field on the dipole axis is always along the
direction of the dipole moment vector (i.e., from –q to q). Here,
p =10–5 C × 5 × 10–3 m = 5 × 10–8 C m
Therefore,
2 × 5 × 10−8 C m 1
E = −12 2 −1 −2
×
(15) × 10 −6 m 3
3 = 2.6 × 105 N C–1
4 π (8.854 × 10 C N m )
along the dipole moment direction AB, which is close to the result
obtained earlier.
(b) Field at Q due to charge + 10 µC at B
10−5 C 1
= 4 π (8.854 × 10 −12 C 2 N −1 m −2 ) × [152 + (0.25)2 ] × 10 −4 m 2
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p
E = (r/a >> 1)
4 πε 0 r 3
5 × 10−8 C m 1
= ×
EXAMPLE 1.10
4 π (8.854 ×10−12 C2 N –1 m –2 ) (15)3 × 10 −6 m 3
= 1.33 × 105 N C–1.
The direction of electric field in this case is opposite to the direction
of the dipole moment vector. Again, the result agrees with that obtained
before.
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discussion, the charged comb ‘polarises’ the piece of paper, i.e., induces
a net dipole moment in the direction of field. Further, the electric field
due to the comb is not uniform. In this situation, it is easily seen that the
paper should move in the direction of the comb!
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the density of a liquid, we are referring to its macroscopic density. We
regard it as a continuous fluid and ignore its discrete molecular
constitution.
The field due to a continuous charge distribution can be obtained in
much the same way as for a system of discrete charges, Eq. (1.10). Suppose
a continuous charge distribution in space has a charge density ρ. Choose
any convenient origin O and let the position vector of any point in the
charge distribution be r. The charge density ρ may vary from point to
point, i.e., it is a function of r. Divide the charge distribution into small
volume elements of size ∆V. The charge in a volume element ∆V is ρ∆V.
Now, consider any general point P (inside or outside the distribution)
with position vector R (Fig. 1.24). Electric field due to the charge ρ∆V is
given by Coulomb’s law:
1 ρ ∆V
∆E = rˆ' (1.26)
4πε 0 r' 2
where r′ is the distance between the charge element and P, and r̂ ′ is a
unit vector in the direction from the charge element to P. By the
superposition principle, the total electric field due to the charge
distribution is obtained by summing over electric fields due to different
volume elements:
1 ρ ∆V
E≅ Σ rˆ' (1.27)
4 πε 0 all ∆V r' 2
Note that ρ, r′, rˆ ′ all can vary from point to point. In a strict
mathematical method, we should let ∆V→0 and the sum then becomes
an integral; but we omit that discussion here, for simplicity. In short,
using Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle, electric field can
be determined for any charge distribution, discrete or continuous or part
discrete and part continuous.
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q
φ= Σ ∆S
all ∆S 4 π ε0 r 2
Since each area element of the sphere is at the same
distance r from the charge,
FIGURE 1.26 Calculation of the q q
flux of uniform electric field
φ= Σ ∆S =
2 all ∆S
S
4 πεo r 4 πε 0 r 2
through the surface of a cylinder.
Now S, the total area of the sphere, equals 4πr 2. Thus,
q q
φ= 2
× 4 πr 2 = (1.30)
4 πε 0 r ε0
Equation (1.30) is a simple illustration of a general result of
electrostatics called Gauss’s law.
We state Gauss’s law without proof:
Electric flux through a closed surface S
= q/ε0 (1.31)
q = total charge enclosed by S.
The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
zero if no charge is enclosed by the surface. We can see that explicitly in
the simple situation of Fig. 1.26.
Here the electric field is uniform and we are considering a closed
cylindrical surface, with its axis parallel to the uniform field E. The total
flux φ through the surface is φ = φ1 + φ2 + φ3, where φ1 and φ2 represent
the flux through the surfaces 1 and 2 (of circular cross-section) of the
cylinder and φ3 is the flux through the curved cylindrical part of the
closed surface. Now the normal to the surface 3 at every point is
perpendicular to E, so by definition of flux, φ3 = 0. Further, the outward
normal to 2 is along E while the outward normal to 1 is opposite to E.
Therefore,
φ1 = –E S1, φ2 = +E S2
S1 = S2 = S
where S is the area of circular cross-section. Thus, the total flux is zero,
as expected by Gauss’s law. Thus, whenever you find that the net electric
flux through a closed surface is zero, we conclude that the total charge
contained in the closed surface is zero.
The great significance of Gauss’s law Eq. (1.31), is that it is true in
general, and not only for the simple cases we have considered above. Let
us note some important points regarding this law:
(i) Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape
or size.
(ii) The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, Eq. (1.31), includes the
sum of all charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located
anywhere inside the surface.
(iii) In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some
charges inside and some outside, the electric field [whose flux appears
on the left side of Eq. (1.31)] is due to all the charges, both inside and
outside S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, however,
34 represents only the total charge inside S.
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(iv) The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called
the Gaussian surface. You may choose any Gaussian surface and
apply Gauss’s law. However, take care not to let the Gaussian surface
pass through any discrete charge. This is because electric field due
to a system of discrete charges is not well defined at the location of
any charge. (As you go close to the charge, the field grows without
any bound.) However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a
continuous charge distribution.
(v) Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the
electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry. This is
facilitated by the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface.
(vi) Finally, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on
distance contained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s
law will indicate departure from the inverse square law.
FIGURE 1.27
Solution
(a) Since the electric field has only an x component, for faces
perpendicular to x direction, the angle between E and ∆S is
± π/2. Therefore, the flux φ = E.∆S is separately zero for each face
of the cube except the two shaded ones. Now the magnitude of
the electric field at the left face is
EL = αx1/2 = αa1/2
(x = a at the left face).
The magnitude of electric field at the right face is
ER = α x1/2 = α (2a)1/2
(x = 2a at the right face).
The corresponding fluxes are
EXAMPLE 1.11
φ = E .∆S = ∆S E L ⋅ n
L L
ˆ L =E ∆S cosθ = –E ∆S, since θ = 180°
L L
= –ELa2
φR= ER.∆S = ER ∆S cosθ = ER ∆S, since θ = 0°
= ERa2
Net flux through the cube 35
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= φR + φL = ERa2 – ELa2 = a2 (ER – EL) = αa2 [(2a)1/2 – a1/2]
= αa5/2 ( 2 –1)
EXAMPLE 1.11 = 800 (0.1)5/2 ( 2 –1)
2 –1
= 1.05 N m C
(b) We can use Gauss’s law to find the total charge q inside the cube.
We have φ = q/ε0 or q = φε0. Therefore,
q = 1.05 × 8.854 × 10–12 C = 9.27 × 10–12 C.
FIGURE 1.28
EXAMPLE 1.12
(d) The net charge within the cylinder can be found by using Gauss’s
law which gives
q = ε0φ
= 3.14 × 8.854 × 10–12 C
= 2.78 × 10–11 C
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Flux through the Gaussian surface
= flux through the curved cylindrical part of the surface
= E × 2πrl
The surface includes charge equal to λ l. Gauss’s law then gives
E × 2πrl = λl/ε0
λ
i.e., E =
2πε 0r
Vectorially, E at any point is given by
λ
E= ˆ
n (1.32)
2πε0r
where n̂ is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing
through the point. E is directed outward if λ is positive and inward if λ is
negative.
Note that when we write a vector A as a scalar multiplied by a unit
vector, i.e., as A = A â , the scalar A is an algebraic number. It can be
negative or positive. The direction of A will be the same as that of the unit
vector â if A > 0 and opposite to â if A < 0. When we want to restrict to
non-negative values, we use the symbol A and call it the modulus of A .
Thus, A ≥ 0 .
Also note that though only the charge enclosed by the surface (λl )
was included above, the electric field E is due to the charge on the entire
wire. Further, the assumption that the wire is infinitely long is crucial.
Without this assumption, we cannot take E to be normal to the curved
part of the cylindrical Gaussian surface. However, Eq. (1.32) is
approximately true for electric field around the central portions of a long
wire, where the end effects may be ignored.
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2 EA = σA/ε0
or, E = σ/2ε0
Vectorically,
σ
E= ˆ
n (1.33)
2ε 0
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it.
E is directed away from the plate if σ is positive and toward the plate
if σ is negative. Note that the above application of the Gauss’ law has
brought out an additional fact: E is independent of x also.
For a finite large planar sheet, Eq. (1.33) is approximately true in the
middle regions of the planar sheet, away from the ends.
σ R2 q
Or, E = 2
=
ε0 r 4 π ε0 r 2
where q = 4 π R2 σ is the total charge on the spherical shell.
Vectorially,
q FIGURE 1.31 Gaussian
E= rˆ (1.34)
4 πε 0 r 2 surfaces for a point with
(a) r > R, (b) r < R.
The electric field is directed outward if q > 0 and inward if
q < 0. This, however, is exactly the field produced by a charge
q placed at the centre O. Thus for points outside the shell, the field due
to a uniformly charged shell is as if the entire charge of the shell is
concentrated at its centre.
(ii) Field inside the shell: In Fig. 1.31(b), the point P is inside the
shell. The Gaussian surface is again a sphere through P centred at O. 39
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The flux through the Gaussian surface, calculated as before, is
E × 4 π r 2. However, in this case, the Gaussian surface encloses no
charge. Gauss’s law then gives
E × 4 π r2 = 0
i.e., E = 0 (r < R ) (1.35)
that is, the field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points
inside the shell*. This important result is a direct consequence of Gauss’s
law which follows from Coulomb’s law. The experimental verification of
this result confirms the 1/r2 dependence in Coulomb’s law.
FIGURE 1.32
* Compare this with a uniform mass shell discussed in Section 8.5 of Class XI
40 Textbook of Physics.
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Eq. (2.54) for the case of a parallel plate capacitor, it holds good for any
type of capacitor and can, in fact, be viewed in general as a definition of
the dielectric constant of a substance.
ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT
We have introduced the notion of dielectric constant and arrived at Eq. (2.54), without
giving the explicit relation between the induced charge density σp and the polarisation P.
We take without proof the result that
ˆ
σ P = P in
where n̂ is a unit vector along the outward normal to the surface. Above equation is
general, true for any shape of the dielectric. For the slab in Fig. 2.23, P is along n̂ at the
right surface and opposite to n̂ at the left surface. Thus at the right surface, induced
charge density is positive and at the left surface, it is negative, as guessed already in our
qualitative discussion before. Putting the equation for electric field in vector form
ˆ
σ − P in
ˆ=
E in
ε0
or (ε0 E + P) i n̂ =σ
The quantity ε0 E + P is called the electric displacement and is denoted by D. It is a
vector quantity. Thus,
D = ε0 E + P, D i n̂ = σ,
The significance of D is this : in vacuum, E is related to the free charge density σ.
When a dielectric medium is present, the corresponding role is taken up by D. For a
dielectric medium, it is D not E that is directly related to free charge density σ, as seen in
above equation. Since P is in the same direction as E, all the three vectors P, E and D are
parallel.
The ratio of the magnitudes of D and E is
D σε 0
= = ε0 K
E σ − σP
Thus,
D = ε0 K E
and P = D –ε0E = ε0 (K –1)E
This gives for the electric susceptibility χe defined in Eq. (2.37)
χe =ε0 (K–1)
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Solution
(a) In the given network, C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series. The
effective capacitance C′ of these three capacitors is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
C ′ C1 C2 C3
For C1 = C2 = C3 = 10 µF, C′ = (10/3) µF. The network has C′ and C4
connected in parallel. Thus, the equivalent capacitance C of the
network is
10
C = C′ + C4 = + 10 µF =13.3µF
3
(b) Clearly, from the figure, the charge on each of the capacitors, C1,
C2 and C3 is the same, say Q. Let the charge on C4 be Q′. Now, since
the potential difference across AB is Q/C1, across BC is Q/C2, across
CD is Q/C3 , we have
Q Q Q
+ + = 500 V .
C1 C2 C3
Also, Q′/C4 = 500 V.
EXAMPLE 2.9
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Note that Ad is the volume of the region between the plates (where
electric field alone exists). If we define energy density as energy stored
per unit volume of space, Eq (2.76) shows that
Energy density of electric field,
u =(1/2)ε0E 2 (2.77)
Though we derived Eq. (2.77) for the case of a parallel plate capacitor,
the result on energy density of an electric field is, in fact, very general and
holds true for electric field due to any configuration of charges.
FIGURE 2.31
Solution
(a) The charge on the capacitor is
Q = CV = 900 × 10–12 F × 100 V = 9 × 10–8 C
The energy stored by the capacitor is
= (1/2) CV 2 = (1/2) QV
EXAMPLE 2.10
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Charge density:
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. You might wonder why the protons, all carrying positive charges, are
compactly residing inside the nucleus. Why do they not fly away? You
will learn that there is a third kind of a fundamental force, called the
strong force which holds them together. The range of distance where
this force is effective is, however, very small ~10-14 m. This is precisely
the size of the nucleus. Also the electrons are not allowed to sit on
top of the protons, i.e. inside the nucleus, due to the laws of quantum
mechanics. This gives the atoms their structure as they exist in nature.
2. Coulomb force and gravitational force follow the same inverse-square
law. But gravitational force has only one sign (always attractive), while
Coulomb force can be of both signs (attractive and repulsive), allowing
possibility of cancellation of electric forces. This is how gravity, despite
being a much weaker force, can be a dominating and more pervasive
force in nature.
3. The constant of proportionality k in Coulomb’s law is a matter of
choice if the unit of charge is to be defined using Coulomb’s law. In SI
units, however, what is defined is the unit of current (A) via its magnetic
effect (Ampere’s law) and the unit of charge (coulomb) is simply defined
by (1C = 1 A s). In this case, the value of k is no longer arbitrary; it is
approximately 9 × 109 N m2 C–2.
4. The rather large value of k, i.e., the large size of the unit of charge
(1C) from the point of view of electric effects arises because (as
mentioned in point 3 already) the unit of charge is defined in terms of
magnetic forces (forces on current–carrying wires) which are generally
much weaker than the electric forces. Thus while 1 ampere is a unit
of reasonable size for magnetic effects, 1 C = 1 A s, is too big a unit for
electric effects.
5. The additive property of charge is not an ‘obvious’ property. It is related
to the fact that electric charge has no direction associated with it;
charge is a scalar.
6. Charge is not only a scalar (or invariant) under rotation; it is also
invariant for frames of reference in relative motion. This is not always
true for every scalar. For example, kinetic energy is a scalar under
rotation, but is not invariant for frames of reference in relative
motion.
7. Conservation of total charge of an isolated system is a property
independent of the scalar nature of charge noted in point 6.
Conservation refers to invariance in time in a given frame of reference.
A quantity may be scalar but not conserved (like kinetic energy in an
inelastic collision). On the other hand, one can have conserved vector
quantity (e.g., angular momentum of an isolated system).
8. Quantisation of electric charge is a basic (unexplained) law of nature;
interestingly, there is no analogous law on quantisation of mass.
9. Superposition principle should not be regarded as ‘obvious’, or equated
with the law of addition of vectors. It says two things: force on one
charge due to another charge is unaffected by the presence of other
charges, and there are no additional three-body, four-body, etc., forces
which arise only when there are more than two charges.
10. The electric field due to a discrete charge configuration is not defined
at the locations of the discrete charges. For continuous volume charge
distribution, it is defined at any point in the distribution. For a surface
charge distribution, electric field is discontinuous across the surface. 45
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2.9 Explain what would happen if in the capacitor given in Exercise
2.8, a 3 mm thick mica sheet (of dielectric constant = 6) were inserted
between the plates,
(a) while the voltage supply remained connected.
(b) after the supply was disconnected.
2.10 A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much
electrostatic energy is stored in the capacitor?
2.11 A 600pF capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It is then
disconnected from the supply and is connected to another
uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost
in the process?
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
2.12 A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in
taking a small charge of –2 × 10–9 C from a point P (0, 0, 3 cm) to a
point Q (0, 4 cm, 0), via a point R (0, 6 cm, 9 cm).
2.13 A cube of side b has a charge q at each of its vertices. Determine the
potential and electric field due to this charge array at the centre of
the cube.
2.14 Two tiny spheres carrying charges 1.5 µC and 2.5 µC are located 30 cm
apart. Find the potential and electric field:
(a) at the mid-point of the line joining the two charges, and
(b) at a point 10 cm from this midpoint in a plane normal to the
line and passing through the mid-point.
2.15 A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2
has a charge Q.
(a) A charge q is placed at the centre of the shell. What is the
surface charge density on the inner and outer surfaces of the
shell?
(b) Is the electric field inside a cavity (with no charge) zero, even if
the shell is not spherical, but has any irregular shape? Explain.
2.16 (a) Show that the normal component of electrostatic field has a
discontinuity from one side of a charged surface to another
given by
σ
ˆ=
(E2 − E1 ) • n
ε0
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface at a point and
σ is the surface charge density at that point. (The direction of
n̂ is from side 1 to side 2.) Hence, show that just outside a
conductor, the electric field is σ n̂ /ε0.
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electrostatic repulsion if the charge on each is 6.5 × 10–7 C? The
radii of A and B are negligible compared to the distance of
separation.
(b) What is the force of repulsion if each sphere is charged double
the above amount, and the distance between them is halved?
1.13 Suppose the spheres A and B in Exercise 1.12 have identical sizes.
A third sphere of the same size but uncharged is brought in contact
with the first, then brought in contact with the second, and finally
removed from both. What is the new force of repulsion between A
and B?
1.14 Figure 1.33 shows tracks of three charged particles in a uniform
electrostatic field. Give the signs of the three charges. Which particle
has the highest charge to mass ratio?
FIGURE 1.33
1.15 Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 103 î N/C. (a) What is the
flux of this field through a square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is
parallel to the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the same
square if the normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis?
1.16 What is the net flux of the uniform electric field of Exercise 1.15
through a cube of side 20 cm oriented so that its faces are parallel
to the coordinate planes?
1.17 Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black
box indicates that the net outward flux through the surface of the
box is 8.0 × 103 Nm2/C. (a) What is the net charge inside the box?
(b) If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero,
could you conclude that there were no charges inside the box? Why
or Why not?
1.18 A point charge +10 µC is a distance 5 cm directly above the centre
of a square of side 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 1.34. What is the
magnitude of the electric flux through the square? (Hint: Think of
the square as one face of a cube with edge 10 cm.)
FIGURE 1.34 47
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1.19 A point charge of 2.0 µC is at the centre of a cubic Gaussian
surface 9.0 cm on edge. What is the net electric flux through the
surface?
1.20 A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0 × 103 Nm2/C to pass
through a spherical Gaussian surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on
the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were doubled,
how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the
value of the point charge?
1.21 A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If
the electric field 20 cm from the centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C
and points radially inward, what is the net charge on the sphere?
1.22 A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a
surface charge density of 80.0 µC/m2. (a) Find the charge on the
sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of the
sphere?
1.23 An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 104 N/C at a distance
of 2 cm. Calculate the linear charge density.
1.24 Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On
their inner faces, the plates have surface charge densities of opposite
signs and of magnitude 17.0 × 10–22 C/m2. What is E: (a) in the outer
region of the first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate,
and (c) between the plates?
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
1.25 An oil drop of 12 excess electrons is held stationary under a constant
electric field of 2.55 × 104 NC–1 (Millikan’s oil drop experiment). The
density of the oil is 1.26 g cm–3. Estimate the radius of the drop.
(g = 9.81 m s–2; e = 1.60 × 10–19 C).
1.26 Which among the curves shown in Fig. 1.35 cannot possibly
represent electrostatic field lines?
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FIGURE 1.35
1.27 In a certain region of space, electric field is along the z-direction
throughout. The magnitude of electric field is, however, not constant
but increases uniformly along the positive z-direction, at the rate of
105 NC–1 per metre. What are the force and torque experienced by a
system having a total dipole moment equal to 10–7 Cm in the negative
z-direction ?
1.28 (a) A conductor A with a cavity as shown in Fig. 1.36(a) is given a
charge Q. Show that the entire charge must appear on the outer
surface of the conductor. (b) Another conductor B with charge q is
inserted into the cavity keeping B insulated from A. Show that the
total charge on the outside surface of A is Q + q [Fig. 1.36(b)]. (c) A
sensitive instrument is to be shielded from the strong electrostatic
fields in its environment. Suggest a possible way.
FIGURE 1.36
1.29 A hollow charged conductor has a tiny hole cut into its surface.
Show that the electric field in the hole is (σ/2ε0) n̂ , where n̂ is the
unit vector in the outward normal direction, and σ is the surface
charge density near the hole.
1.30 Obtain the formula for the electric field due to a long thin wire of
uniform linear charge density E without using Gauss’s law. [Hint:
Use Coulomb’s law directly and evaluate the necessary integral.]
1.31 It is now believed that protons and neutrons (which constitute nuclei
of ordinary matter) are themselves built out of more elementary units
called quarks. A proton and a neutron consist of three quarks each.
Two types of quarks, the so called ‘up’ quark (denoted by u) of charge
+ (2/3) e, and the ‘down’ quark (denoted by d) of charge (–1/3) e,
together with electrons build up ordinary matter. (Quarks of other
types have also been found which give rise to different unusual
varieties of matter.) Suggest a possible quark composition of a
proton and neutron. 49
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Physics
1.32 (a) Consider an arbitrary electrostatic field configuration. A small
test charge is placed at a null point (i.e., where E = 0) of the
configuration. Show that the equilibrium of the test charge is
necessarily unstable.
(b) Verify this result for the simple configuration of two charges of
the same magnitude and sign placed a certain distance apart.
1.33 A particle of mass m and charge (–q) enters the region between the
two charged plates initially moving along x-axis with speed vx (like
particle 1 in Fig. 1.33). The length of plate is L and an uniform
electric field E is maintained between the plates. Show that the
vertical deflection of the particle at the far edge of the plate is
qEL2/(2m vx2).
Compare this motion with motion of a projectile in gravitational field
discussed in Section 4.10 of Class XI Textbook of Physics.
1.34 Suppose that the particle in Exercise in 1.33 is an electron projected
with velocity vx = 2.0 × 106 m s–1. If E between the plates separated
by 0.5 cm is 9.1 × 102 N/C, where will the electron strike the upper
plate? (|e|=1.6 × 10–19 C, me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg.)
50
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Chapter Two
ELECTROSTATIC
POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapters 6 and 8 (Class XI), the notion of potential energy was
introduced. When an external force does work in taking a body from a
point to another against a force like spring force or gravitational force,
that work gets stored as potential energy of the body. When the external
force is removed, the body moves, gaining kinetic energy and losing
an equal amount of potential energy. The sum of kinetic and
potential energies is thus conserved. Forces of this kind are called
conservative forces. Spring force and gravitational force are examples of
conservative forces.
Coulomb force between two (stationary) charges is also a conservative
force. This is not surprising, since both have inverse-square dependence
on distance and differ mainly in the proportionality constants – the
masses in the gravitational law are replaced by charges in Coulomb’s
law. Thus, like the potential energy of a mass in a gravitational
field, we can define electrostatic potential energy of a charge in an
electrostatic field.
Consider an electrostatic field E due to some charge configuration.
First, for simplicity, consider the field E due to a charge Q placed at the
origin. Now, imagine that we bring a test charge q from a point R to a
point P against the repulsive force on it due to the charge Q. With reference
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to Fig. 2.1, this will happen if Q and q are both positive
or both negative. For definiteness, let us take Q, q > 0.
Two remarks may be made here. First, we assume
that the test charge q is so small that it does not disturb
the original configuration, namely the charge Q at the
origin (or else, we keep Q fixed at the origin by some
FIGURE 2.1 A test charge q (> 0) is unspecified force). Second, in bringing the charge q from
moved from the point R to the R to P, we apply an external force Fext just enough to
point P against the repulsive counter the repulsive electric force FE (i.e, Fext= –FE).
force on it by the charge Q (> 0) This means there is no net force on or acceleration of
placed at the origin. the charge q when it is brought from R to P, i.e., it is
brought with infinitesimally slow constant speed. In
this situation, work done by the external force is the negative of the work
done by the electric force, and gets fully stored in the form of potential
energy of the charge q. If the external force is removed on reaching P, the
electric force will take the charge away from Q – the stored energy (potential
energy) at P is used to provide kinetic energy to the charge q in such a
way that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is conserved.
Thus, work done by external forces in moving a charge q from R to P is
P
= − ∫ FE idr (2.1)
R
This work done is against electrostatic repulsive force and gets stored
as potential energy.
At every point in electric field, a particle with charge q possesses a
certain electrostatic potential energy, this work done increases its potential
energy by an amount equal to potential energy difference between points
R and P.
Thus, potential energy difference
∆U = U P − U R = WRP (2.2)
( Note here that this displacement is in an opposite sense to the electric
force and hence work done by electric field is negative, i.e., –WRP .)
Therefore, we can define electric potential energy difference between
two points as the work required to be done by an external force in moving
(without accelerating ) charge q from one point to another for electric field
of any arbitrary charge configuration.
Two important comments may be made at this stage:
(i) The right side of Eq. (2.2) depends only on the initial and final positions
of the charge. It means that the work done by an electrostatic field in
moving a charge from one point to another depends only on the initial
and the final points and is independent of the path taken to go from
one point to the other. This is the fundamental characteristic of a
conservative force. The concept of the potential energy would not be
meaningful if the work depended on the path. The path-independence
of work done by an electrostatic field can be proved using the
52 Coulomb’s law. We omit this proof here.
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depending on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.
Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10–8 Ωm to 10–6 Ωm. At the
other end are insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having
resistivities 1018 times greater than metals or more. In between the two
are the semiconductors. These, however, have resistivities
characteristically decreasing with a rise in temperature. The resistivities
of semiconductors are also affected by presence of small amount of
impurities. This last feature is exploited in use of semiconductors for
electronic devices.
Conductors
Silver 1.6 × 10–8 0.0041
Copper 1.7 × 10–8 0.0068
Aluminium 2.7 × 10–8 0.0043
Tungsten 5.6 × 10–8 0.0045
Iron 10 × 10–8 0.0065
Platinum 11 × 10–8 0.0039
Mercury 98 × 10–8 0.0009
Nichrome ~100 × 10–8 0.0004
(alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)
Manganin (alloy) 48 × 10–8 0.002 × 10–3
Semiconductors
Carbon (graphite) 3.5 × 10–5 – 0.0005
Germanium 0.46 – 0.05
Silicon 2300 – 0.07
Insulators
Pure Water 2.5 × 105
Glass 1010 – 1014
Hard Rubber 1013 – 1016
NaCl ~1014
Fused Quartz ~1016
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In other words, the electrostatic potential (V )
at any point in a region with electrostatic field is
the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge (without acceleration) from infinity to
that point.
The qualifying remarks made earlier regarding
potential energy also apply to the definition of
potential. To obtain the work done per unit test
charge, we should take an infinitesimal test charge
FIGURE 2.2 Work done on a test charge q δq, obtain the work done δW in bringing it from
by the electrostatic field due to any given infinity to the point and determine the ratio
charge configuration is independent δW/δq. Also, the external force at every point of the
of the path, and depends only on
path is to be equal and opposite to the electrostatic
its initial and final positions.
force on the test charge at that point.
r r
Q Q Q
W = −∫ 2
dr ′ = = (2.7)
∞
4 πε 0r ′ 4 πε 0r ′ ∞ 4 πε 0r
This, by definition is the potential at P due to the charge Q
Q
54 V (r ) = (2.8)
4πε 0r
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Electrostatic Potential
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Equation (2.8) is true for any
sign of the charge Q, though we
considered Q > 0 in its derivation.
For Q < 0, V < 0, i.e., work done (by
the external force) per unit positive
test charge in bringing it from
infinity to the point is negative. This
is equivalent to saying that work
done by the electrostatic force in
bringing the unit positive charge
form infinity to the point P is
positive. [This is as it should be,
since for Q < 0, the force on a unit
positive test charge is attractive, so
that the electrostatic force and the
displacement (from infinity to P) are FIGURE 2.4 Variation of potential V with r [in units of
in the same direction.] Finally, we (Q/4πε0) m-1] (blue curve) and field with r [in units
of (Q/4πε0) m-2] (black curve) for a point charge Q.
note that Eq. (2.8) is consistent with
the choice that potential at infinity
be zero.
Figure (2.4) shows how the electrostatic potential ( ∝ 1/r ) and the
electrostatic field ( ∝ 1/r 2 ) varies with r.
Example 2.1
(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10–7C
located 9 cm away.
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10–9 C
from infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path
along which the charge is brought?
Solution
(a)
= 4 × 104 V
(b) W = qV = 2 × 10–9C × 4 × 104V
= 8 × 10–5 J
EXAMPLE 2.1
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the field falls off, at large distance, not as
1/r 2 (typical of field due to a single charge)
but as 1/r 3. We, now, determine the electric
potential due to a dipole and contrast it
with the potential due to a single charge.
As before, we take the origin at the
centre of the dipole. Now we know that the
electric field obeys the superposition
principle. Since potential is related to the
work done by the field, electrostatic
potential also follows the superposition
principle. Thus, the potential due to the
dipole is the sum of potentials due to the
charges q and –q
1 q q
V = − (2.9)
FIGURE 2.5 Quantities involved in the calculation 4πε 0 r1 r2
of potential due to a dipole.
where r1 and r2 are the distances of the
point P from q and –q, respectively.
Now, by geometry,
r12 = r 2 + a 2 − 2ar cosθ
2a cos θ
≅ r 2 1 − (2.11)
r
Similarly,
2a cos θ
r22 ≅ r 2 1 + (2.12)
r
Using the Binomial theorem and retaining terms upto the first order
in a/r ; we obtain,
− 1/ 2
1 1 2a cos θ 1 a
≅ 1 − ≅ 1 + cos θ [2.13(a)]
r1 r r r r
− 1/ 2
1 1 2a cos θ 1 a
≅ 1 + ≅ 1 − cos θ [2.13(b)]
r2 r r r r
Using Eqs. (2.9) and (2.13) and p = 2qa, we get
q 2acosθ p cos θ
V = = (2.14)
4 πε 0 r2 4 πε 0r 2
56 Now, p cos θ = p.r̂
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1 q1 q 2 q
= + + ...... + n (2.18)
4 πε 0 r1P r2 P rnP
If we have a continuous charge distribution characterised by a charge
density ρ (r), we divide it, as before, into small volume elements each of
size ∆v and carrying a charge ρ ∆v. We then determine the potential due
to each volume element and sum (strictly speaking , integrate) over all
such contributions, and thus determine the potential due to the entire
distribution.
We have seen in Chapter 1 that for a uniformly charged spherical shell,
the electric field outside the shell is as if the entire charge is concentrated
at the centre. Thus, the potential outside the shell is given by
1 q
V = (r ≥ R ) [2.19(a)]
4πε 0 r
where q is the total charge on the shell and R its radius. The electric field
inside the shell is zero. This implies (Section 2.6) that potential is constant
inside the shell (as no work is done in moving a charge inside the shell),
and, therefore, equals its value at the surface, which is
1 q
V = [2.19(b)]
4 πε0 R
FIGURE 2.7
Let P be the required point on the x-axis where the potential is zero.
If x is the x-coordinate of P, obviously x must be positive. (There is no
possibility of potentials due to the two charges adding up to zero for
x < 0.) If x lies between O and A, we have
1 3 × 10–8 2 × 10 –8
− = 0
4 πε 0 x × 10 (15 − x ) × 10 –2
–2
x 15 − x
which gives x = 9 cm.
If x lies on the extended line OA, the required condition is
3 2
− =0
x x − 15
58
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Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
which gives
EXAMPLE 2.2
x = 45 cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the
positive charge on the side of the negative charge. Note that the
formula for potential used in the calculation required choosing
potential to be zero at infinity.
Example 2.3 Figures 2.8 (a) and (b) show the field lines of a positive
and negative point charge respectively.
equipotential-sufaces-12584/
http://video.mit.edu/watch/4-electrostatic-potential-elctric-energy-ev-conservative-field-
Electric potential, equipotential surfaces:
FIGURE 2.8
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Current
Electricity
The last two equations should be the same and hence
ε1r2 + ε 2r1
ε eq = (3.73)
r1 + r2
1 1 1
= + (3.75)
req r1 r2
ε eq ε1 ε2
= + (3.76)
req r1 r2
In Fig. (3.21), we had joined the positive terminals
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
together and similarly the two negative ones, so that the
(1824 – 1887) German
currents I1, I2 flow out of positive terminals. If the negative physicist, professor at
terminal of the second is connected to positive terminal Heidelberg and at
of the first, Eqs. (3.75) and (3.76) would still be valid with Berlin. Mainly known for
ε 2 → –ε2 his development of
Equations (3.75) and (3.76) can be extended easily. spectroscopy, he also
If there are n cells of emf ε1, . . . εn and of internal made many important
resistances r1,... rn respectively, connected in parallel, the contributions to mathe-
combination is equivalent to a single cell of emf εeq and matical physics, among
them, his first and
internal resistance req, such that
second rules for circuits.
1 1 1
= + ... + (3.77)
req r1 rn
εeq ε1 ε
= + ... + n (3.78)
req r1 rn
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Electrostatic Potential
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2.6.1 Relation between field and potential
Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B (Fig. 2.12)
with potential values V and V + δ V, where δ V is the change in V in the
direction of the electric field E. Let P be a point on the
surface B. δ l is the perpendicular distance of the
surface A from P. Imagine that a unit positive charge
is moved along this perpendicular from the surface B
to surface A against the electric field. The work done
in this process is |E|δ l.
This work equals the potential difference
VA–VB.
Thus,
|E|δ l = V – (V + δV )= – δV
δV
i.e., |E|= − (2.20)
δl
Since δV is negative, δV = – |δV|. we can rewrite FIGURE 2.12 From the
Eq (2.20) as potential to the field.
δV δV
E =− =+ (2.21)
δl δl
We thus arrive at two important conclusions concerning the relation
between electric field and potential:
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases
steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential
per unit displacement normal to the equipotential surface at the point.
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where r12 is the distance between points 1 and 2.
Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work gets
stored in the form of potential energy of the system. Thus,
the potential energy of a system of two charges q1 and q2 is
FIGURE 2.13 Potential energy of a 1 q1q 2
system of charges q1 and q2 is
U = (2.22)
4 πε 0 r12
directly proportional to the product
of charges and inversely to the Obviously, if q2 was brought first to its present location and
distance between them. q1 brought later, the potential energy U would be the same.
More generally, the potential energy expression,
Eq. (2.22), is unaltered whatever way the charges are brought to the specified
locations, because of path-independence of work for electrostatic force.
Equation (2.22) is true for any sign of q1and q2. If q1q2 > 0, potential
energy is positive. This is as expected, since for like charges (q1q2 > 0),
electrostatic force is repulsive and a positive amount of work is needed to
be done against this force to bring the charges from infinity to a finite
distance apart. For unlike charges (q1 q2 < 0), the electrostatic force is
attractive. In that case, a positive amount of work is needed against this
force to take the charges from the given location to infinity. In other words,
a negative amount of work is needed for the reverse path (from infinity to
the present locations), so the potential energy is negative.
Equation (2.22) is easily generalised for a system of any number of
point charges. Let us calculate the potential energy of a system of three
charges q1, q2 and q3 located at r1, r2, r3, respectively. To bring q1 first
from infinity to r1, no work is required. Next we bring q2 from infinity to
r2. As before, work done in this step is
1 q1q2
q2V1( r2 ) = (2.23)
4 πε 0 r12
The charges q1 and q2 produce a potential, which at any point P is
given by
1 q1 q 2
V1, 2 = + (2.24)
4 πε 0 r1P r2 P
Work done next in bringing q3 from infinity to the point r3 is q3 times
V1, 2 at r3
1 q1q3 q 2q 3
q3V1, 2 ( r3 ) = + (2.25)
4 πε 0 r13 r23
The total work done in assembling the charges
at the given locations is obtained by adding the work
done in different steps [Eq. (2.23) and Eq. (2.25)],
1 q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3
U = + + (2.26)
FIGURE 2.14 Potential energy of a 4 πε 0 r12 r13 r23
system of three charges is given by Again, because of the conservative nature of the
Eq. (2.26), with the notation given
electrostatic force (or equivalently, the path
in the figure.
independence of work done), the final expression for
U, Eq. (2.26), is independent of the manner in which
62 the configuration is assembled. The potential energy
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Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
is characteristic of the present state of configuration, and not the way
the state is achieved.
FIGURE 2.15
Solution
(a) Since the work done depends on the final arrangement of the
charges, and not on how they are put together, we calculate work
needed for one way of putting the charges at A, B, C and D. Suppose,
first the charge +q is brought to A, and then the charges –q, +q, and
–q are brought to B, C and D, respectively. The total work needed can
be calculated in steps:
(i) Work needed to bring charge +q to A when no charge is present
elsewhere: this is zero.
(ii) Work needed to bring –q to B when +q is at A. This is given by
(charge at B) × (electrostatic potential at B due to charge +q at A)
q q2
= −q × = −
4 πε 0 d 4 πε 0d
(iii) Work needed to bring charge +q to C when +q is at A and –q is at
B. This is given by (charge at C) × (potential at C due to charges
at A and B)
+q −q
= +q +
4 πε 0 d 2 4 πε 0d
−q 2 1
= 1−
4 πε 0 d
2
(iv) Work needed to bring –q to D when +q at A,–q at B, and +q at C.
This is given by (charge at D) × (potential at D due to charges at A,
B and C)
EXAMPLE 2.4
+q −q q
= −q + +
4 πε 0 d 4πε 0d 2 4 πε 0d
−q 2 1
= 2 −
4 πε 0d 2 63
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Add the work done in steps (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv). The total work
required is
−q 2 1 1
= ( 0) + (1) + 1 − + 2 −
4 πε 0 d 2 2
−q 2
=
4 πε 0 d
(4− 2 )
The work done depends only on the arrangement of the charges, and
not how they are assembled. By definition, this is the total
electrostatic energy of the charges.
(Students may try calculating same work/energy by taking charges
in any other order they desire and convince themselves that the energy
will remain the same.)
(b) The extra work necessary to bring a charge q0 to the point E when
EXAMPLE 2.4
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Electrostatic Potential
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(We continue to take potential at infinity to be zero.) Thus, work done in
bringing a charge q from infinity to the point P in the external field is qV.
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of q. If the point P has
position vector r relative to some origin, we can write:
Potential energy of q at r in an external field
= qV (r) (2.27)
where V(r) is the external potential at the point r.
Thus, if an electron with charge q = e = 1.6×10–19 C is accelerated by
a potential difference of ∆V = 1 volt, it would gain energy of q∆V = 1.6 ×
10–19J. This unit of energy is defined as 1 electron volt or 1eV, i.e.,
1 eV=1.6 × 10–19J. The units based on eV are most commonly used in
atomic, nuclear and particle physics, (1 keV = 103eV = 1.6 × 10–16J, 1 MeV
= 106eV = 1.6 × 10–13J, 1 GeV = 109eV = 1.6 × 10–10J and 1 TeV = 1012eV
= 1.6 × 10–7J). [This has already been defined on Page 117, XI Physics
Part I, Table 6.1.]
Example 2.5
EXAMPLE 2.5
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(c) Suppose that the same system of charges is now placed in an
external electric field E = A (1/r 2); A = 9 × 105 C m–2. What would
the electrostatic energy of the configuration be?
Solution
1 q1q2 7 × ( −2) × 10 −12
(a) U = = 9 × 109 × = –0.7 J.
4 πε 0 r 0.18
(b) W = U2 – U1 = 0 – U = 0 – (–0.7) = 0.7 J.
(c) The mutual interaction energy of the two charges remains
unchanged. In addition, there is the energy of interaction of the
two charges with the external electric field. We find,
7 µC −2µC
q1V (r1 ) + q 2V ( r2 ) = A+A
0.09m 0.09m
EXAMPLE 2.5
This work is stored as the potential energy of the system. We can then
associate potential energy U(θ ) with an inclination θ of the dipole. Similar
to other potential energies, there is a freedom in choosing the angle where
the potential energy U is taken to be zero. A natural choice is to take
θ0 = π / 2. (Αn explanation for it is provided towards the end of discussion.)
We can then write,
π
66 U (θ ) = pE cos − cos θ = pE cos θ = − p.E (2.32)
2
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Current
Electricity
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high resistance?
(d) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell
of the potentiometer had an emf of 1.0V instead of 2.0V?
(e) Would the circuit work well for determining an extremely small
emf, say of the order of a few mV (such as the typical emf of a
thermo-couple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?
3.23 Figure 3.34 shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the determination
of internal resistance of a 1.5 V cell. The balance point of the cell in
open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 Ω is used in the external
circuit of the cell, the balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the
potentiometer wire. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
FIGURE 3.34
131
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the situation in this case is more involved – the movement of the charge
carriers is affected both by the external electric field as also by the
so-called chemical forces (see Chapter 3). We shall restrict our discussion
to metallic solid conductors. Let us note important results regarding
electrostatics of conductors.
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electric field normal to the surface exists; this means potential will be
different for the surface and a point just outside the surface.
In a system of conductors of arbitrary size, shape and
charge configuration, each conductor is characterised by a constant
value of potential, but this constant may differ from one conductor to
the other.
σ
E= (2.36)
ε0
Including the fact that electric field is normal to the FIGURE 2.17 The Gaussian surface
surface, we get the vector relation, Eq. (2.35), which (a pill box) chosen to derive Eq. (2.35)
is true for both signs of σ. For σ > 0, electric field is for electric field at the surface of a
normal to the surface outward; for σ < 0, electric field charged conductor.
is normal to the surface inward.
6. Electrostatic shielding
Consider a conductor with a cavity, with no charges inside the cavity. A
remarkable result is that the electric field inside the cavity is zero, whatever
be the size and shape of the cavity and whatever be the charge on the
conductor and the external fields in which it might be placed. We have
proved a simple case of this result already: the electric field inside a charged
spherical shell is zero. The proof of the result for the shell makes use of
the spherical symmetry of the shell (see Chapter 1). But the vanishing of
electric field in the (charge-free) cavity of a conductor is, as mentioned
above, a very general result. A related result is that even if the conductor 69
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is charged or charges are induced on a neutral
conductor by an external field, all charges reside
only on the outer surface of a conductor with cavity.
The proofs of the results noted in Fig. 2.18 are
omitted here, but we note their important
implication. Whatever be the charge and field
configuration outside, any cavity in a conductor
remains shielded from outside electric influence: the
field inside the cavity is always zero. This is known
as electrostatic shielding. The effect can be made
use of in protecting sensitive instruments from
FIGURE 2.18 The electric field inside a
outside electrical influence. Figure 2.19 gives a
cavity of any conductor is zero. All
summary of the important electrostatic properties
charges reside only on the outer surface
of a conductor with cavity. (There are no of a conductor.
charges placed in the cavity.)
Example 2.7
(a) A comb run through one’s dry hair attracts small bits of paper.
Why?
What happens if the hair is wet or if it is a rainy day? (Remember,
a paper does not conduct electricity.)
(b) Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But special rubber tyres of
aircraft are made slightly conducting. Why is this necessary?
(c) Vehicles carrying inflammable materials usually have metallic
ropes touching the ground during motion. Why?
(d) A bird perches on a bare high power line, and nothing happens
to the bird. A man standing on the ground touches the same line
and gets a fatal shock. Why?
Solution
EXAMPLE 2.7
(a) This is because the comb gets charged by friction. The molecules
in the paper gets polarised by the charged comb, resulting in a
net force of attraction. If the hair is wet, or if it is rainy day, friction
between hair and the comb reduces. The comb does not get
charged and thus it will not attract small bits of paper.
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EXAMPLE 2.7
ground; as too much of static electricity accumulated may result
in spark and result in fire.
(c) Reason similar to (b).
(d) Current passes only when there is difference in potential.
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In an external electric field, the
positive and negative charges of a non-
polar molecule are displaced in opposite
directions. The displacement stops when
the external force on the constituent
charges of the molecule is balanced by
the restoring force (due to internal fields
in the molecule). The non-polar molecule
thus develops an induced dipole moment.
The dielectric is said to be polarised by
the external field. We consider only the
simple situation when the induced dipole
moment is in the direction of the field and
is proportional to the field strength.
(Substances for which this assumption
is true are called linear isotropic
dielectrics.) The induced dipole moments
of different molecules add up giving a net
dipole moment of the dielectric in the
presence of the external field.
A dielectric with polar molecules also
develops a net dipole moment in an
external field, but for a different reason.
FIGURE 2.22 A dielectric develops a net dipole In the absence of any external field, the
moment in an external electric field. (a) Non-polar different permanent dipoles are oriented
molecules, (b) Polar molecules.
randomly due to thermal agitation; so
the total dipole moment is zero. When
an external field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align
with the field. When summed overall the molecules, there is then a net
dipole moment in the direction of the external field, i.e., the dielectric is
polarised. The extent of polarisation depends on the relative strength of
two mutually opposite factors: the dipole potential energy in the external
field tending to align the dipoles with the field and thermal energy tending
to disrupt the alignment. There may be, in addition, the ‘induced dipole
moment’ effect as for non-polar molecules, but generally the alignment
effect is more important for polar molecules.
Thus in either case, whether polar or non-polar, a dielectric develops
a net dipole moment in the presence of an external field. The dipole
moment per unit volume is called polarisation and is denoted by P. For
linear isotropic dielectrics,
P = χe E (2.37)
where χe is a constant characteristic of the dielectric and is known as the
electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
It is possible to relate χe to the molecular properties of the substance,
but we shall not pursue that here.
The question is: how does the polarised dielectric modify the original
external field inside it? Let us consider, for simplicity, a rectangular
dielectric slab placed in a uniform external field E0 parallel to two of its
72 faces. The field causes a uniform polarisation P of the dielectric. Thus
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Electrostatic Potential
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every volume element ∆v of the slab has a dipole moment
P ∆v in the direction of the field. The volume element ∆v is
macroscopically small but contains a very large number of
molecular dipoles. Anywhere inside the dielectric, the
volume element ∆v has no net charge (though it has net
dipole moment). This is, because, the positive charge of one
dipole sits close to the negative charge of the adjacent dipole.
However, at the surfaces of the dielectric normal to the
electric field, there is evidently a net charge density. As seen
in Fig 2.23, the positive ends of the dipoles remain
unneutralised at the right surface and the negative ends at
the left surface. The unbalanced charges are the induced
charges due to the external field.
Thus, the polarised dielectric is equivalent to two charged
surfaces with induced surface charge densities, say σp
and –σp. Clearly, the field produced by these surface charges
opposes the external field. The total field in the dielectric FIGURE 2.23 A uniformly
is, thereby, reduced from the case when no dielectric is polarised dielectric amounts
present. We should note that the surface charge density to induced surface charge
±σp arises from bound (not free charges) in the dielectric. density, but no volume
charge density.
2.11 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator
(Fig. 2.24). The conductors have charges, say Q1 and Q2, and potentials
V1 and V2. Usually, in practice, the two conductors have charges Q
and – Q, with potential difference V = V1 – V2 between them. We shall
consider only this kind of charge configuration of the capacitor. (Even a
single conductor can be used as a capacitor by assuming the other at
infinity.) The conductors may be so charged by connecting them to the
two terminals of a battery. Q is called the charge of the capacitor, though
this, in fact, is the charge on one of the conductors – the total charge of
the capacitor is zero.
The electric field in the region between the
conductors is proportional to the charge Q. That
is, if the charge on the capacitor is, say doubled,
the electric field will also be doubled at every point.
(This follows from the direct proportionality
between field and charge implied by Coulomb’s
law and the superposition principle.) Now,
potential difference V is the work done per unit
positive charge in taking a small test charge from
the conductor 2 to 1 against the field. FIGURE 2.24 A system of two conductors
Consequently, V is also proportional to Q, and the separated by an insulator forms a capacitor.
ratio Q/V is a constant:
Q
C= (2.38)
V
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. C is independent
of Q or V, as stated above. The capacitance C depends only on the 73
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geometrical configuration (shape, size, separation) of the system of two
conductors. [As we shall see later, it also depends on the nature of the
insulator (dielectric) separating the two conductors.] The SI unit of
capacitance is 1 farad (=1 coulomb volt-1) or 1 F = 1 C V –1. A capacitor
with fixed capacitance is symbolically shown as ---||---, while the one with
variable capacitance is shown as .
Equation (2.38) shows that for large C, V is small for a given Q. This
means a capacitor with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge
Q at a relatively small V. This is of practical importance. High potential
difference implies strong electric field around the conductors. A strong
electric field can ionise the surrounding air and accelerate the charges so
produced to the oppositely charged plates, thereby neutralising the charge
on the capacitor plates, at least partly. In other words, the charge of the
capacitor leaks away due to the reduction in insulating power of the
intervening medium.
The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its dielectric
strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1. For a separation between
conductors of the order of 1 cm or so, this field corresponds to a potential
difference of 3 × 104 V between the conductors. Thus, for a capacitor to
store a large amount of charge without leaking, its capacitance should
be high enough so that the potential difference and hence the electric
field do not exceed the break-down limits. Put differently, there is a limit
to the amount of charge that can be stored on a given capacitor without
significant leaking. In practice, a farad is a very big unit; the most common
units are its sub-multiples 1 µF = 10–6 F, 1 nF = 10–9 F, 1 pF = 10–12 F,
etc. Besides its use in storing charge, a capacitor is a key element of most
ac circuits with important functions, as described in Chapter 7.
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Moving Charges and
Magnetism
µ0 IR 2
B=
2x 3
Note that the area of the loop A = πR2. Thus,
µ0 IA
B=
2 πx 3
As earlier, we define the magnetic moment m to have a magnitude IA,
m = I A. Hence,
µ m
B; 0 3
2πx
µ0 2 m
= [4.31(a)]
4π x 3
The expression of Eq. [4.31(a)] is very similar to an expression obtained
earlier for the electric field of a dipole. The similarity may be seen if we
substitute,
µ0 → 1/ ε 0
m → pe (electrostatic dipole)
B → E (electrostatic field)
We then obtain,
2pe
E=
4 π ε0 x 3
which is precisely the field for an electric dipole at a point on its axis.
considered in Chapter 1, Section 1.10 [Eq. (1.20)].
It can be shown that the above analogy can be carried further. We
had found in Chapter 1 that the electric field on the perpendicular bisector
of the dipole is given by [See Eq.(1.21)],
pe
E;
4πε0 x 3
where x is the distance from the dipole. If we replace p à m and µ0 → 1/ ε 0
in the above expression, we obtain the result for B for a point in the
plane of the loop at a distance x from the centre. For x >>R,
µ0 m
B; ; x >> R [4.31(b)]
4π x 3
The results given by Eqs. [4.31(a)] and [4.31(b)] become exact for a
point magnetic dipole.
The results obtained above can be shown to apply to any planar loop:
a planar current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of dipole moment
m = I A, which is the analogue of electric dipole moment p. Note, however,
a fundamental difference: an electric dipole is built up of two elementary
units — the charges (or electric monopoles). In magnetism, a magnetic
dipole (or a current loop) is the most elementary element. The equivalent
of electric charges, i.e., magnetic monopoles, are not known to exist.
We have shown that a current loop (i) produces a magnetic field (see
Fig. 4.12) and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large distances, and 161
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and the potential difference V0 is
V0 = E0d
The capacitance C0 in this case is
Q A
C0 = = ε0 (2.46)
V0 d
Consider next a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying
the intervening region. The dielectric is polarised by the field and, as
explained in Section 2.10, the effect is equivalent to two charged sheets
(at the surfaces of the dielectric normal to the field) with surface charge
densities σp and –σp. The electric field in the dielectric then corresponds
to the case when the net surface charge density on the plates is ±(σ – σp ).
That is,
σ − σP
E= (2.47)
ε0
so that the potential difference across the plates is
σ − σP
V = Ed = d (2.48)
ε0
For linear dielectrics, we expect σp to be proportional to E0, i.e., to σ.
Thus, (σ – σp ) is proportional to σ and we can write
σ
σ − σP = (2.49)
K
where K is a constant characteristic of the dielectric. Clearly, K > 1. We
then have
σd Qd
V = = (2.50)
ε0 K Aε0 K
The capacitance C, with dielectric between the plates, is then
Q ε 0 KA
C= = (2.51)
V d
The product ε0K is called the permittivity of the medium and is
denoted by ε
ε = ε0 K (2.52)
For vacuum K = 1 and ε = ε0; ε0 is called the permittivity of the vacuum.
The dimensionless ratio
ε
K= (2.53)
ε0
is called the dielectric constant of the substance. As remarked before,
from Eq. (2.49), it is clear that K is greater than 1. From Eqs. (2.46) and
(2. 51)
C
K = (2.54)
C0
Thus, the dielectric constant of a substance is the factor (>1) by which
the capacitance increases from its vacuum value, when the dielectric is
76 inserted fully between the plates of a capacitor. Though we arrived at
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and Capacitance
Eq. (2.54) for the case of a parallel plate capacitor, it holds good for any
type of capacitor and can, in fact, be viewed in general as a definition of
the dielectric constant of a substance.
ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT
We have introduced the notion of dielectric constant and arrived at Eq. (2.54), without
giving the explicit relation between the induced charge density σp and the polarisation P.
We take without proof the result that
ˆ
σ P = P in
where n̂ is a unit vector along the outward normal to the surface. Above equation is
general, true for any shape of the dielectric. For the slab in Fig. 2.23, P is along n̂ at the
right surface and opposite to n̂ at the left surface. Thus at the right surface, induced
charge density is positive and at the left surface, it is negative, as guessed already in our
qualitative discussion before. Putting the equation for electric field in vector form
ˆ
σ − P in
ˆ=
E in
ε0
or (ε0 E + P) i n̂ =σ
The quantity ε0 E + P is called the electric displacement and is denoted by D. It is a
vector quantity. Thus,
D = ε0 E + P, D i n̂ = σ,
The significance of D is this : in vacuum, E is related to the free charge density σ.
When a dielectric medium is present, the corresponding role is taken up by D. For a
dielectric medium, it is D not E that is directly related to free charge density σ, as seen in
above equation. Since P is in the same direction as E, all the three vectors P, E and D are
parallel.
The ratio of the magnitudes of D and E is
D σε 0
= = ε0 K
E σ − σP
Thus,
D = ε0 K E
and P = D –ε0E = ε0 (K –1)E
This gives for the electric susceptibility χe defined in Eq. (2.37)
χe =ε0 (K–1)
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1 E 3
V = E0( d ) + 0 ( d )
4 K 4
1 3 K +3
= E 0d ( + ) = V0
EXAMPLE 2.8 4 4K 4K
The potential difference decreases by the factor (K + 3)/K while the
free charge Q0 on the plates remains unchanged. The capacitance
thus increases
Q 4K Q0 4K
C= 0 = = C0
V K + 3 V0 K +3
V 1 1
i.e., Q = C + C , (2.56)
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The proof clearly goes through for any number of
capacitors arranged in a similar way. Equation (2.55),
for n capacitors arranged in series, generalises to
Q Q Q
V = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = + + ... + (2.59)
C1 C 2 Cn
Following the same steps as for the case of two
capacitors, we get the general formula for effective
capacitance of a series combination of n capacitors:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + (2.60)
C C1 C2 C3 Cn
FIGURE 2.29 79
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Physics
Solution
(a) In the given network, C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series. The
effective capacitance C′ of these three capacitors is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
C ′ C1 C2 C3
For C1 = C2 = C3 = 10 µF, C′ = (10/3) µF. The network has C′ and C4
connected in parallel. Thus, the equivalent capacitance C of the
network is
10
C = C′ + C4 = + 10 µF =13.3µF
3
(b) Clearly, from the figure, the charge on each of the capacitors, C1,
C2 and C3 is the same, say Q. Let the charge on C4 be Q′. Now, since
the potential difference across AB is Q/C1, across BC is Q/C2, across
CD is Q/C3 , we have
Q Q Q
+ + = 500 V .
C1 C2 C3
Also, Q′/C4 = 500 V.
EXAMPLE 2.9
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Since δ Q′ can be made as small as we like, Eq. (2.68) can be written as
1
δW = [(Q ′ + δ Q ′ )2 − Q ′ 2 ] (2.69)
2C
Equations (2.68) and (2.69) are identical because the term of second
order in δ Q′, i.e., δ Q′ 2/2C, is negligible, since δ Q′ is arbitrarily small. The
total work done (W ) is the sum of the small work (δ W ) over the very large
number of steps involved in building the charge Q′ from zero to Q.
W = ∑ δW
sum over all steps
1
= ∑ 2C
[(Q ′ + δ Q ′ )2 − Q ′2 ] (2.70)
sum over all steps
1
= [{δ Q ′ 2 − 0} + {(2δ Q ′ )2 − δ Q ′ 2 } + {(3 δ Q ′ )2 − (2 δ Q ′ )2 } + ...
2C
+ {Q 2 − (Q − δ Q )2 }] (2.71)
1 Q2
= [Q 2 − 0] = (2.72)
2C 2C
The same result can be obtained directly from Eq. (2.68) by integration
Q Q
Q′ 1 Q ′2 Q2
W =∫ δQ’ = =
0
C C 2 0
2C
This is not surprising since integration is nothing but summation of
a large number of small terms.
We can write the final result, Eq. (2.72) in different ways
Q2 1 1
W = = CV 2 = QV (2.73)
2C 2 2
Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work is stored in the form
of potential energy of the system. For the same reason, the final result for
potential energy [Eq. (2.73)] is independent of the manner in which the
charge configuration of the capacitor is built up. When the capacitor
discharges, this stored-up energy is released. It is possible to view the
potential energy of the capacitor as ‘stored’ in the electric field between
the plates. To see this, consider for simplicity, a parallel plate capacitor
[of area A (of each plate) and separation d between the plates].
Energy stored in the capacitor
1 Q 2 ( Aσ )2 d
= = × (2.74)
2 C 2 ε0 A
The surface charge density σ is related to the electric field E between
the plates,
σ
E= (2.75)
ε0
From Eqs. (2.74) and (2.75) , we get
Energy stored in the capacitor
U = (1/ 2) ε 0 E 2 × A d (2.76) 81
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Note that Ad is the volume of the region between the plates (where
electric field alone exists). If we define energy density as energy stored
per unit volume of space, Eq (2.76) shows that
Energy density of electric field,
u =(1/2)ε0E 2 (2.77)
Though we derived Eq. (2.77) for the case of a parallel plate capacitor,
the result on energy density of an electric field is, in fact, very general and
holds true for electric field due to any configuration of charges.
FIGURE 2.31
Solution
(a) The charge on the capacitor is
Q = CV = 900 × 10–12 F × 100 V = 9 × 10–8 C
The energy stored by the capacitor is
= (1/2) CV 2 = (1/2) QV
EXAMPLE 2.10
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and Capacitance
EXAMPLE 2.10
energy gone?
There is a transient period before the system settles to the
situation (b). During this period, a transient current flows from
the first capacitor to the second. Energy is lost during this time
in the form of heat and electromagnetic radiation.
SUMMARY
1 q1 q 2 q
V = ( + + ... + n )
4 πε 0 r1P r2P rnP
where r1P is the distance between q1 and P, as and so on.
5. An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential has a constant
value. For a point charge, concentric spheres centred at a location of the
charge are equipotential surfaces. The electric field E at a point is
perpendicular to the equipotential surface through the point. E is in the
direction of the steepest decrease of potential.
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6. Potential energy stored in a system of charges is the work done (by an
external agency) in assembling the charges at their locations. Potential
energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
1 q1 q2
U =
4 πε 0 r12
where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
10. If the medium between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulating
substance (dielectric), the electric field due to the charged plates induces
a net dipole moment in the dielectric. This effect, called polarisation,
gives rise to a field in the opposite direction. The net electric field inside
the dielectric and hence the potential difference between the plates is
thus reduced. Consequently, the capacitance C increases from its value
C0 when there is no medium (vacuum),
C = KC0
11. For capacitors in the series combination, the total capacitance C is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
C C1 C2 C 3
In the parallel combination, the total capacitance C is:
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
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1 1 1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
2 2 2 C
The electric energy density (energy per unit volume) in a region with
electric field is (1/2)ε0E2.
POINTS TO PONDER
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The situation is radically different for magnetic fields
which are continuous and form closed loops. Examine the
Gaussian surfaces represented by i or ii in Fig 5.3(a) or
Fig. 5.3(b). Both cases visually demonstrate that the
number of magnetic field lines leaving the surface is
balanced by the number of lines entering it. The net
magnetic flux is zero for both the surfaces. This is true
for any closed surface.
KARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (1777 – 1855)
Example 5.6 Many of the diagrams given in Fig. 5.7 show magnetic
field lines (thick lines in the figure) wrongly. Point out what is wrong
with them. Some of them may describe electrostatic field lines correctly.
Point out which ones.
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2.9 Explain what would happen if in the capacitor given in Exercise
2.8, a 3 mm thick mica sheet (of dielectric constant = 6) were inserted
between the plates,
(a) while the voltage supply remained connected.
(b) after the supply was disconnected.
2.10 A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much
electrostatic energy is stored in the capacitor?
2.11 A 600pF capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It is then
disconnected from the supply and is connected to another
uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost
in the process?
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
2.12 A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in
taking a small charge of –2 × 10–9 C from a point P (0, 0, 3 cm) to a
point Q (0, 4 cm, 0), via a point R (0, 6 cm, 9 cm).
2.13 A cube of side b has a charge q at each of its vertices. Determine the
potential and electric field due to this charge array at the centre of
the cube.
2.14 Two tiny spheres carrying charges 1.5 µC and 2.5 µC are located 30 cm
apart. Find the potential and electric field:
(a) at the mid-point of the line joining the two charges, and
(b) at a point 10 cm from this midpoint in a plane normal to the
line and passing through the mid-point.
2.15 A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2
has a charge Q.
(a) A charge q is placed at the centre of the shell. What is the
surface charge density on the inner and outer surfaces of the
shell?
(b) Is the electric field inside a cavity (with no charge) zero, even if
the shell is not spherical, but has any irregular shape? Explain.
2.16 (a) Show that the normal component of electrostatic field has a
discontinuity from one side of a charged surface to another
given by
σ
ˆ=
(E2 − E1 ) • n
ε0
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface at a point and
σ is the surface charge density at that point. (The direction of
n̂ is from side 1 to side 2.) Hence, show that just outside a
conductor, the electric field is σ n̂ /ε0.
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(b) Show that the tangential component of electrostatic field is
continuous from one side of a charged surface to another.
[Hint: For (a), use Gauss’s law. For, (b) use the fact that work
done by electrostatic field on a closed loop is zero.]
2.17 A long charged cylinder of linear charged density λ is surrounded
by a hollow co-axial conducting cylinder. What is the electric field in
the space between the two cylinders?
2.18 In a hydrogen atom, the electron and proton are bound at a distance
of about 0.53 Å:
(a) Estimate the potential energy of the system in eV, taking the
zero of the potential energy at infinite separation of the electron
from proton.
(b) What is the minimum work required to free the electron, given
that its kinetic energy in the orbit is half the magnitude of
potential energy obtained in (a)?
(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) above if the zero of potential
energy is taken at 1.06 Å separation?
2.19 If one of the two electrons of a H2 molecule is removed, we get a
hydrogen molecular ion H+2. In the ground state of an H+2, the two
protons are separated by roughly 1.5 Å, and the electron is roughly
1 Å from each proton. Determine the potential energy of the system.
Specify your choice of the zero of potential energy.
2.20 Two charged conducting spheres of radii a and b are connected to
each other by a wire. What is the ratio of electric fields at the surfaces
of the two spheres? Use the result obtained to explain why charge
density on the sharp and pointed ends of a conductor is higher
than on its flatter portions.
2.21 Two charges –q and +q are located at points (0, 0, –a) and (0, 0, a),
respectively.
(a) What is the electrostatic potential at the points (0, 0, z) and
(x, y, 0) ?
(b) Obtain the dependence of potential on the distance r of a point
from the origin when r/a >> 1.
(c) How much work is done in moving a small test charge from the
point (5,0,0) to (–7,0,0) along the x-axis? Does the answer
change if the path of the test charge between the same points
is not along the x-axis?
2.22 Figure 2.32 shows a charge array known as an electric quadrupole.
For a point on the axis of the quadrupole, obtain the dependence
of potential on r for r/a >> 1, and contrast your results with that
due to an electric dipole, and an electric monopole (i.e., a single
charge).
88
FIGURE 2.32
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2.23 An electrical technician requires a capacitance of 2 µF in a circuit
across a potential difference of 1 kV. A large number of 1 µF capacitors
are available to him each of which can withstand a potential
difference of not more than 400 V. Suggest a possible arrangement
that requires the minimum number of capacitors.
2.24 What is the area of the plates of a 2 F parallel plate capacitor, given
that the separation between the plates is 0.5 cm? [You will realise
from your answer why ordinary capacitors are in the range of µF or
less. However, electrolytic capacitors do have a much larger
capacitance (0.1 F) because of very minute separation between the
conductors.]
2.25 Obtain the equivalent capacitance of the network in Fig. 2.33. For a
300 V supply, determine the charge and voltage across each
capacitor.
FIGURE 2.33
2.26 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 90 cm2 each
and are separated by 2.5 mm. The capacitor is charged by
connecting it to a 400 V supply.
(a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by the capacitor?
(b) View this energy as stored in the electrostatic field between
the plates, and obtain the energy per unit volume u. Hence
arrive at a relation between u and the magnitude of electric
field E between the plates.
2.27 A 4 µF capacitor is charged by a 200 V supply. It is then disconnected
from the supply, and is connected to another uncharged 2 µF
capacitor. How much electrostatic energy of the first capacitor is
lost in the form of heat and electromagnetic radiation?
2.28 Show that the force on each plate of a parallel plate capacitor has a
magnitude equal to (½) QE, where Q is the charge on the capacitor,
and E is the magnitude of electric field between the plates. Explain
the origin of the factor ½.
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2.29 A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spherical conductors,
held in position by suitable insulating supports (Fig. 2.34). Show
that the capacitance of a spherical capacitor is given by
4 πε 0 r1r2
C=
r1 – r2
FIGURE 2.34
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(e) We know that electric field is discontinuous across the surface
of a charged conductor. Is electric potential also discontinuous
there?
(f ) What meaning would you give to the capacitance of a single
conductor?
(g) Guess a possible reason why water has a much greater
dielectric constant (= 80) than say, mica (= 6).
2.32 A cylindrical capacitor has two co-axial cylinders of length 15 cm
and radii 1.5 cm and 1.4 cm. The outer cylinder is earthed and the
inner cylinder is given a charge of 3.5 µC. Determine the capacitance
of the system and the potential of the inner cylinder. Neglect end
effects (i.e., bending of field lines at the ends).
2.33 A parallel plate capacitor is to be designed with a voltage rating
1 kV, using a material of dielectric constant 3 and dielectric strength
about 107 Vm–1. (Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field a
material can tolerate without breakdown, i.e., without starting to
conduct electricity through partial ionisation.) For safety, we should
like the field never to exceed, say 10% of the dielectric strength.
What minimum area of the plates is required to have a capacitance
of 50 pF?
2.34 Describe schematically the equipotential surfaces corresponding to
(a) a constant electric field in the z-direction,
(b) a field that uniformly increases in magnitude but remains in a
constant (say, z) direction,
(c) a single positive charge at the origin, and
(d) a uniform grid consisting of long equally spaced parallel charged
wires in a plane.
2.35 A small sphere of radius r1 and charge q1 is enclosed by a spherical
shell of radius r2 and charge q2. Show that if q1 is positive, charge
will necessarily flow from the sphere to the shell (when the two are
connected by a wire) no matter what the charge q2 on the shell is.
2.36 Answer the following:
(a) The top of the atmosphere is at about 400 kV with respect to
the surface of the earth, corresponding to an electric field that
decreases with altitude. Near the surface of the earth, the field
is about 100 Vm–1. Why then do we not get an electric shock as
we step out of our house into the open? (Assume the house to
be a steel cage so there is no field inside!)
(b) A man fixes outside his house one evening a two metre high
insulating slab carrying on its top a large aluminium sheet of
area 1m2. Will he get an electric shock if he touches the metal
sheet next morning?
(c) The discharging current in the atmosphere due to the small
conductivity of air is known to be 1800 A on an average over
91
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TABLE 5.3
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
5.6.1 Diamagnetism
Diamagnetic substances are those which have tendency to move from
stronger to the weaker part of the external magnetic field. In other words,
unlike the way a magnet attracts metals like iron, it would repel a
diamagnetic substance.
Figure 5.12(a) shows a bar of diamagnetic material placed in an external
magnetic field. The field lines are repelled or expelled and the field inside
the material is reduced. In most cases, as is evident from
Table 5.2, this reduction is slight, being one part in 105. When placed in a
non-uniform magnetic field, the bar will tend to move from high to low field.
The simplest explanation for diamagnetism is as follows. Electrons in
an atom orbiting around nucleus possess orbital angular momentum.
These orbiting electrons are equivalent to current-carrying loop and thus
possess orbital magnetic moment. Diamagnetic substances are the ones
in which resultant magnetic moment in an atom is zero. When magnetic
field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the
same direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up.
This happens due to induced current in accordance with Lenz’s law which
you will study in Chapter 6. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic
FIGURE 5.12
moment in direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence
Behaviour of repulsion.
magnetic field lines Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, lead, silicon,
near a nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride. Diamagnetism is present
(a) diamagnetic, in all the substances. However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it
(b) paramagnetic gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc.
substance. The most exotic diamagnetic materials are superconductors. These
are metals, cooled to very low temperatures which exhibits both perfect
conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are completely
expelled! χ = –1 and µr = 0. A superconductor repels a magnet and (by
Newton’s third law) is repelled by the magnet. The phenomenon of perfect
diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect, after the
name of its discoverer. Superconducting magnets can be gainfully
exploited in variety of situations, for example, for running magnetically
levitated superfast trains.
5.6.2 Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have tendency to move from a
region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get weakly
192 attracted to a magnet.
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Matter
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material
possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment of their own. On account
of the ceaseless random thermal motion of the atoms, no net magnetisation
is seen. In the presence of an external field B0, which is strong enough,
and at low temperatures, the individual atomic dipole moment can be
made to align and point in the same direction as B0. Figure 5.12(b) shows
MagParticle/Physics/MagneticMatls.htm
http://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/
Magnetic materials, domain, etc.:
a bar of paramagnetic material placed in an external field. The field lines
gets concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced. In
most cases, as is evident from Table 5.2, this enhancement is slight, being
one part in 105. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the bar
will tend to move from weak field to strong.
Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium,
oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride. Experimentally, one finds that the
magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature T ,
B0
M =C [5.20(a)]
T
or equivalently, using Eqs. (5.12) and (5.17)
µ0
χ =C [5.20(b)]
T
This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pieree Curie (1859-
1906). The constant C is called Curie’s constant. Thus, for a paramagnetic
material both χ and µr depend not only on the material, but also
(in a simple fashion) on the sample temperature. As the field is
increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetisation increases until
it reaches the saturation value Ms, at which point all the dipoles are
perfectly aligned with the field. Beyond this, Curie’s law [Eq. (5.20)] is no
longer valid.
5.6.3 Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have strong tendency to move
from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get
strongly attracted to a magnet.
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material
possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic material. However, they
interact with one another in such a way that they spontaneously align
themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called
domain. The explanation of this cooperative effect requires quantum
mechanics and is beyond the scope of this textbook. Each domain has a
net magnetisation. Typical domain size is 1mm and the domain contains
about 1011 atoms. In the first instant, the magnetisation varies randomly
from domain to domain and there is no bulk magnetisation. This is shown FIGURE 5.13
in Fig. 5.13(a). When we apply an external magnetic field B0, the domains (a) Randomly
orient themselves in the direction of B0 and simultaneously the domain oriented domains,
oriented in the direction of B0 grow in size. This existence of domains and (b) Aligned domains.
their motion in B0 are not speculations. One may observe this under a
microscope after sprinkling a liquid suspension of powdered 193
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and the quotient
q
I= (3.1)
t
is defined to be the current across the area in the forward direction. (If it
turn out to be a negative number, it implies a current in the backward
direction.)
Currents are not always steady and hence more generally, we define
the current as follows. Let ∆Q be the net charge flowing across a cross-
section of a conductor during the time interval ∆t [i.e., between times t
and (t + ∆t)]. Then, the current at time t across the cross-section of the
conductor is defined as the value of the ratio of ∆Q to ∆t in the limit of ∆t
tending to zero,
∆Q
I (t ) ≡ lim (3.2)
∆t
∆t → 0
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number of electrons travelling in any direction will be equal to the number
of electrons travelling in the opposite direction. So, there will be no net
electric current.
Let us now see what happens to such a
piece of conductor if an electric field is applied.
To focus our thoughts, imagine the conductor
in the shape of a cylinder of radius R (Fig. 3.1).
Suppose we now take two thin circular discs FIGURE 3.1 Charges +Q and –Q put at the ends
of a dielectric of the same radius and put of a metallic cylinder. The electrons will drift
positive charge +Q distributed over one disc because of the electric field created to
and similarly –Q at the other disc. We attach neutralise the charges. The current thus
the two discs on the two flat surfaces of the will stop after a while unless the charges +Q
cylinder. An electric field will be created and and –Q are continuously replenished.
is directed from the positive towards the
negative charge. The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards
+Q. They will thus move to neutralise the charges. The electrons, as long
as they are moving, will constitute an electric current. Hence in the
situation considered, there will be a current for a very short while and no
current thereafter.
We can also imagine a mechanism where the ends of the cylinder are
supplied with fresh charges to make up for any charges neutralised by
electrons moving inside the conductor. In that case, there will be a steady
electric field in the body of the conductor. This will result in a continuous
current rather than a current for a short period of time. Mechanisms,
which maintain a steady electric field are cells or batteries that we shall
study later in this chapter. In the next sections, we shall study the steady
current that results from a steady electric field in conductors.
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EXERCISES
5.1 Answer the following questions regarding earth’s magnetism:
(a) A vector needs three quantities for its specification. Name the
three independent quantities conventionally used to specify the
earth’s magnetic field.
(b) The angle of dip at a location in southern India is about 18°.
Would you expect a greater or smaller dip angle in Britain?
(c) If you made a map of magnetic field lines at Melbourne in
Australia, would the lines seem to go into the ground or come out
of the ground?
(d) In which direction would a compass free to move in the vertical
plane point to, if located right on the geomagnetic north or south
pole?
(e) The earth’s field, it is claimed, roughly approximates the field
due to a dipole of magnetic moment 8 × 1022 J T–1 located at its
centre. Check the order of magnitude of this number in some
way.
(f ) Geologists claim that besides the main magnetic N-S poles, there
are several local poles on the earth’s surface oriented in different
directions. How is such a thing possible at all?
5.2 Answer the following questions:
(a) The earth’s magnetic field varies from point to point in space.
Does it also change with time? If so, on what time scale does it
change appreciably?
(b) The earth’s core is known to contain iron. Yet geologists do not
regard this as a source of the earth’s magnetism. Why?
(c) The charged currents in the outer conducting regions of the
earth’s core are thought to be responsible for earth’s magnetism.
What might be the ‘battery’ (i.e., the source of energy) to sustain
these currents?
(d) The earth may have even reversed the direction of its field several
times during its history of 4 to 5 billion years. How can geologists
know about the earth’s field in such distant past?
(e) The earth’s field departs from its dipole shape substantially at
large distances (greater than about 30,000 km). What agencies
may be responsible for this distortion?
(f ) Interstellar space has an extremely weak magnetic field of the
order of 10–12 T. Can such a weak field be of any significant
consequence? Explain.
[Note: Exercise 5.2 is meant mainly to arouse your curiosity.
Answers to some questions above are tentative or unknown. Brief
answers wherever possible are given at the end. For details, you
should consult a good text on geomagnetism.]
5.3 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with a uniform external
magnetic field of 0.25 T experiences a torque of magnitude equal to
4.5 × 10–2 J. What is the magnitude of magnetic moment of the magnet?
5.4 A short bar magnet of magnetic moment m = 0.32 J T –1 is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T. If the bar is free to rotate in the
plane of the field, which orientation would correspond to its (a) stable,
and (b) unstable equilibrium? What is the potential energy of the
200 magnet in each case?
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El=jρl
or, E = j ρ (3.11)
The above relation for magnitudes E and j can indeed be cast in a
vector form. The current density, (which we have defined as the current
through unit area normal to the current) is also directed along E, and is
≡ j E/E). Thus, the last equation can be written as,
also a vector j (≡
E = jρ (3.12)
or, j = σ E (3.13)
where σ ≡1/ρ is called the conductivity. Ohm’s law is often stated in an
equivalent form, Eq. (3.13) in addition to Eq.(3.3). In the next section, we
will try to understand the origin of the Ohm’s law as arising from the
characteristics of the drift of electrons.
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time more than τ and some less than τ. In other words, the time ti in
Eq. (3.16) will be less than τ for some and more than τ for others as we go
through the values of i = 1, 2 ..... N. The average value of ti then is τ
(known as relaxation time). Thus, averaging Eq. (3.16) over the
N-electrons at any given time t gives us for the average velocity vd
eE
v d ≡ ( Vi )average = (v i )average − (t i )average
m
eE eE
=0– τ =− τ (3.17)
m m
This last result is surprising. It tells us that the
electrons move with an average velocity which is
independent of time, although electrons are
accelerated. This is the phenomenon of drift and the
velocity vd in Eq. (3.17) is called the drift velocity.
Because of the drift, there will be net transport of
charges across any area perpendicular to E. Consider
a planar area A, located inside the conductor such that
FIGURE 3.4 Current in a metallic the normal to the area is parallel to E (Fig. 3.4). Then
conductor. The magnitude of current because of the drift, in an infinitesimal amount of time
density in a metal is the magnitude of ∆t, all electrons to the left of the area at distances upto
charge contained in a cylinder of unit |vd|∆t would have crossed the area. If n is the number
area and length vd. of free electrons per unit volume in the metal, then
there are n ∆t |vd|A such electrons. Since each
electron carries a charge –e, the total charge transported across this area
A to the right in time ∆t is –ne A|vd|∆t. E is directed towards the left and
hence the total charge transported along E across the area is negative of
this. The amount of charge crossing the area A in time ∆t is by definition
[Eq. (3.2)] I ∆t, where I is the magnitude of the current. Hence,
I ∆t = + n e A v d ∆t (3.18)
Substituting the value of |vd| from Eq. (3.17)
e2 A
I ∆t = τ n ∆t E (3.19)
m
By definition I is related to the magnitude |j| of the current density by
I = |j|A (3.20)
Hence, from Eqs.(3.19) and (3.20),
ne 2
j= τE (3.21)
m
The vector j is parallel to E and hence we can write Eq. (3.21) in the
vector form
ne 2
j= τE (3.22)
m
Comparison with Eq. (3.13) shows that Eq. (3.22) is exactly the Ohm’s
98 law, if we identify the conductivity σ as
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ne 2
σ = τ (3.23)
m
We thus see that a very simple picture of electrical conduction
reproduces Ohm’s law. We have, of course, made assumptions that τ
and n are constants, independent of E. We shall, in the next section,
discuss the limitations of Ohm’s law.
temperatures.
(ii) An electric field travelling along the conductor has a speed of
an electromagnetic wave, namely equal to 3.0 × 10 8 m s –1
(You will learn about this in Chapter 8). The drift speed is, in
comparison, extremely small; smaller by a factor of 10–11.
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Example 3.2
(a) In Example 3.1, the electron drift speed is estimated to be only a
few mm s–1 for currents in the range of a few amperes? How then
is current established almost the instant a circuit is closed?
(b) The electron drift arises due to the force experienced by electrons
in the electric field inside the conductor. But force should cause
acceleration. Why then do the electrons acquire a steady average
drift speed?
(c) If the electron drift speed is so small, and the electron’s charge is
small, how can we still obtain large amounts of current in a
conductor?
(d) When electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential,
does it mean that all the ‘free’ electrons of the metal are moving
in the same direction?
(e) Are the paths of electrons straight lines between successive
collisions (with the positive ions of the metal) in the (i) absence of
electric field, (ii) presence of electric field?
Solution
(a) Electric field is established throughout the circuit, almost instantly
(with the speed of light) causing at every point a local electron
drift. Establishment of a current does not have to wait for electrons
from one end of the conductor travelling to the other end. However,
it does take a little while for the current to reach its steady value.
(b) Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate, increasing its drift speed until
it collides with a positive ion of the metal. It loses its drift speed
after collision but starts to accelerate and increases its drift speed
again only to suffer a collision again and so on. On the average,
therefore, electrons acquire only a drift speed.
(c) Simple, because the electron number density is enormous,
EXAMPLE 3.2
~1029 m–3.
(d) By no means. The drift velocity is superposed over the large
random velocities of electrons.
(e) In the absence of electric field, the paths are straight lines; in the
presence of electric field, the paths are, in general, curved.
3.5.1 Mobility
As we have seen, conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In
metals, these mobile charge carriers are electrons; in an ionised gas, they
are electrons and positive charged ions; in an electrolyte, these can be
both positive and negative ions.
An important quantity is the mobility µ defined as the magnitude of
the drift velocity per unit electric field:
| vd |
µ= (3.24)
E
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is 104 of the mobility in practical
units (cm2/Vs). Mobility is positive. From Eq. (3.17), we have
e τE
100 vd =
m
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Hence,
vd e τ
µ= = (3.25)
E m
where τ is the average collision time for electrons.
(c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than
one value of V for the same current I (Fig. 3.7). A material exhibiting
such behaviour is GaAs.
Materials and devices not obeying Ohm’s law in the form of Eq. (3.3)
are actually widely used in electronic circuits. In this and a few
subsequent chapters, however, we will study the electrical currents in
materials that obey Ohm’s law.
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depending on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.
Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10–8 Ωm to 10–6 Ωm. At the
other end are insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having
resistivities 1018 times greater than metals or more. In between the two
are the semiconductors. These, however, have resistivities
characteristically decreasing with a rise in temperature. The resistivities
of semiconductors are also affected by presence of small amount of
impurities. This last feature is exploited in use of semiconductors for
electronic devices.
Conductors
Silver 1.6 × 10–8 0.0041
Copper 1.7 × 10–8 0.0068
Aluminium 2.7 × 10–8 0.0043
Tungsten 5.6 × 10–8 0.0045
Iron 10 × 10–8 0.0065
Platinum 11 × 10–8 0.0039
Mercury 98 × 10–8 0.0009
Nichrome ~100 × 10–8 0.0004
(alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)
Manganin (alloy) 48 × 10–8 0.002 × 10–3
Semiconductors
Carbon (graphite) 3.5 × 10–5 – 0.0005
Germanium 0.46 – 0.05
Silicon 2300 – 0.07
Insulators
Pure Water 2.5 × 105
Glass 1010 – 1014
Hard Rubber 1013 – 1016
NaCl ~1014
Fused Quartz ~1016
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FIGURE 6.11
Solution
Method I
As the rod is rotated, free electrons in the rod move towards the outer
end due to Lorentz force and get distributed over the ring. Thus, the
resulting separation of charges produces an emf across the ends of
the rod. At a certain value of emf, there is no more flow of electrons
and a steady state is reached. Using Eq. (6.5), the magnitude of the
emf generated across a length dr of the rod as it moves at right angles
to the magnetic field is given by
dε = Bv dr . Hence,
R R
B ωR 2
ε = ∫ dε = ∫ Bv dr = ∫ B ωr dr =
0 0
2
Note that we have used v = ω r. This gives
1
ε = × 1.0 × 2π × 50 × (12 )
2
= 157 V
Method II
To calculate the emf, we can imagine a closed loop OPQ in which
point O and P are connected with a resistor R and OQ is the rotating
rod. The potential difference across the resistor is then equal to the
induced emf and equals B × (rate of change of area of loop). If θ is the
angle between the rod and the radius of the circle at P at time t, the
area of the sector OPQ is given by
θ 1 2
π R2 × R θ
=
2π 2
where R is the radius of the circle. Hence, the induced emf is
d 1 2 1 2 dθ Bω R 2
ε =B × R = BR =
dt 2
θ
EXAMPLE 6.6
2 dt 2
dθ
[Note: = ω = 2 πν ]
dt
This expression is identical to the expression obtained by Method I
and we get the same value of ε.
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For metals, α is positive and values of α for some metals at T0 = 0°C are
listed in Table 3.1.
The relation of Eq. (3.26) implies that a graph of ρT plotted against T
would be a straight line. At temperatures much lower than 0°C, the graph,
however, deviates considerably from a straight line (Fig. 3.9).
Equation (3.26) thus, can be used approximately over a limited range
of T around any reference temperature T0, where the graph can be
approximated as a straight line.
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5.795 − 5
= × 100
5.23 − 5
0.795
= × 100 = 345.65 °C
0.23
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and V (B) respectively. Since current is flowing from A to B, V (A) > V (B)
and the potential difference across AB is V = V(A) – V(B) > 0.
In a time interval ∆t, an amount of charge ∆Q = I ∆t travels from A to
B. The potential energy of the charge at A, by definition, was Q V (A) and
similarly at B, it is Q V(B). Thus, change in its potential energy ∆Upot is
∆Upot = Final potential energy – Initial potential energy
= ∆Q[(V (B) – V (A)] = –∆Q V
= –I V∆t < 0 (3.28)
If charges moved without collisions through the conductor, their
kinetic energy would also change so that the total energy is unchanged.
Conservation of total energy would then imply that,
∆K = –∆Upot (3.29)
that is,
∆K = I V∆t > 0 (3.30)
Thus, in case charges were moving freely through the conductor under
the action of electric field, their kinetic energy would increase as they
move. We have, however, seen earlier that on the average, charge carriers
do not move with acceleration but with a steady drift velocity. This is
because of the collisions with ions and atoms during transit. During
collisions, the energy gained by the charges thus is shared with the atoms.
The atoms vibrate more vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up. Thus,
in an actual conductor, an amount of energy dissipated as heat in the
conductor during the time interval ∆t is,
∆W = I V∆t (3.31)
The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated
P = ∆W/∆t and we have,
P=IV (3.32)
Using Ohm’s law V = IR, we get
P = I 2 R = V 2/R (3.33)
as the power loss (“ohmic loss”) in a conductor of resistance R carrying a
current I. It is this power which heats up, for example, the coil of an
electric bulb to incandescence, radiating out heat and
light.
Where does the power come from? As we have
reasoned before, we need an external source to keep
a steady current through the conductor. It is clearly
this source which must supply this power. In the
simple circuit shown with a cell (Fig.3.12), it is the
chemical energy of the cell which supplies this power
for as long as it can.
FIGURE 3.12 Heat is produced in the The expressions for power, Eqs. (3.32) and (3.33),
resistor R which is connected across show the dependence of the power dissipated in a
the terminals of a cell. The energy resistor R on the current through it and the voltage
dissipated in the resistor R comes from across it.
the chemical energy of the electrolyte. Equation (3.33) has an important application to
power transmission. Electrical power is transmitted
106 from power stations to homes and factories, which
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may be hundreds of miles away, via transmission cables. One obviously
wants to minimise the power loss in the transmission cables connecting
the power stations to homes and factories. We shall see now how this
can be achieved. Consider a device R, to which a power P is to be delivered
via transmission cables having a resistance Rc to be dissipated by it finally.
If V is the voltage across R and I the current through it, then
P=VI (3.34)
The connecting wires from the power station to the device has a finite
resistance Rc. The power dissipated in the connecting wires, which is
wasted is Pc with
Pc = I 2 Rc
P 2 Rc
= (3.35)
V2
from Eq. (3.32). Thus, to drive a device of power P, the power wasted in the
connecting wires is inversely proportional to V 2. The transmission cables
from power stations are hundreds of miles long and their resistance Rc is
considerable. To reduce Pc, these wires carry current at enormous values
of V and this is the reason for the high voltage danger signs on transmission
lines — a common sight as we move away from populated areas. Using
electricity at such voltages is not safe and hence at the other end, a device
called a transformer lowers the voltage to a value suitable for use.
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Consider two resistors R1 and R2 in series. The charge which leaves R1
must be entering R2. Since current measures the rate of flow of charge,
this means that the same current I flows through R1 and R2. By Ohm’s law:
Potential difference across R1 = V1 = I R1, and
Potential difference across R2 = V2 = I R2.
The potential difference V across the combination is V1+V2. Hence,
V = V1+ V2 = I (R1 + R2) (3.36)
This is as if the combination had an equivalent resistance Req, which
by Ohm’s law is
V
Req ≡ = (R1 + R2) (3.37)
I
If we had three resistors connected in series, then similarly
V = I R1 + I R2 + I R3 = I (R1+ R2+ R3). (3.38)
This obviously can be extended to a series combination of any number
n of resistors R1, R2 ....., Rn. The equivalent resistance Req is
Req = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn (3.39)
Consider now the parallel combination of two resistors (Fig. 3.15).
The charge that flows in at A from the left flows out partly through R1
and partly through R2. The currents I, I1, I2 shown in the figure are the
rates of flow of charge at the points indicated. Hence,
I = I1 + I2 (3.40)
The potential difference between A and B is given by the Ohm’s law
applied to R1
V = I1 R1 (3.41)
Also, Ohm’s law applied to R2 gives
V = I2 R2 (3.42)
V V 1 1
∴ I = I1 + I2 = + =V +
R1 R2
(3.43)
R1 R2
If the combination was replaced by an equivalent resistance Req, we
would have, by Ohm’s law
V
I= (3.44)
Req
Hence,
1 1 1
= + (3.45)
Req R1 R2
We can easily see how this extends to three resistors in parallel
(Fig. 3.16).
108 FIGURE 3.16 Parallel combination of three resistors R1, R2 and R3.
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even if the charges are stationary [and the q (v × B) term of the Lorentz
force is not operative], an emf is nevertheless induced in the presence of a
time-varying magnetic field. Thus, moving charges in static field and static
charges in a time-varying field seem to be symmetric situation for
Faraday’s law. This gives a tantalising hint on the relevance of the principle
of relativity for Faraday’s law.
4. The motion of a copper plate is damped when it is allowed to oscillate
between the magnetic pole-pieces. How is the damping force, produced by
the eddy currents?
EXERCISES
6.1 Predict the direction of induced current in the situations described
by the following Figs. 6.18(a) to (f ).
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3.11 CELLS, EMF, INTERNAL RESISTANCE
We have already mentioned that a simple device to maintain a steady
current in an electric circuit is the electrolytic cell. Basically a cell has
two electrodes, called the positive (P) and the negative (N), as shown in
Fig. 3.18. They are immersed in an electrolytic solution. Dipped in the
solution, the electrodes exchange charges with the electrolyte. The
positive electrode has a potential difference V+ (V+ > 0) between
itself and the electrolyte solution immediately adjacent to it marked
A in the figure. Similarly, the negative electrode develops a negative
potential – (V– ) (V– ≥ 0) relative to the electrolyte adjacent to it,
marked as B in the figure. When there is no current, the electrolyte
has the same potential throughout, so that the potential difference
between P and N is V+ – (–V–) = V+ + V– . This difference is called the
electromotive force (emf) of the cell and is denoted by ε. Thus
ε = V++V– > 0 (3.55)
Note that ε is, actually, a potential difference and not a force. The
name emf, however, is used because of historical reasons, and was
given at a time when the phenomenon was not understood properly.
To understand the significance of ε, consider a resistor R
connected across the cell (Fig. 3.18). A current I flows across R
from C to D. As explained before, a steady current is maintained
because current flows from N to P through the electrolyte. Clearly,
across the electrolyte the same current flows through the electrolyte
FIGURE 3.18 (a) Sketch of
an electrolyte cell with but from N to P, whereas through R, it flows from P to N.
positive terminal P and The electrolyte through which a current flows has a finite
negative terminal N. The resistance r, called the internal resistance. Consider first the
gap between the electrodes situation when R is infinite so that I = V/R = 0, where V is the
is exaggerated for clarity. A potential difference between P and N. Now,
and B are points in the V = Potential difference between P and A
electrolyte typically close to + Potential difference between A and B
P and N. (b) the symbol for + Potential difference between B and N
a cell, + referring to P and
=ε (3.56)
– referring to the N
Thus, emf ε is the potential difference between the positive and
electrode. Electrical
connections to the cell are negative electrodes in an open circuit, i.e., when no current is
made at P and N. flowing through the cell.
If however R is finite, I is not zero. In that case the potential
difference between P and N is
V = V++ V– – I r
=ε–Ir (3.57)
Note the negative sign in the expression (I r ) for the potential difference
between A and B. This is because the current I flows from B to A in the
electrolyte.
In practical calculations, internal resistances of cells in the circuit
may be neglected when the current I is such that ε >> I r. The actual
values of the internal resistances of cells vary from cell to cell. The internal
resistance of dry cells, however, is much higher than the common
110 electrolytic cells.
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experience magnetic force due to the motion of the rod. Explain.
(d) What is the retarding force on the rod when K is closed?
(e) How much power is required (by an external agent) to keep
the rod moving at the same speed (=12 cm s–1) when K is closed?
How much power is required when K is open?
(f ) How much power is dissipated as heat in the closed circuit?
What is the source of this power?
(g) What is the induced emf in the moving rod if the magnetic field
is parallel to the rails instead of being perpendicular?
6.15 An air-cored solenoid with length 30 cm, area of cross-section 25 cm2
and number of turns 500, carries a current of 2.5 A. The current is
suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10–3 s. How much is the average
back emf induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit?
Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the ends of the solenoid.
6.16 (a) Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance between a long
straight wire and a square loop of side a as shown in Fig. 6.21.
(b) Now assume that the straight wire carries a current of 50 A and
the loop is moved to the right with a constant velocity, v = 10 m/s.
Calculate the induced emf in the loop at the instant when x = 0.2 m.
Take a = 0.1 m and assume that the loop has a large resistance.
FIGURE 6.21
6.17 A line charge λ per unit length is lodged uniformly onto the rim of a
wheel of mass M and radius R. The wheel has light non-conducting
spokes and is free to rotate without friction about its axis (Fig. 6.22).
A uniform magnetic field extends over a circular region within the
rim. It is given by,
B = – B0 k (r ≤ a; a < R)
=0 (otherwise)
What is the angular velocity of the wheel after the field is suddenly
switched off ?
232
FIGURE 6.22
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Example 3.5 A network of resistors is connected to a 16 V battery
with internal resistance of 1Ω, as shown in Fig. 3.19: (a) Compute
the equivalent resistance of the network. (b) Obtain the current in
each resistor. (c) Obtain the voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD.
FIGURE 3.19
Solution
(a) The network is a simple series and parallel combination of
resistors. First the two 4Ω resistors in parallel are equivalent to a
resistor = [(4 × 4)/(4 + 4)] Ω = 2 Ω.
In the same way, the 12 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in parallel are
equivalent to a resistor of
[(12 × 6)/(12 + 6)] Ω = 4 Ω.
The equivalent resistance R of the network is obtained by
combining these resistors (2 Ω and 4 Ω) with 1 Ω in series,
that is,
R = 2 Ω + 4 Ω + 1 Ω = 7 Ω.
(b) The total current I in the circuit is
ε 16 V
I= = =2A
R +r (7 + 1) Ω
Consider the resistors between A and B. If I1 is the current in one
of the 4 Ω resistors and I2 the current in the other,
I1 × 4 = I2 × 4
that is, I1 = I2, which is otherwise obvious from the symmetry of
the two arms. But I1 + I2 = I = 2 A. Thus,
I1 = I2 = 1 A
that is, current in each 4 Ω resistor is 1 A. Current in 1 Ω resistor
between B and C would be 2 A.
Now, consider the resistances between C and D. If I3 is the current
in the 12 Ω resistor, and I4 in the 6 Ω resistor,
I3 × 12 = I4 × 6, i.e., I4 = 2I3
But, I3 + I4 = I = 2 A
2 4
Thus, I3 = A, I4 = A
3 3
that is, the current in the 12 Ω resistor is (2/3) A, while the current
EXAMPLE 3.5
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VAB = 2 A × 2 Ω = 4 V
The voltage drop across BC is
VBC = 2 A × 1 Ω = 2 V
Finally, the voltage drop across CD is
2
VCD = 12 Ω × I3 = 12 Ω × A = 8 V.
3
This can alternately be obtained by multiplying total current
between C and D by the equivalent resistance between C and D,
that is,
VCD = 2 A × 4 Ω = 8 V
EXAMPLE 3.5
Note that the total voltage drop across AD is 4 V + 2 V + 8 V = 14 V.
Thus, the terminal voltage of the battery is 14 V, while its emf is 16 V.
The loss of the voltage (= 2 V) is accounted for by the internal resistance
1 Ω of the battery [2 A × 1 Ω = 2 V].
FIGURE 3.20 Two cells of emf’s ε1 and ε2 in the series. r1, r2 are their
internal resistances. For connections across A and C, the combination
can be considered as one cell of emf εeq and an internal resistance req.
Consider first two cells in series (Fig. 3.20), where one terminal of the
two cells is joined together leaving the other terminal in either cell free.
ε1, ε2 are the emf’s of the two cells and r1, r2 their internal resistances,
respectively.
Let V (A), V (B), V (C) be the potentials at points A, B and C shown in
Fig. 3.20. Then V (A) – V (B) is the potential difference between the positive
and negative terminals of the first cell. We have already calculated it in
Eq. (3.57) and hence,
V AB ≡ V ( A) – V (B) = ε1 – I r1 (3.60)
Similarly,
V AC ≡ V (A ) – V (C) = V ( A ) – V ( B ) + V ( B ) – V (C )
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If we wish to replace the combination by a single cell between A and
C of emf εeq and internal resistance req, we would have
VAC = εeq– I req (3.63)
Comparing the last two equations, we get
εeq = ε1 + ε2 (3.64)
and req = r1 + r2 (3.65)
In Fig.3.20, we had connected the negative electrode of the first to the
positive electrode of the second. If instead we connect the two negatives,
Eq. (3.61) would change to VBC = –ε2–Ir2 and we will get
εeq = ε1 – ε2 (ε1 > ε2) (3.66)
The rule for series combination clearly can be extended to any number
of cells:
(i) The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of
their individual emf’s, and
(ii) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n cells is
just the sum of their internal resistances.
This is so, when the current leaves each cell from the positive
electrode. If in the combination, the current leaves any cell from
the negative electrode, the emf of the cell enters the expression
for εeq with a negative sign, as in Eq. (3.66).
Next, consider a parallel combination of the cells (Fig. 3.21).
I1 and I2 are the currents leaving the positive electrodes of the
cells. At the point B1, I1 and I2 flow in whereas the current I flows
out. Since as much charge flows in as out, we have
FIGURE 3.21 Two cells in I = I1 + I2 (3.67)
parallel. For connections Let V (B1) and V (B2) be the potentials at B1 and B2, respectively.
across A and C, the Then, considering the first cell, the potential difference across its
combination can be terminals is V (B1) – V (B2). Hence, from Eq. (3.57)
replaced by one cell of emf
εeq and internal resistances V ≡ V ( B1 ) – V ( B2 ) = ε1 – I1r1 (3.68)
req whose values are given in Points B1 and B2 are connected exactly similarly to the second
Eqs. (3.73) and (3.74). cell. Hence considering the second cell, we also have
V ≡ V ( B1 ) – V ( B2 ) = ε 2 – I 2r2 (3.69)
Combining the last three equations
I = I1 + I 2
ε1 – V ε 2 – V ε1 ε 2 1 1
= + = + –V + (3.70)
r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2
Hence, V is given by,
ε1r2 + ε 2r1 r1r2
V = –I (3.71)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
If we want to replace the combination by a single cell, between B1 and
B2, of emf εeq and internal resistance req, we would have
114 V = εeq – I req (3.72)
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The last two equations should be the same and hence
ε1r2 + ε 2r1
ε eq = (3.73)
r1 + r2
1 1 1
= + (3.75)
req r1 r2
ε eq ε1 ε2
= + (3.76)
req r1 r2
In Fig. (3.21), we had joined the positive terminals
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
together and similarly the two negative ones, so that the
(1824 – 1887) German
currents I1, I2 flow out of positive terminals. If the negative physicist, professor at
terminal of the second is connected to positive terminal Heidelberg and at
of the first, Eqs. (3.75) and (3.76) would still be valid with Berlin. Mainly known for
ε 2 → –ε2 his development of
Equations (3.75) and (3.76) can be extended easily. spectroscopy, he also
If there are n cells of emf ε1, . . . εn and of internal made many important
resistances r1,... rn respectively, connected in parallel, the contributions to mathe-
combination is equivalent to a single cell of emf εeq and matical physics, among
them, his first and
internal resistance req, such that
second rules for circuits.
1 1 1
= + ... + (3.77)
req r1 rn
εeq ε1 ε
= + ... + n (3.78)
req r1 rn
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[Eq. (3.57) between the positive terminal P and the negative terminal N; I
here is the current flowing from N to P through the cell]. If, while labelling
the current I through the cell one goes from P to N,
then of course
V=ε+Ir (3.79)
Having clarified labelling, we now state the rules
and the proof:
(a) Junction rule: At any junction, the sum of the
currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction (Fig. 3.22).
This applies equally well if instead of a junction of
several lines, we consider a point in a line.
The proof of this rule follows from the fact that
when currents are steady, there is no accumulation
FIGURE 3.22 At junction a the current of charges at any junction or at any point in a line.
leaving is I1 + I2 and current entering is I3.
Thus, the total current flowing in, (which is the rate
The junction rule says I3 = I1 + I2. At point
at which charge flows into the junction), must equal
h current entering is I1. There is only one
current leaving h and by junction rule the total current flowing out.
that will also be I1. For the loops ‘ahdcba’ (b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in
and ‘ahdefga’, the loop rules give –30I1 – potential around any closed loop involving
41 I3 + 45 = 0 and –30I1 + 21 I2 – 80 = 0. resistors and cells in the loop is zero (Fig. 3.22).
This rule is also obvious, since electric potential is
dependent on the location of the point. Thus starting with any point if we
come back to the same point, the total change must be zero. In a closed
loop, we do come back to the starting point and hence the rule.
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http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/optics/java/kirch3/
Similation for application of Kirchhoff ’s rules:
The equivalent resistance Req of the network is
ε 5
Req = =
R
3I 6
EXAMPLE 3.6
For R = 1 Ω, Req = (5/6) Ω and for ε = 10 V, the total current (= 3I ) in
the network is
3I = 10 V/(5/6) Ω = 12 A, i.e., I = 4 A
The current flowing in each edge can now be read off from the
Fig. 3.23.
FIGURE 3.24
117
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Solution Each branch of the network is assigned an unknown current
to be determined by the application of Kirchhoff’s rules. To reduce
the number of unknowns at the outset, the first rule of Kirchhoff is
used at every junction to assign the unknown current in each branch.
We then have three unknowns I 1, I2 and I3 which can be found by
applying the second rule of Kirchhoff to three different closed loops.
Kirchhoff’s second rule for the closed loop ADCA gives,
10 – 4(I1– I2) + 2(I2 + I3 – I1) – I1 = 0 [3.80(a)]
that is, 7I1– 6I2 – 2I3 = 10
For the closed loop ABCA, we get
10 – 4I2– 2 (I2 + I3) – I1 = 0
that is, I1 + 6I2 + 2I3 =10 [3.80(b)]
For the closed loop BCDEB, we get
5 – 2 (I2 + I3 ) – 2 (I2 + I3 – I1) = 0
that is, 2I1 – 4I2 – 4I3 = –5 [3.80(c)]
Equations (3.80 a, b, c) are three simultaneous equations in three
unknowns. These can be solved by the usual method to give
5 7
I1 = 2.5A, I2 = A, I3 = 1 A
8 8
The currents in the various branches of the network are
5 1 7
AB : A, CA : 2 A, DEB : 1 A
8 2 8
7 1
AD : 1 A, CD : 0 A, BC : 2 A
8 2
It is easily verified that Kirchhoff’s second rule applied to the
remaining closed loops does not provide any additional independent
equation, that is, the above values of currents satisfy the second
rule for every closed loop of the network. For example, the total voltage
EXAMPLE 3.7
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immediately gives us the relations I1 = I3 and I2 = I4. Next, we apply
Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loops ADBA and CBDC. The first
loop gives
–I1 R1 + 0 + I2 R2 = 0 (Ig = 0) (3.81)
and the second loop gives, upon using I3 = I1, I4 = I2
I2 R4 + 0 – I1 R3 = 0 (3.82)
From Eq. (3.81), we obtain,
I1 R2
=
I 2 R1
whereas from Eq. (3.82), we obtain,
I1 R4
=
I 2 R3
Hence, we obtain the condition
R2 R FIGURE 3.25
= 4 [3.83(a)]
R1 R3
This last equation relating the four resistors is called the balance
condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null deflection.
The Wheatstone bridge and its balance condition provide a practical
method for determination of an unknown resistance. Let us suppose we
have an unknown resistance, which we insert in the fourth arm; R4 is
thus not known. Keeping known resistances R1 and R2 in the first and
second arm of the bridge, we go on varying R3 till the galvanometer shows
a null deflection. The bridge then is balanced, and from the balance
condition the value of the unknown resistance R4 is given by,
R
R4 = R3 2 [3.83(b)]
R1
A practical device using this principle is called the meter bridge. It
will be discussed in the next section.
Example 3.8 The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 3.26) have
the following resistances:
AB = 100Ω, BC = 10Ω, CD = 5Ω, and DA = 60Ω.
EXAMPLE 3.8
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A galvanometer of 15Ω resistance is connected across BD. Calculate
the current through the galvanometer when a potential difference of
10 V is maintained across AC.
Solution Considering the mesh BADB, we have
100I1 + 15Ig – 60I2 = 0
or 20I1 + 3Ig – 12I2= 0 [3.84(a)]
Considering the mesh BCDB, we have
10 (I1 – Ig) – 15Ig – 5 (I2 + Ig ) = 0
10I1 – 30Ig –5I2 = 0
2I1 – 6Ig – I2 = 0 [3.84(b)]
Considering the mesh ADCEA,
60I2 + 5 (I2 + Ig ) = 10
65I2 + 5Ig = 10
13I2 + Ig = 2 [3.84(c)]
Multiplying Eq. (3.84b) by 10
20I1 – 60Ig – 10I2 = 0 [3.84(d)]
From Eqs. (3.84d) and (3.84a) we have
63Ig – 2I2 = 0
I2 = 31.5Ig [3.84(e)]
EXAMPLE 3.8
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standard known resistance S. The jockey is connected to some point D
on the wire, a distance l cm from the end A. The jockey can be moved
along the wire. The portion AD of the wire has a resistance Rcml, where
Rcm is the resistance of the wire per unit centimetre. The portion DC of
the wire similarly has a resistance Rcm (100-l ).
The four arms AB, BC, DA and CD [with resistances R, S, Rcm l and
Rcm(100-l )] obviously form a Wheatstone bridge with AC as the battery
arm and BD the galvanometer arm. If the jockey is moved along the wire,
then there will be one position where the galvanometer will show no
current. Let the distance of the jockey from the end A at the balance
point be l= l1. The four resistances of the bridge at the balance point then
are R, S, Rcm l1 and Rcm(100–l1). The balance condition, Eq. [3.83(a)]
gives
R Rcm l1 l1
= =
S Rcm (100 – l1 ) 100 – l1 (3.85)
Thus, once we have found out l1, the unknown resistance R is known
in terms of the standard known resistance S by
l1
R =S (3.86)
100 – l1
By choosing various values of S, we would get various values of l1,
and calculate R each time. An error in measurement of l1 would naturally
result in an error in R. It can be shown that the percentage error in R can
be minimised by adjusting the balance point near the middle of the
bridge, i.e., when l1 is close to 50 cm. ( This requires a suitable choice
of S.)
Example 3.9 In a meter bridge (Fig. 3.27), the null point is found at a
distance of 33.7 cm from A. If now a resistance of 12Ω is connected in
parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9 cm. Determine the values
of R and S.
Solution From the first balance point, we get
R 33.7
= (3.87)
S 66.3
After S is connected in parallel with a resistance of 12Ω , the resistance
across the gap changes from S to Seq, where
12S
Seq =
S + 12
and hence the new balance condition now gives
51.9 R R (S + 12 )
= = (3.88)
48.1 Seq 12 S
Substituting the value of R/S from Eq. (3.87), we get
EXAMPLE 3.9
51.9 S + 12 33.7
= .
48.1 12 66.3
which gives S = 13.5Ω. Using the value of R/S above, we get
R = 6.86 Ω. 121
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1
= = 4Ω
2 × 3.14 × 50 × 796 × 10−6
Therefore,
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 = 32 + (8 − 4)2
=5Ω
XC − X L
(b) Phase difference, φ = tan–1
R
4 − 8
= tan −1 = −53.1°
3
Since φ is negative, the current in the circuit lags the voltage
across the source.
(c) The power dissipated in the circuit is
P = I 2R
EXAMPLE 7.8
im 1 283
Now, I = = = 40A
2 2 5
Therefore, P = (40A)2 × 3 Ω = 4800 W
(d) Power factor = cos φ = cos ( –53.1°) = 0.6
1 1
ω0 = =
−3
LC 25.48 × 10 × 796 × 10 −6
= 222.1rad/s
ω0 221.1
νr = = Hz = 35.4Hz
2π 2 × 3.14
Z = R = 3Ω
V V 283 1
= = = = 66.7 A
Z R 2 3
P = I 2 × R = (66.7)2 × 3 = 13.35 kW
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So, we have ε/V = l1/l 2 [3.94(a)]
But, ε = I (r + R ) and V = IR. This gives
ε/V = (r+R )/R [3.94(b)]
From Eq. [3.94(a)] and [3.94(b)] we have
(R+r )/R = l1/l 2
l
r = R 1 – 1 (3.95)
l2
Using Eq. (3.95) we can find the internal resistance of a given cell.
The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from
the voltage source being measured. As such it is unaffected by the internal
resistance of the source.
FIGURE 3.29
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Substituting for R1, we have a
2V R ×R
V1 = × 0
R ×R R 0 + 2R
2 0 + R0
R 0 + 2R
EXAMPLE 3.10
2VR
V1 =
2R + R0 + 2R
or V1 = 2VR
.
R0 + 4R
SUMMARY
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Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark
Mobility µ [M L T A ]
3 –4 –1 2
m V s
–1 –1
vd / E
POINTS TO PONDER
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EXERCISES
3.1 The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal
resistance of the battery is 0.4 Ω, what is the maximum current
that can be drawn from the battery?
3.2 A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a
resistor. If the current in the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance
of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery when the
circuit is closed?
3.3 (a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are combined in series. What
is the total resistance of the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and
negligible internal resistance, obtain the potential drop across
each resistor.
3.4 (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are combined in parallel. What
is the total resistance of the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and
negligible internal resistance, determine the current through
each resistor, and the total current drawn from the battery.
3.5 At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element
is 100 Ω. What is the temperature of the element if the resistance is
found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature coefficient of the
material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1.
3.6 A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m
and uniform cross-section 6.0 × 10 –7 m2 , and its resistance is
measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material at the
temperature of the experiment?
3.7 A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance
of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. Determine the temperature coefficient of
resistivity of silver.
3.8 A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply
draws an initial current of 3.2 A which settles after a few seconds to 127
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a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of the heating
element if the room temperature is 27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient
of resistance of nichrome averaged over the temperature range
involved is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1.
3.9 Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in
Fig. 3.30:
FIGURE 3.30
3.10 (a) In a meter bridge [Fig. 3.27], the balance point is found to be at
39.5 cm from the end A, when the resistor Y is of 12.5 Ω.
Determine the resistance of X. Why are the connections between
resistors in a Wheatstone or meter bridge made of thick copper
strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge above if X and Y are
interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at
the balance point of the bridge? Would the galvanometer show
any current?
3.11 A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is being
charged by a 120 V dc supply using a series resistor of 15.5 Ω. What
is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging? What is the
purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit?
3.12 In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance
point at 35.0 cm length of the wire. If the cell is replaced by another
cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the
second cell?
3. 13 The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor
estimated in Example 3.1 is 8.5 × 1028 m–3. How long does an electron
take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The
area of cross-section of the wire is 2.0 × 10–6 m2 and it is carrying a
current of 3.0 A.
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
3. 14 The earth’s surface has a negative surface charge density of 10–9 C
m –2. The potential difference of 400 kV between the top of the
atmosphere and the surface results (due to the low conductivity of
the lower atmosphere) in a current of only 1800 A over the entire
128 globe. If there were no mechanism of sustaining atmospheric electric
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field, how much time (roughly) would be required to neutralise the
earth’s surface? (This never happens in practice because there is a
mechanism to replenish electric charges, namely the continual
thunderstorms and lightning in different parts of the globe). (Radius
of earth = 6.37 × 106 m.)
3.15 (a) Six lead-acid type of secondary cells each of emf 2.0 V and internal
resistance 0.015 Ω are joined in series to provide a supply to a
resistance of 8.5 Ω. What are the current drawn from the supply
and its terminal voltage?
(b) A secondary cell after long use has an emf of 1.9 V and a large
internal resistance of 380 Ω. What maximum current can be drawn
from the cell? Could the cell drive the starting motor of a car?
3.16 Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium and the other of copper
have the same resistance. Which of the two wires is lighter? Hence
explain why aluminium wires are preferred for overhead power cables.
(ρAl = 2.63 × 10–8 Ω m, ρCu = 1.72 × 10–8 Ω m, Relative density of
Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9.)
3.17 What conclusion can you draw from the following observations on a
resistor made of alloy manganin?
Current Voltage Current Voltage
A V A V
0.2 3.94 3.0 59.2
0.4 7.87 4.0 78.8
0.6 11.8 5.0 98.6
0.8 15.7 6.0 118.5
1.0 19.7 7.0 138.2
2.0 39.4 8.0 158.0
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FIGURE 3.31
3.21 Determine the current drawn from a 12V supply with internal
resistance 0.5Ω by the infinite network shown in Fig. 3.32. Each
resistor has 1Ω resistance.
FIGURE 3.32
3.22 Figure 3.33 shows a potentiometer with a cell of 2.0 V and internal
resistance 0.40 Ω maintaining a potential drop across the resistor
wire AB. A standard cell which maintains a constant emf of 1.02 V
(for very moderate currents upto a few mA) gives a balance point at
67.3 cm length of the wire. To ensure very low currents drawn from
the standard cell, a very high resistance of 600 kΩ is put in series
with it, which is shorted close to the balance point. The standard
cell is then replaced by a cell of unknown emf ε and the balance
point found similarly, turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.
FIGURE 3.33
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Current
Electricity
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high resistance?
(d) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell
of the potentiometer had an emf of 1.0V instead of 2.0V?
(e) Would the circuit work well for determining an extremely small
emf, say of the order of a few mV (such as the typical emf of a
thermo-couple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?
3.23 Figure 3.34 shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the determination
of internal resistance of a 1.5 V cell. The balance point of the cell in
open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 Ω is used in the external
circuit of the cell, the balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the
potentiometer wire. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
FIGURE 3.34
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Chapter Four
MOVING CHARGES
AND MAGNETISM
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Both Electricity and Magnetism have been known for more than 2000
years. However, it was only about 200 years ago, in 1820, that it was
realised that they were intimately related*. During a lecture demonstration
in the summer of 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed
that a current in a straight wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby
magnetic compass needle. He investigated this phenomenon. He found
that the alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle which
has the straight wire as its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the
wire. This situation is depicted in Fig.4.1(a). It is noticeable when the
current is large and the needle sufficiently close to the wire so that the
earth’s magnetic field may be ignored. Reversing the direction of the
current reverses the orientation of the needle [Fig. 4.1(b)]. The deflection
increases on increasing the current or bringing the needle closer to the
wire. Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arrange themselves in
concentric circles with the wire as the centre [Fig. 4.1(c)]. Oersted
concluded that moving charges or currents produced a magnetic field
in the surrounding space.
Following this, there was intense experimentation. In 1864, the laws
obeyed by electricity and magnetism were unified and formulated by
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James Maxwell who then realised that light was electromagnetic waves.
Radio waves were discovered by Hertz, and produced by J.C.Bose and
G. Marconi by the end of the 19th century. A remarkable scientific and
technological progress took place in the 20th century. This was due to
our increased understanding of electromagnetism and the invention of
devices for production, amplification, transmission and detection of
electromagnetic waves.
* A dot appears like the tip of an arrow pointed at you, a cross is like the feathered
tail of an arrow moving away from you.
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E=Q / (4πε0)r2 (4.1)
where r̂ is unit vector along r, and the field E is a vector
field. A charge q interacts with this field and experiences
a force F given by
F = q E = q Q r̂ / (4πε0) r 2 (4.2)
As pointed out in the Chapter 1, the field E is not
just an artefact but has a physical role. It can convey
energy and momentum and is not established
instantaneously but takes finite time to propagate. The
concept of a field was specially stressed by Faraday and
was incorporated by Maxwell in his unification of
electricity and magnetism. In addition to depending on
each point in space, it can also vary with time, i.e., be a
HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ (1853 – 1928)
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field vanish (become zero) if velocity and magnetic field are parallel
or anti-parallel. The force acts in a (sideways) direction perpendicular
to both the velocity and the magnetic field.
Its direction is given by the screw rule or
right hand rule for vector (or cross) product
as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
(iii) The magnetic force is zero if charge is not
moving (as then |v|= 0). Only a moving
charge feels the magnetic force.
The expression for the magnetic force helps
us to define the unit of the magnetic field, if
one takes q, F and v, all to be unity in the force
FIGURE 4.2 The direction of the magnetic
equation F = q [ v × B] =q v B sin θ n̂ , where θ
force acting on a charged particle. (a) The
is the angle between v and B [see Fig. 4.2 (a)].
force on a positively charged particle with
The magnitude of magnetic field B is 1 SI unit, velocity v and making an angle θ with the
when the force acting on a unit charge (1 C), magnetic field B is given by the right-hand
moving perpendicular to B with a speed 1m/s, rule. (b) A moving charged particle q is
is one newton. deflected in an opposite sense to –q in the
Dimensionally, we have [B] = [F/qv] and the unit presence of magnetic field.
of B are Newton second / (coulomb metre). This
unit is called tesla ( T ) named after Nikola Tesla
(1856 – 1943). Tesla is a rather large unit. A smaller unit (non-SI) called
gauss (=10–4 tesla) is also often used. The earth’s magnetic field is about
3.6 × 10–5 T. Table 4.1 lists magnetic fields over a wide range in the
universe.
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drift velocity vd (see Chapter 3). In the presence of an external magnetic
field B, the force on these carriers is:
F = (nlA)q vd × B
where q is the value of the charge on a carrier. Now nq vd is the current
density j and |(nq vd )|A is the current I (see Chapter 3 for the discussion
of current and current density). Thus,
F = [(nq vd )l A] × B = [ jAl ] × B
= Il × B (4.4)
where l is a vector of magnitude l, the length of the rod, and with a direction
identical to the current I. Note that the current I is not a vector. In the last
step leading to Eq. (4.4), we have transferred the vector sign from j to l.
Equation (4.4) holds for a straight rod. In this equation, B is the external
magnetic field. It is not the field produced by the current-carrying rod. If
the wire has an arbitrary shape we can calculate the Lorentz force on it
by considering it as a collection of linear strips dlj and summing
F = ∑ Idl j × B
j
In the universal law of gravitation, we say that any two point masses exert a force on
each other which is proportional to the product of the masses m1, m2 and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r between them. We write it as F = Gm1m2/r 2
where G is the universal constant of gravitation. Similarly, in Coulomb’s law of electrostatics
we write the force between two point charges q1, q2, separated by a distance r as
F = kq1q 2/r 2 where k is a constant of proportionality. In SI units, k is taken as
1/4πε where ε is the permittivity of the medium. Also in magnetism, we get another
constant, which in SI units, is taken as µ/4π where µ is the permeability of the medium.
Although G, ε and µ arise as proportionality constants, there is a difference between
gravitational force and electromagnetic force. While the gravitational force does not depend
on the intervening medium, the electromagnetic force depends on the medium between
the two charges or magnets. Hence, while G is a universal constant, ε and µ depend on
the medium. They have different values for different media. The product εµ turns out to
be related to the speed v of electromagnetic radiation in the medium through εµ =1/ v 2.
Electric permittivity ε is a physical quantity that describes how an electric field affects
and is affected by a medium. It is determined by the ability of a material to polarise in
response to an applied field, and thereby to cancel, partially, the field inside the material.
Similarly, magnetic permeability µ is the ability of a substance to acquire magnetisation in
magnetic fields. It is a measure of the extent to which magnetic field can penetrate matter.
EXAMPLE 4.1
Example 4.1 A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries
a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal
magnetic field B (Fig. 4.3). What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field?
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FIGURE 4.3
EXAMPLE 4.1
http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/optics/java/partmagn/index.html
Interactive demonstration:
Charged particles moving in a magnetic field.
0.2 × 9.8
= = 0.65 T
2 × 1.5
Note that it would have been sufficient to specify m/l, the mass per
unit length of the wire. The earth’s magnetic field is approximately
4 × 10–5 T and we have ignored it.
FIGURE 4.4
EXAMPLE 4.2
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of a charge in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. So no work is done
and no change in the magnitude of the velocity is produced
(though the direction of momentum may be changed). [Notice
that this is unlike the force due to an electric field, q E, which
can have a component parallel (or antiparallel) to motion and
thus can transfer energy in addition to momentum.]
We shall consider motion of a charged particle in a uniform
magnetic field. First consider the case of v perpendicular to B.
The perpendicular force, q v × B, acts as a centripetal force and
produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular
to each other (Fig. 4.5).
If velocity has a component along B, this component
FIGURE 4.5 Circular motion
remains unchanged as the motion along the magnetic field will
not be affected by the magnetic field. The motion
in a plane perpendicular to B is as before a
circular one, thereby producing a helical motion
(Fig. 4.6).
You have already learnt in earlier classes
(See Class XI, Chapter 4) that if r is the radius
of the circular path of a particle, then a force of
m v2 / r, acts perpendicular to the path towards
the centre of the circle, and is called the
centripetal force. If the velocity v is
perpendicular to the magnetic field B, the
magnetic force is perpendicular to both v and
B and acts like a centripetal force. It has a
magnitude q v B. Equating the two expressions
for centripetal force,
m v 2/r = q v B, which gives
r = m v / qB (4.5)
FIGURE 4.6 Helical motion for the radius of the circle described by the
charged particle. The larger the momentum,
the larger is the radius and bigger the circle described. If ω is the angular
frequency, then v = ω r. So,
ω = 2π ν = q B/ m [4.6(a)]
which is independent of the velocity or energy . Here ν is the frequency of
rotation. The independence of ν from energy has important application
in the design of a cyclotron (see Section 4.4.2).
The time taken for one revolution is T= 2π/ω ≡ 1/ν. If there is a
component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by v||), it
will make the particle move along the field and the path of the particle
would be a helical one (Fig. 4.6). The distance moved along the magnetic
field in one rotation is called pitch p. Using Eq. [4.6 (a)], we have
p = v||T = 2πm v|| / q B [4.6(b)]
The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of
138 the helix.
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EXAMPLE 4.3
r = m v / (qB ) = 9 ×10–31 kg × 3 × 107 m s–1 / ( 1.6 × 10–19 C × 6 × 10–4 T )
= 26 × 10–2 m = 26 cm
ν = v / (2 πr) = 2×106 s–1 = 2×106 Hz =2 MHz.
E = (½ )mv 2 = (½ ) 9 × 10–31 kg × 9 × 1014 m2/s2 = 40.5 ×10–17 J
–16
≈ 4×10 J = 2.5 keV.
In polar regions like Alaska and Northern Canada, a splendid display of colours is seen
in the sky. The appearance of dancing green pink lights is fascinating, and equally
puzzling. An explanation of this natural phenomenon is now found in physics, in terms
of what we have studied here.
Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge q, entering a region of magnetic
field B with an initial velocity v. Let this velocity have a component vp parallel to the
magnetic field and a component vn normal to it. There is no force on a charged particle in
the direction of the field. Hence the particle continues to travel with the velocity vp parallel
to the field. The normal component vn of the particle results in a Lorentz force (vn × B)
which is perpendicular to both vn and B. As seen in Section 4.3.1 the particle thus has a
tendency to perform a circular motion in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field.
When this is coupled with the velocity parallel to the field, the resulting trajectory will be
a helix along the magnetic field line, as shown in Figure (a) here. Even if the field line
bends, the helically moving particle is trapped and guided to move around the field line.
Since the Lorentz force is normal to the velocity of each point, the field does no work on
the particle and the magnitude of velocity remains the same.
During a solar flare, a large number of electrons and protons are ejected from the sun.
Some of them get trapped in the earth’s magnetic field and move in helical paths along the
field lines. The field lines come closer to each other near the magnetic poles; see figure (b).
Hence the density of charges increases near the poles. These particles collide with atoms
and molecules of the atmosphere. Excited oxygen atoms emit green light and excited
nitrogen atoms emits pink light. This phenomenon is called Aurora Borealis in physics.
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4.4 MOTION IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC
FIELDS
4.4.1 Velocity selector
You know that a charge q moving with velocity v in presence of both
electric and magnetic fields experiences a force given by Eq. (4.3), that is,
F = q (E + v × B) = FE + FB
We shall consider the simple case in which electric and magnetic
fields are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to
the velocity of the particle, as shown in Fig. 4.7. We have,
E = E ˆj, B = B kˆ , v = v ˆi
E
ˆ
B (
F = qE = qE j, F = qv × B, = q v ˆi × Bk )
ˆ = –qB ˆj
Therefore, F = q ( E – vB ) ˆj .
Thus, electric and magnetic forces are in opposite directions as
shown in the figure. Suppose, we adjust the value of E and B such
that magnitudes of the two forces are equal. Then, total force on
FIGURE 4.7 the charge is zero and the charge will move in the fields undeflected.
This happens when,
E
qE = qvB or v = (4.7)
B
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=33.0
4.4.2 Cyclotron
Interactive demonstration:
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increases, the radius of the circular path increases. So the path is a
spiral one.
The whole assembly is evacuated to minimise collisions between the
ions and the air molecules. A high frequency alternating voltage is applied
to the dees. In the sketch shown in Fig. 4.8, positive ions or positively
charged particles (e.g., protons) are released at the centre P. They move
in a semi-circular path in one of the dees and arrive in the gap between
the dees in a time interval T/2; where T, the period of revolution, is given
by Eq. (4.6),
1 2πm
T = =
νc qB
qB
or ν c = (4.8)
2 πm
This frequency is called the cyclotron frequency for obvious reasons
and is denoted by νc .
The frequency νa of the applied voltage is adjusted so that the polarity
of the dees is reversed in the same time that it takes the ions to complete
one half of the revolution. The requirement νa = νc is called the resonance
condition. The phase of the supply is adjusted so that when the positive
ions arrive at the edge of D1, D2 is at a lower
potential and the ions are accelerated across the
gap. Inside the dees the particles travel in a region
free of the electric field. The increase in their
kinetic energy is qV each time they cross from
one dee to another (V refers to the voltage across
the dees at that time). From Eq. (4.5), it is clear
that the radius of their path goes on increasing
each time their kinetic energy increases. The ions
are repeatedly accelerated across the dees until
they have the required energy to have a radius
approximately that of the dees. They are then
deflected by a magnetic field and leave the system
via an exit slit. From Eq. (4.5) we have,
qBR
v= (4.9)
m
where R is the radius of the trajectory at exit, and
equals the radius of a dee.
Hence, the kinetic energy of the ions is, FIGURE 4.8 A schematic sketch of the
cyclotron. There is a source of charged
1 q 2 B 2R 2 particles or ions at P which move in a
mv 2 = (4.10)
2 2m circular fashion in the dees, D1 and D2, on
account of a uniform perpendicular
The operation of the cyclotron is based on the magnetic field B. An alternating voltage
fact that the time for one revolution of an ion is source accelerates these ions to high
independent of its speed or radius of its orbit. speeds. The ions are eventually ‘extracted’
The cyclotron is used to bombard nuclei with at the exit port.
energetic particles, so accelerated by it, and study 141
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the resulting nuclear reactions. It is also used to implant ions into solids
and modify their properties or even synthesise new materials. It is used
in hospitals to produce radioactive substances which can be used in
diagnosis and treatment.
ACCELERATORS IN INDIA
India has been an early entrant in the area of accelerator-based research. The vision of
Dr. Meghnath Saha created a 37" Cyclotron in the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics in
Kolkata in 1953. This was soon followed by a series of Cockroft-Walton type of accelerators
established in Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai, Aligarh Muslim
University (AMU), Aligarh, Bose Institute, Kolkata and Andhra University, Waltair.
The sixties saw the commissioning of a number of Van de Graaff accelerators: a 5.5 MV
terminal machine in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai (1963); a 2 MV terminal
machine in Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur; a 400 kV terminal machine in Banaras
Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi; and Punjabi University, Patiala. One 66 cm Cyclotron
donated by the Rochester University of USA was commissioned in Panjab University,
Chandigarh. A small electron accelerator was also established in University of Pune, Pune.
In a major initiative taken in the seventies and eighties, a Variable Energy Cyclotron was
built indigenously in Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Kolkata; 2 MV Tandem Van
de Graaff accelerator was developed and built in BARC and a 14 MV Tandem Pelletron
accelerator was installed in TIFR.
This was soon followed by a 15 MV Tandem Pelletron established by University Grants
Commission (UGC), as an inter-university facility in Inter-University Accelerator Centre
(IUAC), New Delhi; a 3 MV Tandem Pelletron in Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar; and two
1.7 MV Tandetrons in Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research, Hyderabad
and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam. Both TIFR and IUAC are
augmenting their facilities with the addition of superconducting LINAC modules to accelerate
the ions to higher energies.
Besides these ion accelerators, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has developed
many electron accelerators. A 2 GeV Synchrotron Radiation Source is being built in Raja
Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technologies, Indore.
The Department of Atomic Energy is considering Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS) for
power production and fissile material breeding as future options.
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Answers
4.21 (a) A horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.26 T normal to the
conductor in such a direction that Fleming’s left-hand rule gives
a magnetic force upward.
(b) 1.176 N.
4.22 1.2 N m–1; repulsive. Note, obtaining total force on the wire as
1.2 × 0.7 = 0.84 N, is only approximately correct because the formula
µ
F = 0 I1 I 2 for force per unit length is strictly valid for infinitely
2π r
long conductors.
4.23 (a) 2.1 N vertically downwards
(b) 2.1 N vertically downwards (true for any angle between current
and direction and B since l sin θ remains fixed, equal to 20 cm)
(c) 1.68 N vertically downwards
4.24 Use τ = IA × B and F = I l × B
(a) 1.8 × 10–2 N m along –y direction
(b) same as in (a)
(c) 1.8 × 10–2 N m along –x direction
(d) 1.8 × 10–2 N m at an angle of 240° with the +x direction
(e) zero
(f ) zero
Force is zero in each case. Case (e) corresponds to stable, and case
(f ) corresponds to unstable equilibrium.
4.25 (a) Zero, (b) zero, (c) force on each electron is evB = IB/(nA) = 5 × 10–25 N.
Note: Answer (c) denotes only the magnetic force.
4.26 108 A
4.27 Resistance in series = 5988 Ω
4.28 Shunt resistance = 10 mΩ
CHAPTER 5
5.1 (a) Magnetic declination, angle of dip, horizontal component of
earth’s magnetic field.
(b) Greater in Britain (it is about 70°), because Britain is closer to
the magnetic north pole.
(c) Field lines of B due to the earth’s magnetism would seem to
come out of the ground.
(d) A compass is free to move in a horizontal plane, while the earth’s
field is exactly vertical at the magnetic poles. So the compass
can point in any direction there.
(e) Use the formula for field B on the normal bisector of a dipole of
magnetic moment m,
µ m
BA = − 0 3
4π r
Take m = 8 × 1022 J T –1, r = 6.4 × 106 m; one gets B = 0.3 G, which
checks with the order of magnitude of the observed field on
the earth.
(f) Why not? The earth’s field is only approximately a dipole field.
Local N-S poles may arise due to, for instance, magnetised
mineral deposits. 295
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(iii) The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the
source and the field point. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane containing the displacement vector r and the current element
I dl.
(iv) There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not
present in the electrostatic case. In Fig. 4.9, the magnetic field at any
point in the direction of dl (the dashed line) is zero. Along this line,
θ = 0, sin θ = 0 and from Eq. [4.11(a)], |dB| = 0.
There is an interesting relation between ε0, the permittivity of free
space; µ , the permeability of free space; and c, the speed of light in
0
vacuum:
µ0 1 1 1
ε 0 µ0 = ( 4 π ε 0 )
4π
=
9 × 109
(10 ) = (3 × 10
−7
8 2
)
=
c2
We will discuss this connection further in Chapter 8 on the
electromagnetic waves. Since the speed of light in vacuum is constant,
the product µ0ε0 is fixed in magnitude. Choosing the value of either ε0 or
µ0, fixes the value of the other. In SI units, µ0 is fixed to be equal to
4π × 10–7 in magnitude.
FIGURE 4.10
Solution
µ 0 I dl sin θ
|dB | = [using Eq. (4.11)]
4π r2
Tm
dl = ∆x = 10 −2 m , I = 10 A, r = 0.5 m = y, µ0 / 4 π = 10 −7
A
θ = 90° ; sin θ = 1
10−7 × 10 × 10 −2
dB = = 4 × 10–8 T
25 × 10 −2
The direction of the field is in the +z-direction. This is so since,
EXAMPLE 4.5
( )
dl × r = ∆x ˆi × y ˆj = y ∆x ˆi × ˆj = y ∆x k
ˆ
We remind you of the following cyclic property of cross-products,
ˆi × ˆj = k
ˆ ; ˆj × k
ˆ = ˆi ; k
ˆ × ˆi = ˆj
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In the next section, we shall use the Biot-Savart law to calculate the
magnetic field due to a circular loop.
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The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2πR, the
circumference of the loop. Thus, the magnetic field at P due to entire
circular loop is
µ0 I R 2
B = B x ˆi = 3/2
ˆi
(4.15)
(
2 x 2 + R2 )
As a special case of the above result, we may obtain the field at the centre
of the loop. Here x = 0, and we obtain,
µ I
B0 = 0 ˆi (4.16)
2R
The magnetic field lines due to a circular wire form closed loops and
are shown in Fig. 4.12. The direction of the magnetic field is given by
(another) right-hand thumb rule stated below:
Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand thumb
gives the direction of the magnetic field.
FIGURE 4.12 The magnetic field lines for a current loop. The direction of
the field is given by the right-hand thumb rule described in the text. The
upper side of the loop may be thought of as the north pole and the lower
side as the south pole of a magnet.
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Solution
(a) dl and r for each element of the straight segments are parallel.
Therefore, dl × r = 0. Straight segments do not contribute to
|B|.
(b) For all segments of the semicircular arc, dl × r are all parallel to
each other (into the plane of the paper). All such contributions
EXAMPLE 4.6
add up in magnitude. Hence direction of B for a semicircular arc
is given by the right-hand rule and magnitude is half that of a
circular loop. Thus B is 1.9 × 10–4 T normal to the plane of the
paper going into it.
(c) Same magnitude of B but opposite in direction to that in (b).
Example 4.7 Consider a tightly wound 100 turn coil of radius 10 cm,
carrying a current of 1 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field at the centre of the coil?
Solution Since the coil is tightly wound, we may take each circular
EXAMPLE 4.7
element to have the same radius R = 10 cm = 0.1 m. The number of
turns N = 100. The magnitude of the magnetic field is,
µ0 NI 4 π × 10 –7 × 102 × 1 −4
B= = = 2π × 10 −4 = 6.28 × 10 T
2R 2 × 10 –1
“B..ddll = µ I
0 [4.17(a)]
where I is the total current through the surface. The integral is taken
over the closed loop coinciding with the boundary C of the surface. The
relation above involves a sign-convention, given by the right-hand rule.
Let the fingers of the right-hand be curled in the sense the boundary is
“
traversed in the loop integral B.dl. Then the direction of the thumb
gives the sense in which the current I is regarded as positive.
For several applications, a much simplified version of Eq. [4.17(a)]
proves sufficient. We shall assume that, in such cases, it is possible to
choose the loop (called an amperian loop) such that at each point of the
loop, either 147
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(i) B is tangential to the loop and is a non-zero constant
B, or
(ii) B is normal to the loop, or
(iii) B vanishes.
Now, let L be the length (part) of the loop for which B
is tangential. Let Ie be the current enclosed by the loop.
Then, Eq. (4.17) reduces to,
BL =µ0Ie [4.17(b)]
When there is a system with a symmetry such as for
a straight infinite current-carrying wire in Fig. 4.15, the
Ampere’s law enables an easy evaluation of the magnetic
field, much the same way Gauss’ law helps in
determination of the electric field. This is exhibited in the
Andre Ampere (1775 – Example 4.9 below. The boundary of the loop chosen is
1836) Andre Marie Ampere a circle and magnetic field is tangential to the
was a French physicist, circumference of the circle. The law gives, for the left hand
mathematician and chemist side of Eq. [4.17 (b)], B. 2πr. We find that the magnetic
who founded the science of field at a distance r outside the wire is tangential and
electrodynamics. Ampere given by
was a child prodigy
who mastered advanced B × 2πr = µ0 I,
mathematics by the age of
B = µ0 I/ (2πr) (4.18)
12. Ampere grasped the
significance of Oersted’s The above result for the infinite wire is interesting
discovery. He carried out a from several points of view.
large series of experiments (i) It implies that the field at every point on a circle of
to explore the relationship radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is same in
between current electricity magnitude. In other words, the magnetic field
and magnetism. These possesses what is called a cylindrical symmetry. The
investigations culminated
field that normally can depend on three coordinates
ANDRE AMPERE (1775 –1836)
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(iv) There exists a simple rule to determine the direction of the magnetic
field due to a long wire. This rule, called the right-hand rule*, is:
Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing
in the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the
direction of the magnetic field.
Ampere’s circuital law is not new in content from Biot-Savart law.
Both relate the magnetic field and the current, and both express the same
physical consequences of a steady electrical current. Ampere’s law is to
Biot-Savart law, what Gauss’s law is to Coulomb’s law. Both, Ampere’s
and Gauss’s law relate a physical quantity on the periphery or boundary
(magnetic or electric field) to another physical quantity, namely, the source,
in the interior (current or charge). We also note that Ampere’s circuital
law holds for steady currents which do not fluctuate with time. The
following example will help us understand what is meant by the term
enclosed current.
FIGURE 4.15
Solution (a) Consider the case r > a . The Amperian loop, labelled 2,
is a circle concentric with the cross-section. For this loop,
L =2πr
Ie = Current enclosed by the loop = I
The result is the familiar expression for a long straight wire
B (2π r) = µ0I
µ0 I
B= [4.19(a)]
2πr
1
EXAMPLE 4.8
B∝ (r > a)
r
(b) Consider the case r < a. The Amperian loop is a circle labelled 1.
For this loop, taking the radius of the circle to be r,
L =2πr
* Note that there are two distinct right-hand rules: One which gives the direction
of B on the axis of current-loop and the other which gives direction of B
for a straight conducting wire. Fingers and thumb play different roles in
the two.
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Now the current enclosed I e is not I, but is less than this value.
Since the current distribution is uniform, the current enclosed is,
πr 2 Ir 2
Ie = I 2 =
πa a2
I r2
Using Ampere’s law, B (2 π r ) = µ0
a2
µ I
B = 0 2 r [4.19(b)]
2 πa
B ∝r (r < a)
FIGURE 4.16
It should be noted that while Ampere’s circuital law holds for any
loop, it may not always facilitate an evaluation of the magnetic field in
every case. For example, for the case of the circular loop discussed in
Section 4.6, it cannot be applied to extract the simple expression
B = µ0I/2R [Eq. (4.16)] for the field at the centre of the loop. However,
there exists a large number of situations of high symmetry where the law
can be conveniently applied. We shall use it in the next section to calculate
the magnetic field produced by two commonly used and very useful
magnetic systems: the solenoid and the toroid.
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4.8.1 The solenoid
We shall discuss a long solenoid. By long solenoid we mean that the
solenoid’s length is large compared to its radius. It consists of a long
wire wound in the form of a helix where the neighbouring turns are closely
spaced. So each turn can be regarded as a circular loop. The net magnetic
field is the vector sum of the fields due to all the turns. Enamelled wires
are used for winding so that turns are insulated from each other.
FIGURE 4.17 (a) The magnetic field due to a section of the solenoid which has been
stretched out for clarity. Only the exterior semi-circular part is shown. Notice
how the circular loops between neighbouring turns tend to cancel.
(b) The magnetic field of a finite solenoid.
Figure 4.17 displays the magnetic field lines for a finite solenoid. We
show a section of this solenoid in an enlarged manner in Fig. 4.17(a).
Figure 4.17(b) shows the entire finite solenoid with its magnetic field. In
Fig. 4.17(a), it is clear from the circular loops that the field between two
neighbouring turns vanishes. In Fig. 4.17(b), we see that the field at the
interior mid-point P is uniform, strong and along the axis of the solenoid.
The field at the exterior mid-point Q is weak and moreover is along the
axis of the solenoid with no perpendicular or normal component. As the
solenoid is made longer it appears like a long cylindrical metal sheet.
Figure 4.18 represents this idealised picture. The field outside the solenoid
approaches zero. We shall assume that the field outside is zero. The field
inside becomes everywhere parallel to the axis.
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Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero
as argued above. Along transverse sections bc and ad, the field component
is zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field along
ab be B. Thus, the relevant length of the Amperian loop is, L = h.
Let n be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number
of turns is nh. The enclosed current is, Ie = I (n h), where I is the current
in the solenoid. From Ampere’s circuital law [Eq. 4.17 (b)]
BL = µ0Ie, B h = µ0I (n h)
B = µ0 n I (4.20)
The direction of the field is given by the right-hand rule. The solenoid
is commonly used to obtain a uniform magnetic field. We shall see in the
next chapter that a large field is possible by inserting a soft
iron core inside the solenoid.
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µ0 NI
B= (4.21)
2π r
We shall now compare the two results: for a toroid and solenoid. We
re-express Eq. (4.21) to make the comparison easier with the solenoid
result given in Eq. (4.20). Let r be the average radius of the toroid and n
be the number of turns per unit length. Then
N = 2πr n = (average) perimeter of the toroid
× number of turns per unit length
and thus,
B = µ0 n I, (4.22)
i.e., the result for the solenoid!
In an ideal toroid the coils are circular. In reality the turns of the
toroidal coil form a helix and there is always a small magnetic field external
to the toroid.
MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT
We have seen in Section 4.3 (see also the box on helical motion of charged particles earlier
in this chapter) that orbits of charged particles are helical. If the magnetic field is
non-uniform, but does not change much during one circular orbit, then the radius of the
helix will decrease as it enters stronger magnetic field and the radius will increase when it
enters weaker magnetic fields. We consider two solenoids at a distance from each other,
enclosed in an evacuated container (see figure below where we have not shown the container).
Charged particles moving in the region between the two solenoids will start with a small
radius. The radius will increase as field decreases and the radius will decrease again as
field due to the second solenoid takes over. The solenoids act as a mirror or reflector. [See
the direction of F as the particle approaches coil 2 in the figure. It has a horizontal component
against the forward motion.] This makes the particles turn back when they approach the
solenoid. Such an arrangement will act like magnetic bottle or magnetic container. The
particles will never touch the sides of the container. Such magnetic bottles are of great use
in confining the high energy plasma in fusion experiments. The plasma will destroy any
other form of material container because of its high temperature. Another useful container
is a toroid. Toroids are expected to play a key role in the tokamak, an equipment for plasma
confinement in fusion power reactors. There is an international collaboration called the
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), being set up in France, for
achieving controlled fusion, of which India is a collaborating nation. For details of ITER
collaboration and the project, you may visit http://www.iter.org.
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Example 4.9 A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is
made up of 500 turns. It carries a current of 5 A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
Solution The number of turns per unit length is,
500
n = = 1000 turns/m
0.5
EXAMPLE 4.9
The length l = 0.5 m and radius r = 0.01 m. Thus, l/a = 50 i.e., l >> a .
Hence, we can use the long solenoid formula, namely, Eq. (4.20)
B = µ0n I
= 4π × 10–7 × 103 × 5
= 6.28 × 10–3 T
µ0 I a
Ba =
2πd
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Fba = Ib L Ba
µ0 I a I b
= L (4.23)
2 πd
It is of course possible to compute the force on ‘a’ due to ‘b’. From
considerations similar to above we can find the force Fab, on a segment of
length L of ‘a’ due to the current in ‘b’. It is equal in magnitude to Fba,
and directed towards ‘b’. Thus,
Fba = –Fab (4.24)
Note that this is consistent with Newton’s third Law. Thus, at least for
parallel conductors and steady currents, we have shown that the
Biot-Savart law and the Lorentz force yield results in accordance with
Newton’s third Law*.
We have seen from above that currents flowing in the same direction
attract each other. One can show that oppositely directed currents repel
each other. Thus,
Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel.
This rule is the opposite of what we find in electrostatics. Like (same
sign) charges repel each other, but like (parallel) currents attract each
other.
Let fba represent the magnitude of the force Fba per unit length. Then,
from Eq. (4.23),
µ0 I a I b
f ba = (4.25)
2πd
The above expression is used to define the ampere (A), which is one
of the seven SI base units.
The ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained
in each of the two very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible
cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce
on each of these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7 newtons per metre
of length.
This definition of the ampere was adopted in 1946. It is a theoretical
definition. In practice, one must eliminate the effect of the earth’s magnetic
field and substitute very long wires by multiturn coils of appropriate
geometries. An instrument called the current balance is used to measure
this mechanical force.
The SI unit of charge, namely, the coulomb, can now be defined in
terms of the ampere.
When a steady current of 1A is set up in a conductor, the quantity of
charge that flows through its cross-section in 1s is one coulomb (1C).
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ROGET’S SPIRAL FOR ATTRACTION BETWEEN PARALLEL CURRENTS
Magnetic effects are generally smaller than electric effects. As a consequence, the force
between currents is rather small, because of the smallness of the factor µ. Hence it is
difficult to demonstrate attraction or repulsion between currents. Thus, for 5 A current
in each wire at a separation of 1cm, the force per metre would be 5 × 10–4 N, which is
about 50 mg weight. It would be like pulling a wire by a string going over a pulley to
which a 50 mg weight is attached. The displacement of the wire would be quite
unnoticeable.
With the use of a soft spring, we can increase the effective length of the parallel current
and by using mercury, we can make the displacement of even a few mm observable very
dramatically. You will also need a constant-current
supply giving a constant current of about 5 A.
Take a soft spring whose natural period of
oscillations is about 0.5 – 1s. Hang it vertically and
attach a pointed tip to its lower end, as shown in the
figure here. Take some mercury in a dish and adjust the
spring such that the tip is just above the mercury
surface. Take the DC current source, connect one of its
terminals to the upper end of the spring, and dip the
other terminal in mercury. If the tip of the spring touches
mercury, the circuit is completed through mercury.
Let the DC source be put off to begin with. Let the tip be adjusted so that it just
touches the mercury surface. Switch on the constant current supply, and watch the
fascinating outcome. The spring shrinks with a jerk, the tip comes out of mercury (just
by a mm or so), the circuit is broken, the current stops, the spring relaxes and tries to
come back to its original position, the tip again touches mercury establishing a current
in the circuit, and the cycle continues with tick, tick, tick,... In the beginning, you may
require some small adjustments to get a good effect.
Keep your face away from mercury vapour as it is poisonous. Do not inhale mercury
vapour for long.
f = F/l = I B sinθ
(a) When the current is flowing from east to west,
θ = 90°
Hence,
f=IB
156 = 1 × 3 × 10–5 = 3 × 10–5 N m–1
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This is larger than the value 2×10–7 Nm–1 quoted in the definition
of the ampere. Hence it is important to eliminate the effect of the
earth’s magnetic field and other stray fields while standardising
the ampere.
EXAMPLE 4.10
The direction of the force is downwards. This direction may be
obtained by the directional property of cross product of vectors.
(b) When the current is flowing from south to north,
θ = 0o
f=0
Hence there is no force on the conductor.
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the coil to be angle θ (The previous case
corresponds to θ = π/2). Figure 4.22 illustrates
this general case.
The forces on the arms BC and DA are equal,
opposite, and act along the axis of the coil, which
connects the centres of mass of BC and DA. Being
collinear along the axis they cancel each other,
resulting in no net force or torque. The forces on
arms AB and CD are F1 and F2. They too are equal
and opposite, with magnitude,
F1 = F2 = I b B
But they are not collinear! This results in a
couple as before. The torque is, however, less than
the earlier case when plane of loop was along the
magnetic field. This is because the perpendicular
distance between the forces of the couple has
decreased. Figure 4.22(b) is a view of the
arrangement from the AD end and it illustrates
these two forces constituting a couple. The
magnitude of the torque on the loop is,
a a
τ = F1 sin θ + F2 sin θ
2 2
FIGURE 4.22 (a) The area vector of the loop
ABCD makes an arbitrary angle θ with = I ab B sin θ
the magnetic field. (b) Top view of = I A B sin θ (4.27)
the loop. The forces F1 and F2 acting
on the arms AB and CD As θ à 0, the perpendicular distance between
are indicated. the forces of the couple also approaches zero. This
makes the forces collinear and the net force and
torque zero. The torques in Eqs. (4.26) and (4.27)
can be expressed as vector product of the magnetic moment of the coil
and the magnetic field. We define the magnetic moment of the current
loop as,
m=IA (4.28)
where the direction of the area vector A is given by the right-hand thumb
rule and is directed into the plane of the paper in Fig. 4.21. Then as the
angle between m and B is θ , Eqs. (4.26) and (4.27) can be expressed by
one expression
τ = m×B (4.29)
This is analogous to the electrostatic case (Electric dipole of dipole
moment pe in an electric field E).
τ = pe × E
As is clear from Eq. (4.28), the dimensions of the magnetic moment are
[A][L2] and its unit is Am2.
From Eq. (4.29), we see that the torque τ vanishes when m is either
parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field B. This indicates a state of
equilibrium as there is no torque on the coil (this also applies to any
158 object with a magnetic moment m). When m and B are parallel the
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equilibrium is a stable one. Any small rotation of the coil produces a
torque which brings it back to its original position. When they are
antiparallel, the equilibrium is unstable as any rotation produces a torque
which increases with the amount of rotation. The presence of this torque
is also the reason why a small magnet or any magnetic dipole aligns
itself with the external magnetic field.
If the loop has N closely wound turns, the expression for torque, Eq.
(4.29), still holds, with
m=NIA (4.30)
Using this,
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Integrating from θ = 0 to θ = π/2,
EXAMPLE 4.11
Example 4.12
(a) A current-carrying circular loop lies on a smooth horizontal plane.
Can a uniform magnetic field be set up in such a manner that
the loop turns around itself (i.e., turns about the vertical axis).
(b) A current-carrying circular loop is located in a uniform external
magnetic field. If the loop is free to turn, what is its orientation
of stable equilibrium? Show that in this orientation, the flux of
the total field (external field + field produced by the loop) is
maximum.
(c) A loop of irregular shape carrying current is located in an external
magnetic field. If the wire is flexible, why does it change to a
circular shape?
Solution
(a) No, because that would require τ to be in the vertical direction.
But τ = I A × B, and since A of the horizontal loop is in the vertical
direction, τ would be in the plane of the loop for any B.
(b) Orientation of stable equilibrium is one where the area vector A
of the loop is in the direction of external magnetic field. In this
EXAMPLE 4.12
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µ0 IR 2
B=
2x 3
Note that the area of the loop A = πR2. Thus,
µ0 IA
B=
2 πx 3
As earlier, we define the magnetic moment m to have a magnitude IA,
m = I A. Hence,
µ m
B; 0 3
2πx
µ0 2 m
= [4.31(a)]
4π x 3
The expression of Eq. [4.31(a)] is very similar to an expression obtained
earlier for the electric field of a dipole. The similarity may be seen if we
substitute,
µ0 → 1/ ε 0
m → pe (electrostatic dipole)
B → E (electrostatic field)
We then obtain,
2pe
E=
4 π ε0 x 3
which is precisely the field for an electric dipole at a point on its axis.
considered in Chapter 1, Section 1.10 [Eq. (1.20)].
It can be shown that the above analogy can be carried further. We
had found in Chapter 1 that the electric field on the perpendicular bisector
of the dipole is given by [See Eq.(1.21)],
pe
E;
4πε0 x 3
where x is the distance from the dipole. If we replace p à m and µ0 → 1/ ε 0
in the above expression, we obtain the result for B for a point in the
plane of the loop at a distance x from the centre. For x >>R,
µ0 m
B; ; x >> R [4.31(b)]
4π x 3
The results given by Eqs. [4.31(a)] and [4.31(b)] become exact for a
point magnetic dipole.
The results obtained above can be shown to apply to any planar loop:
a planar current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of dipole moment
m = I A, which is the analogue of electric dipole moment p. Note, however,
a fundamental difference: an electric dipole is built up of two elementary
units — the charges (or electric monopoles). In magnetism, a magnetic
dipole (or a current loop) is the most elementary element. The equivalent
of electric charges, i.e., magnetic monopoles, are not known to exist.
We have shown that a current loop (i) produces a magnetic field (see
Fig. 4.12) and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large distances, and 161
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(ii) is subject to torque like a magnetic needle. This led Ampere to suggest
that all magnetism is due to circulating currents. This seems to be partly
true and no magnetic monopoles have been seen so far. However,
elementary particles such as an electron or a proton also carry an intrinsic
magnetic moment, not accounted by circulating currents.
µl l = – e l [4.34(b)]
2m e
The negative sign indicates that the angular momentum of the electron
162
is opposite in direction to the magnetic moment. Instead of electron with
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charge (– e), if we had taken a particle with charge (+q), the angular
momentum and magnetic moment would be in the same direction. The
ratio
µl e
= (4.35)
l 2m e
is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg
for an electron, which has been verified by experiments.
The fact that even at an atomic level there is a magnetic moment,
confirms Ampere’s bold hypothesis of atomic magnetic moments. This
according to Ampere, would help one to explain the magnetic properties
www.citycollegiate.com/galvanometer_XIIa.htm
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter:
of materials. Can one assign a value to this atomic dipole moment? The
answer is Yes. One can do so within the Bohr model. Bohr hypothesised
that the angular momentum assumes a discrete set of values, namely,
nh
l = (4.36)
2π
where n is a natural number, n = 1, 2, 3, .... and h is a constant named
after Max Planck (Planck’s constant) with a value h = 6.626 × 10–34 J s.
This condition of discreteness is called the Bohr quantisation condition.
We shall discuss it in detail in Chapter 12. Our aim here is merely to use
it to calculate the elementary dipole moment. Take the value n = 1, we
have from Eq. (4.34) that,
e
( µl )min = h
4 π me
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Physics
coil galvanometer (MCG). It is a device whose principle can be understood
on the basis of our discussion in Section 4.10.
The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate
about a fixed axis (Fig. 4.24), in a uniform radial magnetic field. There is
a cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes the field radial but also
increases the strength of the magnetic field. When a current flows through
the coil, a torque acts on it. This torque is given by Eq. (4.26) to be
τ = NI AB
where the symbols have their usual meaning. Since the field is radial by
design, we have taken sin θ = 1 in the above expression for the torque.
The magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil. A spring Sp provides a
counter torque kφ that balances the magnetic torque NIAB; resulting in a
steady angular deflection φ. In equilibrium
kφ = NI AB
where k is the torsional constant of the spring; i.e. the restoring torque
per unit twist. The deflection φ is indicated on the scale by a pointer
attached to the spring. We have
NAB
φ= I (4.38)
k
The quantity in brackets is a constant for a given
galvanometer.
The galvanometer can be used in a number of ways.
It can be used as a detector to check if a current is
flowing in the circuit. We have come across this usage
in the Wheatstone’s bridge arrangement. In this usage
the neutral position of the pointer (when no current is
flowing through the galvanometer) is in the middle of
the scale and not at the left end as shown in Fig.4.24.
Depending on the direction of the current, the pointer’s
deflection is either to the right or the left.
The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an
ammeter to measure the value of the current in a given
circuit. This is for two reasons: (i) Galvanometer is a
very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection for
a current of the order of µA. (ii) For measuring
currents, the galvanometer has to be connected in
series, and as it has a large resistance, this will change
the value of the current in the circuit. To overcome
these difficulties, one attaches a small resistance rs,
called shunt resistance, in parallel with
FIGURE 4.24 The moving coil
the galvanometer coil; so that most of the current
galvanometer. Its elements are
described in the text. Depending on passes through the shunt. The resistance of this
the requirement, this device can be arrangement is,
used as a current detector or for RG rs / (RG + rs ) ; rs if RG >> rs
measuring the value of the current
(ammeter) or voltage (voltmeter). If rs has small value, in relation to the resistance of
the rest of the circuit Rc, the effect of introducing the
164 measuring instrument is also small and negligible. This
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Moving Charges and
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arrangement is schematically shown in Fig. 4.25. The scale of this
ammeter is calibrated and then graduated to read off the current value
with ease. We define the current sensitivity of the galvanometer as the
deflection per unit current. From Eq. (4.38) this current sensitivity is,
φ NAB
= (4.39)
I k
A convenient way for the manufacturer to increase the sensitivity is
to increase the number of turns N. We choose galvanometers having
sensitivities of value, required by our experiment.
The galvanometer can also be used as a voltmeter to measure the FIGURE 4.25
voltage across a given section of the circuit. For this it must be connected Conversion of a
in parallel with that section of the circuit. Further, it must draw a very galvanometer (G) to
small current, otherwise the voltage measurement will disturb the original an ammeter by the
set up by an amount which is very large. Usually we like to keep the introduction of a
disturbance due to the measuring device below one per cent. To ensure shunt resistance rs of
this, a large resistance R is connected in series with the galvanometer. very small value in
This arrangement is schematically depicted in Fig.4.26. Note that the parallel.
resistance of the voltmeter is now,
RG + R ; R : large
The scale of the voltmeter is calibrated to read off the voltage value
with ease. We define the voltage sensitivity as the deflection per unit
voltage. From Eq. (4.38),
φ NAB I NAB 1
= = (4.40)
V k V k R
An interesting point to note is that increasing the current sensitivity
may not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity. Let us take Eq. (4.39)
which provides a measure of current sensitivity. If N → 2N, i.e., we double FIGURE 4.26
the number of turns, then Conversion of a
galvanometer (G) to a
φ φ
→2 voltmeter by the
I I introduction of a
Thus, the current sensitivity doubles. However, the resistance of the resistance R of large
galvanometer is also likely to double, since it is proportional to the length value in series.
of the wire. In Eq. (4.40), N →2N, and R →2R, thus the voltage sensitivity,
φ φ
→
V V
remains unchanged. So in general, the modification needed for conversion
of a galvanometer to an ammeter will be different from what is needed
for converting it into a voltmeter.
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FIGURE 4.27
Solution
(a) Total resistance in the circuit is,
RG + 3 = 63 Ω . Hence, I = 3/63 = 0.048 A.
(b) Resistance of the galvanometer converted to an ammeter is,
RG rs 60 Ω × 0.02Ω
=
(60 + 0.02)Ω ; 0.02Ω
EXAMPLE 4.13
RG + rs
Total resistance in the circuit is,
0.02 Ω + 3 Ω = 3.02 Ω . Hence, I = 3/3.02 = 0.99 A.
(c) For the ideal ammeter with zero resistance,
I = 3/3 = 1.00 A
SUMMARY
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µ0 IR 2
B=
2( x + R 2 )3 / 2
2
µ0 I
B=
2πR
The field lines are circles concentric with the wire.
8. The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying a current
I is
B = µ0nI
where n is the number of turns per unit length. For a toroid one
obtains,
µ0 NI
B=
2 πr
where N is the total number of turns and r is the average radius.
9. Parallel currents attract and anti-parallel currents repel.
10. A planar loop carrying a current I, having N closely wound turns, and
an area A possesses a magnetic moment m where,
m=NIA
and the direction of m is given by the right-hand thumb rule : curl
the palm of your right hand along the loop with the fingers pointing
in the direction of the current. The thumb sticking out gives the
direction of m (and A)
When this loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, the force F on
it is: F = 0
And the torque on it is,
τ=m×B
In a moving coil galvanometer, this torque is balanced by a counter-
torque due to a spring, yielding
kφ = NI AB
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where φ is the equilibrium deflection and k the torsion constant of
the spring.
11. An electron moving around the central nucleus has a magnetic moment
µl given by:
e
µl = l
2m
where l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the circulating
electron about the central nucleus. The smallest value of µl is called
the Bohr magneton µ B and it is µ B = 9.27×10–24 J/T
12. A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into a ammeter by
introducing a shunt resistance rs, of small value in parallel. It can be
converted into a voltmeter by introducing a resistance of a large value
in series.
POINTS TO PONDER
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EXERCISES
4.1 A circular coil of wire consisting of 100 turns, each of radius 8.0 cm
carries a current of 0.40 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field B at the centre of the coil?
4.2 A long straight wire carries a current of 35 A. What is the magnitude
of the field B at a point 20 cm from the wire?
4.3 A long straight wire in the horizontal plane carries a current of 50 A
in north to south direction. Give the magnitude and direction of B
at a point 2.5 m east of the wire.
4.4 A horizontal overhead power line carries a current of 90 A in east to
west direction. What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field due to the current 1.5 m below the line?
4.5 What is the magnitude of magnetic force per unit length on a wire
carrying a current of 8 A and making an angle of 30º with the
direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T ?
4.6 A 3.0 cm wire carrying a current of 10 A is placed inside a solenoid
perpendicular to its axis. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is
given to be 0.27 T. What is the magnetic force on the wire?
4.7 Two long and parallel straight wires A and B carrying currents of
8.0 A and 5.0 A in the same direction are separated by a distance of
4.0 cm. Estimate the force on a 10 cm section of wire A.
4.8 A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5 layers of windings of 400
turns each. The diameter of the solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current
carried is 8.0 A, estimate the magnitude of B inside the solenoid
near its centre.
4.9 A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20 turns and carries a current
of 12 A. The coil is suspended vertically and the normal to the plane
of the coil makes an angle of 30º with the direction of a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.80 T. What is the magnitude
of torque experienced by the coil?
4.10 Two moving coil meters, M1 and M2 have the following particulars:
R1 = 10 Ω, N1 = 30,
A1 = 3.6 × 10–3 m2, B1 = 0.25 T
R2 = 14 Ω, N2 = 42,
A2 = 1.8 × 10–3 m2, B2 = 0.50 T
(The spring constants are identical for the two meters).
Determine the ratio of (a) current sensitivity and (b) voltage
sensitivity of M2 and M1.
4.11 In a chamber, a uniform magnetic field of 6.5 G (1 G = 10 –4 T ) is
maintained. An electron is shot into the field with a speed of
4.8 × 106 m s–1 normal to the field. Explain why the path of the
electron is a circle. Determine the radius of the circular orbit.
(e = 1.5 × 10–19 C, me = 9.1×10–31 kg )
4.12 In Exercise 4.11 obtain the frequency of revolution of the electron in
its circular orbit. Does the answer depend on the speed of the
electron? Explain.
4.13 (a) A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0 cm carrying a current
of 6.0 A is suspended vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic
field of magnitude 1.0 T. The field lines make an angle of 60°
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with the normal of the coil. Calculate the magnitude of the
counter torque that must be applied to prevent the coil from
turning.
(b) Would your answer change, if the circular coil in (a) were replaced
by a planar coil of some irregular shape that encloses the same
area? (All other particulars are also unaltered.)
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
4.14 Two concentric circular coils X and Y of radii 16 cm and 10 cm,
respectively, lie in the same vertical plane containing the north to
south direction. Coil X has 20 turns and carries a current of 16 A;
coil Y has 25 turns and carries a current of 18 A. The sense of the
current in X is anticlockwise, and clockwise in Y, for an observer
looking at the coils facing west. Give the magnitude and direction of
the net magnetic field due to the coils at their centre.
4.15 A magnetic field of 100 G (1 G = 10–4 T) is required which is uniform
in a region of linear dimension about 10 cm and area of cross-section
about 10–3 m2. The maximum current-carrying capacity of a given
coil of wire is 15 A and the number of turns per unit length that can
be wound round a core is at most 1000 turns m–1. Suggest some
appropriate design particulars of a solenoid for the required purpose.
Assume the core is not ferromagnetic.
4.16 For a circular coil of radius R and N turns carrying current I, the
magnitude of the magnetic field at a point on its axis at a distance x
from its centre is given by,
µ0 IR 2 N
B= 3/2
(
2 x 2 + R2 )
(a) Show that this reduces to the familiar result for field at the
centre of the coil.
(b) Consider two parallel co-axial circular coils of equal radius R,
and number of turns N, carrying equal currents in the same
direction, and separated by a distance R. Show that the field on
the axis around the mid-point between the coils is uniform over
a distance that is small as compared to R, and is given by,
µ0 NI
B = 0.72 , approximately.
R
[Such an arrangement to produce a nearly uniform magnetic
field over a small region is known as Helmholtz coils.]
4.17 A toroid has a core (non-ferromagnetic) of inner radius 25 cm and
outer radius 26 cm, around which 3500 turns of a wire are wound.
If the current in the wire is 11 A, what is the magnetic field
(a) outside the toroid, (b) inside the core of the toroid, and (c) in the
empty space surrounded by the toroid.
4.18 Answer the following questions:
(a) A magnetic field that varies in magnitude from point to point
but has a constant direction (east to west) is set up in a chamber.
170 A charged particle enters the chamber and travels undeflected
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along a straight path with constant speed. What can you say
about the initial velocity of the particle?
(b) A charged particle enters an environment of a strong and
non-uniform magnetic field varying from point to point both in
magnitude and direction, and comes out of it following a
complicated trajectory. Would its final speed equal the initial
speed if it suffered no collisions with the environment?
(c) An electron travelling west to east enters a chamber having a
uniform electrostatic field in north to south direction. Specify
the direction in which a uniform magnetic field should be set
up to prevent the electron from deflecting from its straight line
path.
4.19 An electron emitted by a heated cathode and accelerated through a
potential difference of 2.0 kV, enters a region with uniform magnetic
field of 0.15 T. Determine the trajectory of the electron if the field
(a) is transverse to its initial velocity, (b) makes an angle of 30º with
the initial velocity.
4.20 A magnetic field set up using Helmholtz coils (described in Exercise
4.16) is uniform in a small region and has a magnitude of 0.75 T. In
the same region, a uniform electrostatic field is maintained in a
direction normal to the common axis of the coils. A narrow beam of
(single species) charged particles all accelerated through 15 kV
enters this region in a direction perpendicular to both the axis of
the coils and the electrostatic field. If the beam remains undeflected
when the electrostatic field is 9.0 × 10–5 V m–1, make a simple guess
as to what the beam contains. Why is the answer not unique?
4.21 A straight horizontal conducting rod of length 0.45 m and mass
60 g is suspended by two vertical wires at its ends. A current of 5.0 A
is set up in the rod through the wires.
(a) What magnetic field should be set up normal to the conductor
in order that the tension in the wires is zero?
(b) What will be the total tension in the wires if the direction of
current is reversed keeping the magnetic field same as before?
(Ignore the mass of the wires.) g = 9.8 m s–2.
4.22 The wires which connect the battery of an automobile to its starting
motor carry a current of 300 A (for a short time). What is the force
per unit length between the wires if they are 70 cm long and 1.5 cm
apart? Is the force attractive or repulsive?
4.23 A uniform magnetic field of 1.5 T exists in a cylindrical region of
radius10.0 cm, its direction parallel to the axis along east to west. A
wire carrying current of 7.0 A in the north to south direction passes
through this region. What is the magnitude and direction of the
force on the wire if,
(a) the wire intersects the axis,
(b) the wire is turned from N-S to northeast-northwest direction,
(c) the wire in the N-S direction is lowered from the axis by a distance
of 6.0 cm?
4.24 A uniform magnetic field of 3000 G is established along the positive
z-direction. A rectangular loop of sides 10 cm and 5 cm carries a
current of 12 A. What is the torque on the loop in the different cases
shown in Fig. 4.28? What is the force on each case? Which case
corresponds to stable equilibrium? 171
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FIGURE 4.28
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Chapter Five
MAGNETISM AND
MATTER
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Magnetic phenomena are universal in nature. Vast, distant galaxies, the
tiny invisible atoms, humans and beasts all are permeated through and
through with a host of magnetic fields from a variety of sources. The earth’s
magnetism predates human evolution. The word magnet is derived from
the name of an island in Greece called magnesia where magnetic ore
deposits were found, as early as 600 BC. Shepherds on this island
complained that their wooden shoes (which had nails) at times stayed
struck to the ground. Their iron-tipped rods were similarly affected. This
attractive property of magnets made it difficult for them to move around.
The directional property of magnets was also known since ancient
times. A thin long piece of a magnet, when suspended freely, pointed in
the north-south direction. A similar effect was observed when it was placed
on a piece of cork which was then allowed to float in still water. The name
lodestone (or loadstone) given to a naturally occurring ore of iron-
magnetite means leading stone. The technological exploitation of this
property is generally credited to the Chinese. Chinese texts dating 400
BC mention the use of magnetic needles for navigation on ships. Caravans
crossing the Gobi desert also employed magnetic needles.
A Chinese legend narrates the tale of the victory of the emperor Huang-ti
about four thousand years ago, which he owed to his craftsmen (whom
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nowadays you would call engineers). These ‘engineers’
built a chariot on which they placed a magnetic figure
with arms outstretched. Figure 5.1 is an artist’s
description of this chariot. The figure swiveled around
so that the finger of the statuette on it always pointed
south. With this chariot, Huang-ti’s troops were able
to attack the enemy from the rear in thick fog, and to
defeat them.
In the previous chapter we have learned that moving
charges or electric currents produce magnetic fields.
This discovery, which was made in the early part of the
nineteenth century is credited to Oersted, Ampere, Biot
and Savart, among others.
In the present chapter, we take a look at magnetism
FIGURE 5.1 The arm of the statuette
as a subject in its own right.
mounted on the chariot always points
south. This is an artist’s sketch of one Some of the commonly known ideas regarding
of the earliest known compasses, magnetism are:
thousands of years old. (i) The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic
field pointing approximately from the geographic
south to the north.
(ii) When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south
direction. The tip which points to the geographic north is called the
north pole and the tip which points to the geographic south is called
the south pole of the magnet.
(iii) There is a repulsive force when north poles ( or south poles ) of two
magnets are brought close together. Conversely, there is an attractive
force between the north pole of one magnet and the south pole of
the other.
(iv) We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet
is broken into two halves, we get two similar bar magnets with
somewhat weaker properties. Unlike electric charges, isolated magnetic
north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
(v) It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.
We begin with a description of a bar magnet and its behaviour in an
external magnetic field. We describe Gauss’s law of magnetism. We then
follow it up with an account of the earth’s magnetic field. We next describe
how materials can be classified on the basis of their magnetic properties.
We describe para-, dia-, and ferromagnetism. We conclude with a section
on electromagnets and permanent magnets.
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We begin our study by examining iron filings sprinkled on a sheet of
glass placed over a short bar magnet. The arrangement of iron filings is
shown in Fig. 5.2.
The pattern of iron filings suggests that the magnet has two poles
similar to the positive and negative charge of an electric dipole. As
mentioned in the introductory section, one pole is designated the North
pole and the other, the South pole. When suspended freely, these poles
point approximately towards the geographic north and south poles,
respectively. A similar pattern of iron filings is observed around a current
carrying solenoid.
FIGURE 5.3 The field lines of (a) a bar magnet, (b) a current-carrying finite solenoid and
(c) electric dipole. At large distances, the field lines are very similar. The curves
labelled i and ii are closed Gaussian surfaces.
* In some textbooks the magnetic field lines are called magnetic lines of force.
This nomenclature is avoided since it can be confusing. Unlike electrostatics
the field lines in magnetism do not indicate the direction of the force on a
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(iii) The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger
is the magnitude of the magnetic field B. In Fig. 5.3(a), B is larger
around region ii than in region i .
(iv) The magnetic field lines do not intersect, for if they did, the direction
of the magnetic field would not be unique at the point of intersection.
One can plot the magnetic field lines in a variety of ways. One way is
to place a small magnetic compass needle at various positions and note
its orientation. This gives us an idea of the magnetic field direction at
various points in space.
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µ0n dx I a 2
dB = 3
2[(r − x )2 + a 2 ] 2
The magnitude of the total field is obtained by summing over all the
elements — in other words by integrating from x = – l to x = + l . Thus,
µ0nIa 2 l dx
B=
2
∫ −l [(r − x )2 + a 2 ]3 / 2
This integration can be done by trigonometric substitutions. This
exercise, however, is not necessary for our purpose. Note that the range
of x is from – l to + l . Consider the far axial field of the solenoid, i.e.,
r >> a and r >> l . Then the denominator is approximated by
3
[(r − x )2 + a 2 ] 2
≈ r3
l
µ0 n I a 2
and B =
2r 3 ∫ dx
−l
µ0 n I 2 l a 2
= (5.1)
2 r3
Note that the magnitude of the magnetic moment of the solenoid is,
m = n (2 l) I (π a 2 ) — (total number of turns × current × cross-sectional
area). Thus,
µ0 2m
B= (5.2)
4π r 3
This is also the far axial magnetic field of a bar magnet which one may
obtain experimentally. Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar
magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is thus equal to
the magnetic moment of an equivalent solenoid that produces the same
magnetic field.
Some textbooks assign a magnetic charge (also called pole strength)
+qmto the north pole and –qm to the south pole of a bar magnet of length
2l , and magnetic moment qm(2l). The field strength due to qm at a distance
r from it is given by µ0qm/4πr 2. The magnetic field due to the bar magnet
is then obtained, both for the axial and the equatorial case, in a manner
analogous to that of an electric dipole (Chapter 1). The method is simple
and appealing. However, magnetic monopoles do not exist, and we have
avoided this approach for that reason.
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In magnitude τ = mB sinθ
Here τ is restoring torque and θ is the angle between m and B.
d 2θ
Therefore, in equilibrium I = − mB sin θ
dt 2
Negative sign with mB sinθ implies that restoring torque is in opposition
to deflecting torque. For small values of θ in radians, we approximate
sin θ ≈ θ and get
d 2θ
I ≈ –mB θ
dt 2
d 2θ mB
or, 2
=− θ
dt I
This represents a simple harmonic motion. The square of the angular
frequency is ω 2 = mB/I and the time period is,
I
T = 2π (5.4)
mB
4 π2 I
or B= (5.5)
m T2
An expression for magnetic potential energy can also be obtained on
lines similar to electrostatic potential energy.
The magnetic potential energy Um is given by
U m = ∫ τ (θ )dθ
Example 5.1 In Fig. 5.4(b), the magnetic needle has magnetic moment
6.7 × 10–2 Am2 and moment of inertia I = 7.5 × 10–6 kg m2. It performs
10 complete oscillations in 6.70 s. What is the magnitude of the
magnetic field?
Solution The time period of oscillation is,
6.70
T = = 0.67s
10
From Eq. (5.5)
4π 2 I
EXAMPLE 5.1
B= 2
mT
4 × (3.14)2 × 7.5 × 10−6
=
6.7 × 10 –2 × (0.67)2
178 = 0.01 T
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Example 5.2 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with an
external field of 800 G experiences a torque of 0.016 Nm. (a) What is
the magnetic moment of the magnet? (b) What is the work done in
moving it from its most stable to most unstable position? (c) The bar
magnet is replaced by a solenoid of cross-sectional area 2 × 10–4 m2
and 1000 turns, but of the same magnetic moment. Determine the
current flowing through the solenoid.
Solution
(a) From Eq. (5.3), τ = m B sin θ, θ = 30°, hence sinθ =1/2.
Thus, 0.016 = m × (800 × 10–4 T) × (1/2)
m = 160 × 2/800 = 0.40 A m2
(b) From Eq. (5.6), the most stable position is θ = 0° and the most
unstable position is θ = 180°. Work done is given by
W = U m (θ = 180°) − U m (θ = 0°)
EXAMPLE 5.2
= 2 m B = 2 × 0.40 × 800 × 10–4 = 0.064 J
(c) From Eq. (4.30), ms = NIA. From part (a), ms = 0.40 A m2
0.40 = 1000 × I × 2 × 10–4
I = 0.40 × 104/(1000 × 2) = 2A
Example 5.3
(a) What happens if a bar magnet is cut into two pieces: (i) transverse
to its length, (ii) along its length?
(b) A magnetised needle in a uniform magnetic field experiences a
torque but no net force. An iron nail near a bar magnet, however,
experiences a force of attraction in addition to a torque. Why?
(c) Must every magnetic configuration have a north pole and a south
pole? What about the field due to a toroid?
(d) Two identical looking iron bars A and B are given, one of which is
definitely known to be magnetised. (We do not know which one.)
How would one ascertain whether or not both are magnetised? If
only one is magnetised, how does one ascertain which one? [Use
nothing else but the bars A and B.]
Solution
(a) In either case, one gets two magnets, each with a north and south
pole.
(b) No force if the field is uniform. The iron nail experiences a non-
uniform field due to the bar magnet. There is induced magnetic
moment in the nail, therefore, it experiences both force and torque.
The net force is attractive because the induced south pole (say) in
the nail is closer to the north pole of magnet than induced north
pole.
(c) Not necessarily. True only if the source of the field has a net non-
zero magnetic moment. This is not so for a toroid or even for a
straight infinite conductor.
(d) Try to bring different ends of the bars closer. A repulsive force in
EXAMPLE 5.3
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EXAMPLE 5.3
one of the two bars is a magnet, pick up one, (say, A) and lower one of
its ends; first on one of the ends of the other (say, B), and then on the
middle of B. If you notice that in the middle of B, A experiences no
force, then B is magnetised. If you do not notice any change from the
end to the middle of B, then A is magnetised.
Electrostatics Magnetism
1/ε0 µ0
Dipole moment p m
Equatorial Field for a short dipole –p/4πε0r 3 – µ0 m / 4π r 3
Axial Field for a short dipole 2p/4πε0r 3 µ0 2m / 4π r 3
External Field: torque p×E m×B
External Field: Energy –p.E –m.B
Example 5.4 What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields
due to a bar magnet of length 5.0 cm at a distance of 50 cm from its
mid-point? The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.40 A m2, the
same as in Example 5.2.
Solution From Eq. (5.7)
EXAMPLE 5.4
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FIGURE 5.5
Solution
Potential energy of the configuration arises due to the potential energy of
one dipole (say, Q) in the magnetic field due to other (P). Use the result
that the field due to P is given by the expression [Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8)]:
µ0 m P
BP = − (on the normal bisector)
4π r 3
µ0 2 mP
BP = (on the axis)
4π r 3
where mP is the magnetic moment of the dipole P.
Equilibrium is stable when mQ is parallel to BP, and unstable when it
is anti-parallel to BP.
For instance for the configuration Q 3 for which Q is along the
perpendicular bisector of the dipole P, the magnetic moment of Q is
parallel to the magnetic field at the position 3. Hence Q3 is stable.
EXAMPLE 5.5
Thus,
(a) PQ1 and PQ2
(b) (i) PQ3, PQ6 (stable); (ii) PQ5, PQ4 (unstable)
(c) PQ6
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The situation is radically different for magnetic fields
which are continuous and form closed loops. Examine the
Gaussian surfaces represented by i or ii in Fig 5.3(a) or
Fig. 5.3(b). Both cases visually demonstrate that the
number of magnetic field lines leaving the surface is
balanced by the number of lines entering it. The net
magnetic flux is zero for both the surfaces. This is true
for any closed surface.
KARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (1777 – 1855)
Example 5.6 Many of the diagrams given in Fig. 5.7 show magnetic
field lines (thick lines in the figure) wrongly. Point out what is wrong
with them. Some of them may describe electrostatic field lines correctly.
Point out which ones.
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FIGURE 5.7
Solution
(a) Wrong. Magnetic field lines can never emanate from a point, as
shown in figure. Over any closed surface, the net flux of B must
EXAMPLE 5.6
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(b) Wrong. Magnetic field lines (like electric field lines) can never cross
each other, because otherwise the direction of field at the point of
intersection is ambiguous. There is further error in the figure.
Magnetostatic field lines can never form closed loops around empty
space. A closed loop of static magnetic field line must enclose a
region across which a current is passing. By contrast, electrostatic
field lines can never form closed loops, neither in empty space,
nor when the loop encloses charges.
(c) Right. Magnetic lines are completely confined within a toroid.
Nothing wrong here in field lines forming closed loops, since each
loop encloses a region across which a current passes. Note, for
clarity of figure, only a few field lines within the toroid have been
shown. Actually, the entire region enclosed by the windings
contains magnetic field.
(d) Wrong. Field lines due to a solenoid at its ends and outside cannot
be so completely straight and confined; such a thing violates
Ampere’s law. The lines should curve out at both ends, and meet
eventually to form closed loops.
(e) Right. These are field lines outside and inside a bar magnet. Note
carefully the direction of field lines inside. Not all field lines emanate
out of a north pole (or converge into a south pole). Around both
the N-pole, and the S-pole, the net flux of the field is zero.
(f ) Wrong. These field lines cannot possibly represent a magnetic field.
Look at the upper region. All the field lines seem to emanate out of
the shaded plate. The net flux through a surface surrounding the
shaded plate is not zero. This is impossible for a magnetic field.
The given field lines, in fact, show the electrostatic field lines
around a positively charged upper plate and a negatively charged
lower plate. The difference between Fig. [5.7(e) and (f )] should be
EXAMPLE 5.6
carefully grasped.
(g) Wrong. Magnetic field lines between two pole pieces cannot be
precisely straight at the ends. Some fringing of lines is inevitable.
Otherwise, Ampere’s law is violated. This is also true for electric
field lines.
Example 5.7
(a) Magnetic field lines show the direction (at every point) along which
a small magnetised needle aligns (at the point). Do the magnetic
field lines also represent the lines of force on a moving charged
particle at every point?
(b) Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined within the core of a
toroid, but not within a straight solenoid. Why?
(c) If magnetic monopoles existed, how would the Gauss’s law of
magnetism be modified?
(d) Does a bar magnet exert a torque on itself due to its own field?
Does one element of a current-carrying wire exert a force on another
element of the same wire?
(e) Magnetic field arises due to charges in motion. Can a system have
EXAMPLE 5.7
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(b) If field lines were entirely confined between two ends of a straight
solenoid, the flux through the cross-section at each end would be
non-zero. But the flux of field B through any closed surface must
always be zero. For a toroid, this difficulty is absent because it
has no ‘ends’.
(c) Gauss’s law of magnetism states that the flux of B through any
closed surface is always zero
∫s B .∆s = 0 .
If monopoles existed, the right hand side would be equal to the
monopole (magnetic charge) qm enclosed by S. [Analogous to
EXAMPLE 5.7
(e) Yes. The average of the charge in the system may be zero. Yet, the
mean of the magnetic moments due to various current loops may
not be zero. We will come across such examples in connection
with paramagnetic material where atoms have net dipole moment
through their net charge is zero.
What causes the earth to have a magnetic field is not clear. Originally
the magnetic field was thought of as arising from a giant bar magnet
placed approximately along the axis of rotation of the earth and deep in
the interior. However, this simplistic picture is certainly not correct. The
magnetic field is now thought to arise due to electrical currents produced
by convective motion of metallic fluids (consisting mostly of molten
iron and nickel) in the outer core of the earth. This is known as the
dynamo effect.
The magnetic field lines of the earth resemble that of a (hypothetical)
magnetic dipole located at the centre of the earth. The axis of the dipole
does not coincide with the axis of rotation of the earth but is presently
titled by approximately 11.3° with respect to the later. In this way of looking
at it, the magnetic poles are located where the magnetic field lines due to
the dipole enter or leave the earth. The location of the north magnetic pole
is at a latitude of 79.74° N and a longitude of 71.8° W, a place somewhere
in north Canada. The magnetic south pole is at 79.74° S, 108.22° E in
the Antarctica.
The pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is called the north
magnetic pole. Likewise, the pole near the geographic south pole is called 185
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the south magnetic pole. There is some confusion in the
nomenclature of the poles. If one looks at the magnetic
field lines of the earth (Fig. 5.8), one sees that unlike in the
case of a bar magnet, the field lines go into the earth at the
north magnetic pole (Nm ) and come out from the south
magnetic pole (Sm ). The convention arose because the
magnetic north was the direction to which the north
pole of a magnetic needle pointed; the north pole of
a magnet was so named as it was the north seeking
pole. Thus, in reality, the north magnetic pole behaves
FIGURE 5.8 The earth as a giant like the south pole of a bar magnet inside the earth and
magnetic dipole. vice versa.
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0°41′ E at Delhi and 0°58′ W at Mumbai. Thus, at both these places a
magnetic needle shows the true north quite accurately.
There is one more quantity of interest. If a magnetic needle is perfectly
balanced about a horizontal axis so that it can swing in a plane of the
magnetic meridian, the needle would make an angle with the horizontal
(Fig. 5.10). This is known as the angle of dip (also known as inclination).
Thus, dip is the angle that the total magnetic field BE of the earth makes
with the surface of the earth. Figure 5.11 shows the magnetic meridian
plane at a point P on the surface of the earth. The plane is a section through
the earth. The total magnetic field at P
can be resolved into a horizontal
component H E and a vertical
component ZE. The angle that BE makes
with HE is the angle of dip, I.
In most of the northern hemisphere, the north pole of the dip needle
tilts downwards. Likewise in most of the southern hemisphere, the south
pole of the dip needle tilts downwards.
To describe the magnetic field of the earth at a point on its surface, we
need to specify three quantities, viz., the declination D, the angle of dip or
the inclination I and the horizontal component of the earth’s field HE. These
are known as the element of the earth’s magnetic field.
Representing the verticle component by ZE, we have
ZE = BE sinI [5.10(a)]
HE = BE cosI [5.10(b)]
which gives,
ZE
tan I = [5.10(c)]
HE 187
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WHAT HAPPENS TO MY COMPASS NEEDLES AT THE POLES?
A compass needle consists of a magnetic needle which floats on a pivotal point. When the
compass is held level, it points along the direction of the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field at the location. Thus, the compass needle would stay along the magnetic
meridian of the place. In some places on the earth there are deposits of magnetic minerals
which cause the compass needle to deviate from the magnetic meridian. Knowing the magnetic
declination at a place allows us to correct the compass to determine the direction of true
north.
So what happens if we take our compass to the magnetic pole? At the poles, the magnetic
field lines are converging or diverging vertically so that the horizontal component is negligible.
If the needle is only capable of moving in a horizontal plane, it can point along any direction,
rendering it useless as a direction finder. What one needs in such a case is a dip needle
which is a compass pivoted to move in a vertical plane containing the magnetic field of the
earth. The needle of the compass then shows the angle which the magnetic field makes with
the vertical. At the magnetic poles such a needle will point straight down.
HE
BE =
cos 600
0.26
= = 0.52 G
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It must not be assumed that there is a giant bar magnet deep inside the earth which is
causing the earth’s magnetic field. Although there are large deposits of iron inside the earth,
it is highly unlikely that a large solid block of iron stretches from the magnetic north pole to
the magnetic south pole. The earth’s core is very hot and molten, and the ions of iron and
nickel are responsible for earth’s magnetism. This hypothesis seems very probable. Moon,
which has no molten core, has no magnetic field, Venus has a slower rate of rotation, and a
weaker magnetic field, while Jupiter, which has the fastest rotation rate among planets, has
a fairly strong magnetic field. However, the precise mode of these circulating currents and
the energy needed to sustain them are not very well understood. These are several open
questions which form an important area of continuing research.
The variation of the earth’s magnetic field with position is also an interesting area of
study. Charged particles emitted by the sun flow towards the earth and beyond, in a stream
called the solar wind. Their motion is affected by the earth’s magnetic field, and in turn, they
affect the pattern of the earth’s magnetic field. The pattern of magnetic field near the poles is
quite different from that in other regions of the earth.
The variation of earth’s magnetic field with time is no less fascinating. There are short
term variations taking place over centuries and long term variations taking place over a
period of a million years. In a span of 240 years from 1580 to 1820 AD, over which records
are available, the magnetic declination at London has been found to change by 3.5°,
suggesting that the magnetic poles inside the earth change position with time. On the scale
of a million years, the earth’s magnetic fields has been found to reverse its direction. Basalt
contains iron, and basalt is emitted during volcanic activity. The little iron magnets inside it
align themselves parallel to the magnetic field at that place as the basalt cools and solidifies.
Geological studies of basalt containing such pieces of magnetised region have provided
evidence for the change of direction of earth’s magnetic field, several times in the past.
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B0 = µ0 nI (5.12)
If the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero
magnetisation, the field inside the solenoid will be greater than B0. The
net B field in the interior of the solenoid may be expressed as
B = B0 + Bm (5.13)
where Bm is the field contributed by the material core. It turns out that
this additional field Bm is proportional to the magnetisation M of the
material and is expressed as
Bm = µ0M (5.14)
where µ0 is the same constant (permittivity of vacuum) that appears in
Biot-Savart’s law.
It is convenient to introduce another vector field H, called the magnetic
intensity, which is defined by
B
H= –M (5.15)
µ0
where H has the same dimensions as M and is measured in units of A m–1.
Thus, the total magnetic field B is written as
B = µ0 (H + M) (5.16)
We repeat our defining procedure. We have partitioned the contribution
to the total magnetic field inside the sample into two parts: one, due to
external factors such as the current in the solenoid. This is represented
by H. The other is due to the specific nature of the magnetic material,
namely M. The latter quantity can be influenced by external factors. This
influence is mathematically expressed as
M = χH (5.17)
where χ , a dimensionless quantity, is appropriately called the magnetic
susceptibility. It is a measure of how a magnetic material responds to an
external field. Table 5.2 lists χ for some elements. It is small and positive
for materials, which are called paramagnetic. It is small and negative for
materials, which are termed diamagnetic. In the latter case M and H are
opposite in direction. From Eqs. (5.16) and (5.17) we obtain,
B = µ0 (1 + χ )H (5.18)
= µ0 µr H
= µH (5.19)
where µr= 1 + χ, is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic
permeability of the substance. It is the analog of the dielectric constant in
electrostatics. The magnetic permeability of the substance is µ and it has
the same dimensions and units as µ0;
µ = µ0µr = µ0 (1+χ).
The three quantities χ, µr and µ are interrelated and only one of
190 them is independent. Given one, the other two may be easily determined.
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≅ 8 × 105 A/m
(d) The magnetising current IM is the additional current that needs
to be passed through the windings of the solenoid in the absence
of the core which would give a B value as in the presence of the
core. Thus B = µr n0 (I + IM). Using I = 2A, B = 1 T, we get IM = 794 A.
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TABLE 5.3
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
5.6.1 Diamagnetism
Diamagnetic substances are those which have tendency to move from
stronger to the weaker part of the external magnetic field. In other words,
unlike the way a magnet attracts metals like iron, it would repel a
diamagnetic substance.
Figure 5.12(a) shows a bar of diamagnetic material placed in an external
magnetic field. The field lines are repelled or expelled and the field inside
the material is reduced. In most cases, as is evident from
Table 5.2, this reduction is slight, being one part in 105. When placed in a
non-uniform magnetic field, the bar will tend to move from high to low field.
The simplest explanation for diamagnetism is as follows. Electrons in
an atom orbiting around nucleus possess orbital angular momentum.
These orbiting electrons are equivalent to current-carrying loop and thus
possess orbital magnetic moment. Diamagnetic substances are the ones
in which resultant magnetic moment in an atom is zero. When magnetic
field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the
same direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up.
This happens due to induced current in accordance with Lenz’s law which
you will study in Chapter 6. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic
FIGURE 5.12
moment in direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence
Behaviour of repulsion.
magnetic field lines Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, lead, silicon,
near a nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride. Diamagnetism is present
(a) diamagnetic, in all the substances. However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it
(b) paramagnetic gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc.
substance. The most exotic diamagnetic materials are superconductors. These
are metals, cooled to very low temperatures which exhibits both perfect
conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are completely
expelled! χ = –1 and µr = 0. A superconductor repels a magnet and (by
Newton’s third law) is repelled by the magnet. The phenomenon of perfect
diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect, after the
name of its discoverer. Superconducting magnets can be gainfully
exploited in variety of situations, for example, for running magnetically
levitated superfast trains.
5.6.2 Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have tendency to move from a
region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get weakly
192 attracted to a magnet.
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The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material
possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment of their own. On account
of the ceaseless random thermal motion of the atoms, no net magnetisation
is seen. In the presence of an external field B0, which is strong enough,
and at low temperatures, the individual atomic dipole moment can be
made to align and point in the same direction as B0. Figure 5.12(b) shows
MagParticle/Physics/MagneticMatls.htm
http://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/
Magnetic materials, domain, etc.:
a bar of paramagnetic material placed in an external field. The field lines
gets concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced. In
most cases, as is evident from Table 5.2, this enhancement is slight, being
one part in 105. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the bar
will tend to move from weak field to strong.
Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium,
oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride. Experimentally, one finds that the
magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature T ,
B0
M =C [5.20(a)]
T
or equivalently, using Eqs. (5.12) and (5.17)
µ0
χ =C [5.20(b)]
T
This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pieree Curie (1859-
1906). The constant C is called Curie’s constant. Thus, for a paramagnetic
material both χ and µr depend not only on the material, but also
(in a simple fashion) on the sample temperature. As the field is
increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetisation increases until
it reaches the saturation value Ms, at which point all the dipoles are
perfectly aligned with the field. Beyond this, Curie’s law [Eq. (5.20)] is no
longer valid.
5.6.3 Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have strong tendency to move
from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get
strongly attracted to a magnet.
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material
possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic material. However, they
interact with one another in such a way that they spontaneously align
themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called
domain. The explanation of this cooperative effect requires quantum
mechanics and is beyond the scope of this textbook. Each domain has a
net magnetisation. Typical domain size is 1mm and the domain contains
about 1011 atoms. In the first instant, the magnetisation varies randomly
from domain to domain and there is no bulk magnetisation. This is shown FIGURE 5.13
in Fig. 5.13(a). When we apply an external magnetic field B0, the domains (a) Randomly
orient themselves in the direction of B0 and simultaneously the domain oriented domains,
oriented in the direction of B0 grow in size. This existence of domains and (b) Aligned domains.
their motion in B0 are not speculations. One may observe this under a
microscope after sprinkling a liquid suspension of powdered 193
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ferromagnetic substance of samples. This motion of suspension can be
observed. Figure 5.12(b) shows the situation when the domains have
aligned and amalgamated to form a single ‘giant’ domain.
Thus, in a ferromagnetic material the field lines are highly
concentrated. In non-uniform magnetic field, the sample tends to move
towards the region of high field. We may wonder as to what happens
when the external field is removed. In some ferromagnetic materials the
magnetisation persists. Such materials are called hard magnetic materials
or hard ferromagnets. Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt
and copper, is one such material. The naturally occurring lodestone is
another. Such materials form permanent magnets to be used among other
things as a compass needle. On the other hand, there is a class of
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/hyst.html
Material Tc (K)
Cobalt 1394
Iron 1043
Fe2O3 893
Nickel 631
Gadolinium 317
EXAMPLE 5.11
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EXAMPLE 5.11
The consequent magnetisation is
Mmax = mmax/Domain volume
= 8.0 × 10–13 Am2/10–18 m3
= 8.0 × 105 Am–1
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magnets can be made in a variety of ways. One can hold an
iron rod in the north-south direction and hammer it repeatedly.
The method is illustrated in Fig. 5.15. The illustration is from
a 400 year old book to emphasise that the making of
permanent magnets is an old art. One can also hold a steel
rod and stroke it with one end of a bar magnet a large number
of times, always in the same sense to make a permanent
magnet.
An efficient way to make a permanent magnet is to place a
ferromagnetic rod in a solenoid and pass a current. The
magnetic field of the solenoid magnetises the rod.
FIGURE 5.15 A blacksmith
forging a permanent magnet by
The hysteresis curve (Fig. 5.14) allows us to select suitable
striking a red-hot rod of iron materials for permanent magnets. The material should have
kept in the north-south high retentivity so that the magnet is strong and high coercivity
direction with a hammer. The so that the magnetisation is not erased by stray magnetic fields,
sketch is recreated from an temperature fluctuations or minor mechanical damage.
illustration in De Magnete, a Further, the material should have a high permeability. Steel is
work published in 1600 and one-favoured choice. It has a slightly smaller retentivity than
authored by William Gilbert, soft iron but this is outweighed by the much smaller coercivity
the court physician to Queen of soft iron. Other suitable materials for permanent magnets
Elizabeth of England.
are alnico, cobalt steel and ticonal.
Core of electromagnets are made of ferromagnetic materials
which have high permeability and low retentivity. Soft iron is a suitable
material for electromagnets. On placing a soft iron rod in a solenoid and
passing a current, we increase the magnetism of the solenoid by a
thousand fold. When we switch off the solenoid current, the magnetism is
effectively switched off since the soft iron core has a low retentivity. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.16.
India’s Magnetic Field:
http://www.iigm.res.in
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SUMMARY
1. The science of magnetism is old. It has been known since ancient times
that magnetic materials tend to point in the north-south direction; like
magnetic poles repel and unlike ones attract; and cutting a bar magnet
in two leads to two smaller magnets. Magnetic poles cannot be isolated.
2. When a bar magnet of dipole moment m is placed in a uniform magnetic
field B,
(a) the force on it is zero,
(b) the torque on it is m × B,
(c) its potential energy is –m.B, where we choose the zero of energy at
the orientation when m is perpendicular to B.
3. Consider a bar magnet of size l and magnetic moment m, at a distance
r from its mid-point, where r >>l, the magnetic field B due to this bar
is,
µ0 m
B= (along axis)
2πr3
µ0 m
=– (along equator)
4 πr3
4. Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through
any closed surface is zero
φB = ∑ Bi ∆S = 0
all area
elements ∆S
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6. Three quantities are needed to specify the magnetic field of the earth
on its surface – the horizontal component, the magnetic declination,
and the magnetic dip. These are known as the elements of the earth’s
magnetic field.
7. Consider a material placed in an external magnetic field B0. The
magnetic intensity is defined as,
B
H= 0
µ0
The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment per unit volume.
The magnetic field B in the material is,
B = µ0 (H + M)
8. For a linear material M = χ H. So that B = µ H and χ is called the
magnetic susceptibility of the material. The three quantities, χ, the
relative magnetic permeability µr, and the magnetic permeability µ are
related as follows:
µ = µ0 µr
µr = 1+ χ
9. Magnetic materials are broadly classified as: diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
and ferromagnetic. For diamagnetic materials χ is negative and small
and for paramagnetic materials it is positive and small. Ferromagnetic
materials have large χ and are characterised by non-linear relation
between B and H. They show the property of hysteresis.
10. Substances, which at room temperature, retain their ferromagnetic
property for a long period of time are called permanent magnets.
Magnetic moment
Magnetisation M Vector [L–1 A] A m–1
Volume
Magnetic intensity H Vector [L–1 A] A m–1 B = µ0 (H + M)
Magnetic field
strength
Magnetic χ Scalar - - M = χH
susceptibility
Relative magnetic µr Scalar - - B = µ0 µr H
permeability
Magnetic permeability µ Scalar [MLT–2 A–2] T m A–1 µ = µ0 µr
N A–2 B=µH
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POINTS TO PONDER
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EXERCISES
5.1 Answer the following questions regarding earth’s magnetism:
(a) A vector needs three quantities for its specification. Name the
three independent quantities conventionally used to specify the
earth’s magnetic field.
(b) The angle of dip at a location in southern India is about 18°.
Would you expect a greater or smaller dip angle in Britain?
(c) If you made a map of magnetic field lines at Melbourne in
Australia, would the lines seem to go into the ground or come out
of the ground?
(d) In which direction would a compass free to move in the vertical
plane point to, if located right on the geomagnetic north or south
pole?
(e) The earth’s field, it is claimed, roughly approximates the field
due to a dipole of magnetic moment 8 × 1022 J T–1 located at its
centre. Check the order of magnitude of this number in some
way.
(f ) Geologists claim that besides the main magnetic N-S poles, there
are several local poles on the earth’s surface oriented in different
directions. How is such a thing possible at all?
5.2 Answer the following questions:
(a) The earth’s magnetic field varies from point to point in space.
Does it also change with time? If so, on what time scale does it
change appreciably?
(b) The earth’s core is known to contain iron. Yet geologists do not
regard this as a source of the earth’s magnetism. Why?
(c) The charged currents in the outer conducting regions of the
earth’s core are thought to be responsible for earth’s magnetism.
What might be the ‘battery’ (i.e., the source of energy) to sustain
these currents?
(d) The earth may have even reversed the direction of its field several
times during its history of 4 to 5 billion years. How can geologists
know about the earth’s field in such distant past?
(e) The earth’s field departs from its dipole shape substantially at
large distances (greater than about 30,000 km). What agencies
may be responsible for this distortion?
(f ) Interstellar space has an extremely weak magnetic field of the
order of 10–12 T. Can such a weak field be of any significant
consequence? Explain.
[Note: Exercise 5.2 is meant mainly to arouse your curiosity.
Answers to some questions above are tentative or unknown. Brief
answers wherever possible are given at the end. For details, you
should consult a good text on geomagnetism.]
5.3 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with a uniform external
magnetic field of 0.25 T experiences a torque of magnitude equal to
4.5 × 10–2 J. What is the magnitude of magnetic moment of the magnet?
5.4 A short bar magnet of magnetic moment m = 0.32 J T –1 is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T. If the bar is free to rotate in the
plane of the field, which orientation would correspond to its (a) stable,
and (b) unstable equilibrium? What is the potential energy of the
200 magnet in each case?
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5.5 A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and area of cross section
2.5 × 10–4 m2 carries a current of 3.0 A. Explain the sense in which
the solenoid acts like a bar magnet. What is its associated magnetic
moment?
5.6 If the solenoid in Exercise 5.5 is free to turn about the vertical
direction and a uniform horizontal magnetic field of 0.25 T is applied,
what is the magnitude of torque on the solenoid when its axis makes
an angle of 30° with the direction of applied field?
5.7 A bar magnet of magnetic moment 1.5 J T –1 lies aligned with the
direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.22 T.
(a) What is the amount of work required by an external torque to
turn the magnet so as to align its magnetic moment: (i) normal
to the field direction, (ii) opposite to the field direction?
(b) What is the torque on the magnet in cases (i) and (ii)?
5.8 A closely wound solenoid of 2000 turns and area of cross-section
1.6 × 10 –4 m2, carrying a current of 4.0 A, is suspended through its
centre allowing it to turn in a horizontal plane.
(a) What is the magnetic moment associated with the solenoid?
(b) What is the force and torque on the solenoid if a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of 7.5 × 10–2 T is set up at an angle of
30° with the axis of the solenoid?
5.9 A circular coil of 16 turns and radius 10 cm carrying a current of
0.75 A rests with its plane normal to an external field of magnitude
5.0 × 10–2 T. The coil is free to turn about an axis in its plane
perpendicular to the field direction. When the coil is turned slightly
and released, it oscillates about its stable equilibrium with a
frequency of 2.0 s–1. What is the moment of inertia of the coil about
its axis of rotation?
5.10 A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical plane parallel to the
magnetic meridian has its north tip pointing down at 22° with the
horizontal. The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field
at the place is known to be 0.35 G. Determine the magnitude of the
earth’s magnetic field at the place.
5.11 At a certain location in Africa, a compass points 12° west of the
geographic north. The north tip of the magnetic needle of a dip circle
placed in the plane of magnetic meridian points 60° above the
horizontal. The horizontal component of the earth’s field is measured
to be 0.16 G. Specify the direction and magnitude of the earth’s field
at the location.
5.12 A short bar magnet has a magnetic moment of 0.48 J T –1. Give the
direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the magnet
at a distance of 10 cm from the centre of the magnet on (a) the axis,
(b) the equatorial lines (normal bisector) of the magnet.
5.13 A short bar magnet placed in a horizontal plane has its axis aligned
along the magnetic north-south direction. Null points are found on
the axis of the magnet at 14 cm from the centre of the magnet. The
earth’s magnetic field at the place is 0.36 G and the angle of dip is
zero. What is the total magnetic field on the normal bisector of the
magnet at the same distance as the null–point (i.e., 14 cm) from the
centre of the magnet? (At null points, field due to a magnet is equal
and opposite to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.)
5.14 If the bar magnet in exercise 5.13 is turned around by 180°, where
will the new null points be located?
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5.15 A short bar magnet of magnetic movement 5.25 × 10–2 J T –1 is placed
with its axis perpendicular to the earth’s field direction. At what
distance from the centre of the magnet, the resultant field is inclined
at 45° with earth’s field on (a) its normal bisector and (b) its axis.
Magnitude of the earth’s field at the place is given to be 0.42 G.
Ignore the length of the magnet in comparison to the distances
involved.
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
5.16 Answer the following questions:
(a) Why does a paramagnetic sample display greater magnetisation
(for the same magnetising field) when cooled?
(b) Why is diamagnetism, in contrast, almost independent of
temperature?
(c) If a toroid uses bismuth for its core, will the field in the core be
(slightly) greater or (slightly) less than when the core is empty?
(d) Is the permeability of a ferromagnetic material independent of
the magnetic field? If not, is it more for lower or higher fields?
(e) Magnetic field lines are always nearly normal to the surface of a
ferromagnet at every point. (This fact is analogous to the static
electric field lines being normal to the surface of a conductor at
every point.) Why?
(f ) Would the maximum possible magnetisation of a paramagnetic
sample be of the same order of magnitude as the magnetisation
of a ferromagnet?
5.17 Answer the following questions:
(a) Explain qualitatively on the basis of domain picture the
irreversibility in the magnetisation curve of a ferromagnet.
(b) The hysteresis loop of a soft iron piece has a much smaller area
than that of a carbon steel piece. If the material is to go through
repeated cycles of magnetisation, which piece will dissipate greater
heat energy?
(c) ‘A system displaying a hysteresis loop such as a ferromagnet, is
a device for storing memory?’ Explain the meaning of this
statement.
(d) What kind of ferromagnetic material is used for coating magnetic
tapes in a cassette player, or for building ‘memory stores’ in a
modern computer?
(e) A certain region of space is to be shielded from magnetic fields.
Suggest a method.
5.18 A long straight horizontal cable carries a current of 2.5 A in the
direction 10° south of west to 10° north of east. The magnetic meridian
of the place happens to be 10° west of the geographic meridian. The
earth’s magnetic field at the location is 0.33 G, and the angle of dip
is zero. Locate the line of neutral points (ignore the thickness of the
cable)? (At neutral points, magnetic field due to a current-carrying
cable is equal and opposite to the horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field.)
5.19 A telephone cable at a place has four long straight horizontal wires
202 carrying a current of 1.0 A in the same direction east to west. The
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earth’s magnetic field at the place is 0.39 G, and the angle of dip is
35°. The magnetic declination is nearly zero. What are the resultant
magnetic fields at points 4.0 cm below the cable?
5.20 A compass needle free to turn in a horizontal plane is placed at the
centre of circular coil of 30 turns and radius 12 cm. The coil is in a
vertical plane making an angle of 45° with the magnetic meridian.
When the current in the coil is 0.35 A, the needle points west to
east.
(a) Determine the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field
at the location.
(b) The current in the coil is reversed, and the coil is rotated about
its vertical axis by an angle of 90° in the anticlockwise sense
looking from above. Predict the direction of the needle. Take the
magnetic declination at the places to be zero.
5.21 A magnetic dipole is under the influence of two magnetic fields. The
angle between the field directions is 60°, and one of the fields has a
magnitude of 1.2 × 10–2 T. If the dipole comes to stable equilibrium at
an angle of 15° with this field, what is the magnitude of the other
field?
5.22 A monoenergetic (18 keV) electron beam initially in the horizontal
direction is subjected to a horizontal magnetic field of 0.04 G normal
to the initial direction. Estimate the up or down deflection of the
beam over a distance of 30 cm (me = 9.11 × 10 –31 kg). [Note: Data in
this exercise are so chosen that the answer will give you an idea of
the effect of earth’s magnetic field on the motion of the electron beam
from the electron gun to the screen in a TV set.]
5.23 A sample of paramagnetic salt contains 2.0 × 1024 atomic dipoles
each of dipole moment 1.5 × 10–23 J T –1. The sample is placed under
a homogeneous magnetic field of 0.64 T, and cooled to a temperature
of 4.2 K. The degree of magnetic saturation achieved is equal to 15%.
What is the total dipole moment of the sample for a magnetic field of
0.98 T and a temperature of 2.8 K? (Assume Curie’s law)
5.24 A Rowland ring of mean radius 15 cm has 3500 turns of wire wound
on a ferromagnetic core of relative permeability 800. What is the
magnetic field B in the core for a magnetising current of 1.2 A?
5.25 The magnetic moment vectors µs and µl associated with the intrinsic
spin angular momentum S and orbital angular momentum l,
respectively, of an electron are predicted by quantum theory (and
verified experimentally to a high accuracy) to be given by:
µs = –(e/m) S,
µl = –(e/2m)l
Which of these relations is in accordance with the result expected
classically ? Outline the derivation of the classical result.
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Chapter Six
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Electricity and magnetism were considered separate and unrelated
phenomena for a long time. In the early decades of the nineteenth century,
experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others
established the fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They
found that moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example,
an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity.
This naturally raises the questions like: Is the converse effect possible?
Can moving magnets produce electric currents? Does the nature permit
such a relation between electricity and magnetism? The answer is
resounding yes! The experiments of Michael Faraday in England and
Joseph Henry in USA, conducted around 1830, demonstrated
conclusively that electric currents were induced in closed coils when
subjected to changing magnetic fields. In this chapter, we will study the
phenomena associated with changing magnetic fields and understand
the underlying principles. The phenomenon in which electric current is
generated by varying magnetic fields is appropriately called
electromagnetic induction.
When Faraday first made public his discovery that relative motion
between a bar magnet and a wire loop produced a small current in the
latter, he was asked, “What is the use of it?” His reply was: “What is the
204 use of a new born baby?” The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction
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is not merely of theoretical or academic interest but also
of practical utility. Imagine a world where there is no
electricity – no electric lights, no trains, no telephones and
no personal computers. The pioneering experiments of
Faraday and Henry have led directly to the development
of modern day generators and transformers. Today’s
civilisation owes its progress to a great extent to the
discovery of electromagnetic induction.
Experiment 6.2
FIGURE 6.1 When the bar magnet is
In Fig. 6.2 the bar magnet is replaced by a second coil pushed towards the coil, the pointer in
C2 connected to a battery. The steady current in the the galvanometer G deflects.
coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field. As coil C2 is
* Wherever the term ‘coil’ or ‘loop’ is used, it is assumed that they are made up of
conducting material and are prepared using wires which are coated with insulating
material. 205
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moved towards the coil C1, the galvanometer shows a
deflection. This indicates that electric current is induced in
coil C1. When C2 is moved away, the galvanometer shows a
deflection again, but this time in the opposite direction. The
deflection lasts as long as coil C2 is in motion. When the coil
C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are observed.
Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces
the electric current.
Experiment 6.3
The above two experiments involved relative motion between
a magnet and a coil and between two coils, respectively.
Through another experiment, Faraday showed that this
FIGURE 6.2 Current is
relative motion is not an absolute requirement. Figure 6.3
induced in coil C1 due to motion shows two coils C1 and C2 held stationary. Coil C1 is connected
of the current carrying coil C2. to galvanometer G while the second coil C2 is connected to a
battery through a tapping key K.
Interactive animation on Faraday’s experiments and Lenz’s law:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromagnet/java/faraday2/
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a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B (Fig. 6.4) can
be written as
Φ B = B . A = BA cos θ (6.1)
where θ is angle between B and A. The notion of the area as a vector
has been discussed earlier in Chapter 1. Equation (6.1) can be
extended to curved surfaces and nonuniform fields.
If the magnetic field has different magnitudes and directions at
various parts of a surface as shown in Fig. 6.5, then the magnetic
flux through the surface is given by
Φ = B . dA + B . dA + ... =
B 1 1 2 2 ∑ Bi . dA i
all
(6.2)
FIGURE 6.4 A plane of
where ‘all’ stands for summation over all the area elements dAi
surface area A placed in a
comprising the surface and Bi is the magnetic field at the area element uniform magnetic field B.
dAi. The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter
squared (T m2). Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
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The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal
to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the
circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by
dΦB
ε=– (6.3)
dt
The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence
the direction of current in a closed loop. This will be
discussed in detail in the next section.
MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867)
Example 6.1 Consider Experiment 6.2. (a) What would you do to obtain
a large deflection of the galvanometer? (b) How would you demonstrate
the presence of an induced current in the absence of a galvanometer?
Solution
(a) To obtain a large deflection, one or more of the following steps can
be taken: (i) Use a rod made of soft iron inside the coil C2, (ii) Connect
the coil to a powerful battery, and (iii) Move the arrangement rapidly
towards the test coil C1.
(b) Replace the galvanometer by a small bulb, the kind one finds in a
small torch light. The relative motion between the two coils will cause
EXAMPLE 6.1
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Solution The angle θ made by the area vector of the coil with the
magnetic field is 45°. From Eq. (6.1), the initial magnetic flux is
Φ = BA cos θ
0.1 × 10 –2
= Wb
2
Final flux, Φmin = 0
The change in flux is brought about in 0.70 s. From Eq. (6.3), the
magnitude of the induced emf is given by
∆ΦB (Φ – 0 ) 10 –3
ε= = = = 1.0 mV
∆t ∆t 2 × 0.7
And the magnitude of the current is
EXAMPLE 6.2
10 –3 V
I = = = 2 mA
R 0.5Ω
Note that the earth’s magnetic field also produces a flux through the
loop. But it is a steady field (which does not change within the time
span of the experiment) and hence does not induce any emf.
Example 6.3
A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2 Ω is placed
with its plane perpendicular to the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field. It is rotated about its vertical diameter through 180°
in 0.25 s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current induced in
the coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at the
place is 3.0 × 10–5 T.
Solution
Initial flux through the coil,
ΦB (initial) = BA cos θ
= 3.0 × 10–5 × (π ×10–2) × cos 0°
= 3π × 10–7 Wb
Final flux after the rotation,
ΦB (final) = 3.0 × 10–5 × (π ×10–2) × cos 180°
= –3π × 10–7 Wb
Therefore, estimated value of the induced emf is,
∆Φ
ε=N
∆t
= 500 × (6π × 10–7)/0.25
= 3.8 × 10–3 V
EXAMPLE 6.3
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6.5 LENZ’S LAW AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
In 1834, German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865) deduced
a rule, known as Lenz’s law which gives the polarity of the induced emf
in a clear and concise fashion. The statement of the law is:
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current
which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.
The negative sign shown in Eq. (6.3) represents this effect. We can
understand Lenz’s law by examining Experiment 6.1 in Section 6.2.1. In
Fig. 6.1, we see that the North-pole of a bar magnet is being pushed
towards the closed coil. As the North-pole of the bar magnet moves towards
the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil increases. Hence current is
induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes the increase in flux.
This is possible only if the current in the coil is in a counter-clockwise
direction with respect to an observer situated on the side of the magnet.
Note that magnetic moment associated with this current has North polarity
towards the North-pole of the approaching magnet. Similarly, if the North-
pole of the magnet is being withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic flux
through the coil will decrease. To counter this decrease in magnetic flux,
the induced current in the coil flows in clockwise direction and its South-
pole faces the receding North-pole of the bar magnet. This would result in
an attractive force which opposes the motion of the magnet and the
corresponding decrease in flux.
What will happen if an open circuit is used in place of the closed loop
in the above example? In this case too, an emf is induced across the open
ends of the circuit. The direction of the induced emf can be found
using Lenz’s law. Consider Figs. 6.6 (a) and (b). They provide an easier
way to understand the direction of induced currents. Note that the
direction shown by and indicate the directions of the induced
currents.
A little reflection on this matter should convince us on the
correctness of Lenz’s law. Suppose that the induced current was in
the direction opposite to the one depicted in Fig. 6.6(a). In that case,
the South-pole due to the induced current will face the approaching
North-pole of the magnet. The bar magnet will then be attracted
towards the coil at an ever increasing acceleration. A gentle push on
the magnet will initiate the process and its velocity and kinetic energy
will continuously increase without expending any energy. If this can
happen, one could construct a perpetual-motion machine by a
suitable arrangement. This violates the law of conservation of energy
and hence can not happen.
FIGURE 6.6 Now consider the correct case shown in Fig. 6.6(a). In this situation,
Illustration of the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the induced
Lenz’s law. current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet.
Where does the energy spent by the person go? This energy is
210 dissipated by Joule heating produced by the induced current.
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Example 6.4
Figure 6.7 shows planar loops of different shapes moving out of or
into a region of a magnetic field which is directed normal to the plane
of the loop away from the reader. Determine the direction of induced
current in each loop using Lenz’s law.
FIGURE 6.7
Solution
(i) The magnetic flux through the rectangular loop abcd increases,
due to the motion of the loop into the region of magnetic field, The
induced current must flow along the path bcdab so that it opposes
the increasing flux.
(ii) Due to the outward motion, magnetic flux through the triangular
loop abc decreases due to which the induced current flows along
bacb, so as to oppose the change in flux.
EXAMPLE 6.4
Example 6.5
(a) A closed loop is held stationary in the magnetic field between the
north and south poles of two permanent magnets held fixed. Can
we hope to generate current in the loop by using very strong
magnets?
(b) A closed loop moves normal to the constant electric field between
the plates of a large capacitor. Is a current induced in the loop
(i) when it is wholly inside the region between the capacitor plates
(ii) when it is partially outside the plates of the capacitor? The
electric field is normal to the plane of the loop.
EXAMPLE 6.5
(c) A rectangular loop and a circular loop are moving out of a uniform
magnetic field region (Fig. 6.8) to a field-free region with a constant
velocity v. In which loop do you expect the induced emf to be
constant during the passage out of the field region? The field is
normal to the loops. 211
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FIGURE 6.8
FIGURE 6.9
Solution
(a) No. However strong the magnet may be, current can be induced
only by changing the magnetic flux through the loop.
(b) No current is induced in either case. Current can not be induced
by changing the electric flux.
EXAMPLE 6.5
(c) The induced emf is expected to be constant only in the case of the
rectangular loop. In the case of circular loop, the rate of change of
area of the loop during its passage out of the field region is not
constant, hence induced emf will vary accordingly.
(d) The polarity of plate ‘A’ will be positive with respect to plate ‘B’ in
the capacitor.
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where we have used dx/dt = –v which is the speed of the conductor PQ.
The induced emf Blv is called motional emf. Thus, we are able to produce
induced emf by moving a conductor instead of varying the magnetic field,
that is, by changing the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.
It is also possible to explain the motional emf expression in Eq. (6.5)
by invoking the Lorentz force acting on the free charge carriers of conductor
PQ. Consider any arbitrary charge q in the conductor PQ. When the rod
moves with speed v, the charge will also be moving with speed v in the
magnetic field B. The Lorentz force on this charge is qvB in magnitude,
and its direction is towards Q. All charges experience the same force, in
magnitude and direction, irrespective of their position in the rod PQ.
The work done in moving the charge from P to Q is,
http://webphysics.davidson.edu/physlet_resources/bu_semester2/index.html
http://ngsir.netfirms.com/englishhtm/Induction.htm
Interactive animation on motional emf:
W = qvBl
Since emf is the work done per unit charge,
W
ε =
q
= Blv
This equation gives emf induced across the rod PQ and is identical
to Eq. (6.5). We stress that our presentation is not wholly rigorous. But
it does help us to understand the basis of Faraday’s law when
the conductor is moving in a uniform and time-independent
magnetic field.
On the other hand, it is not obvious how an emf is induced when a
conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is changing – a fact which
Faraday verified by numerous experiments. In the case of a stationary
conductor, the force on its charges is given by
F = q (E + v × B) = qE (6.6)
since v = 0. Thus, any force on the charge must arise from the electric
field term E alone. Therefore, to explain the existence of induced emf or
induced current, we must assume that a time-varying magnetic field
generates an electric field. However, we hasten to add that electric fields
produced by static electric charges have properties different from those
produced by time-varying magnetic fields. In Chapter 4, we learnt that
charges in motion (current) can exert force/torque on a stationary magnet.
Conversely, a bar magnet in motion (or more generally, a changing
magnetic field) can exert a force on the stationary charge. This is the
fundamental significance of the Faraday’s discovery. Electricity and
magnetism are related.
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FIGURE 6.11
Solution
Method I
As the rod is rotated, free electrons in the rod move towards the outer
end due to Lorentz force and get distributed over the ring. Thus, the
resulting separation of charges produces an emf across the ends of
the rod. At a certain value of emf, there is no more flow of electrons
and a steady state is reached. Using Eq. (6.5), the magnitude of the
emf generated across a length dr of the rod as it moves at right angles
to the magnetic field is given by
dε = Bv dr . Hence,
R R
B ωR 2
ε = ∫ dε = ∫ Bv dr = ∫ B ωr dr =
0 0
2
Note that we have used v = ω r. This gives
1
ε = × 1.0 × 2π × 50 × (12 )
2
= 157 V
Method II
To calculate the emf, we can imagine a closed loop OPQ in which
point O and P are connected with a resistor R and OQ is the rotating
rod. The potential difference across the resistor is then equal to the
induced emf and equals B × (rate of change of area of loop). If θ is the
angle between the rod and the radius of the circle at P at time t, the
area of the sector OPQ is given by
θ 1 2
π R2 × R θ
=
2π 2
where R is the radius of the circle. Hence, the induced emf is
d 1 2 1 2 dθ Bω R 2
ε =B × R = BR =
dt 2
θ
EXAMPLE 6.6
2 dt 2
dθ
[Note: = ω = 2 πν ]
dt
This expression is identical to the expression obtained by Method I
and we get the same value of ε.
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Example 6.7
A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with a
speed of 120 rev/min in a plane normal to the horizontal component
of earth’s magnetic field HE at a place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, what
is the induced emf between the axle and the rim of the wheel? Note
that 1 G = 10–4 T.
Solution
Induced emf = (1/2) ω B R2
EXAMPLE 6.7
= (1/2) × 4π × 0.4 × 10–4 × (0.5)2
= 6.28 × 10–5 V
The number of spokes is immaterial because the emf’s across the
spokes are in parallel.
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Thus, mechanical energy which was needed to move the arm PQ is
converted into electrical energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal energy.
There is an interesting relationship between the charge flow through
the circuit and the change in the magnetic flux. From Faraday’s law, we
have learnt that the magnitude of the induced emf is,
∆ΦB
ε =
∆t
However,
∆Q
ε = Ir = r
∆t
Thus,
∆ΦB
∆Q =
r
(a)
FIGURE 6.12
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(b)
FIGURE 6.12
B 2l 2v 2
= 0≤x <b
EXAMPLE 6.8
r
=0 b ≤ x < 2b
One obtains similar expressions for the inward motion from x = 2b to
x = 0. One can appreciate the whole process by examining the sketch
of various quantities displayed in Fig. 6.12(b). 217
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6.8 EDDY CURRENTS
So far we have studied the electric currents induced in well defined paths
in conductors like circular loops. Even when bulk pieces of conductors
are subjected to changing magnetic flux, induced currents
are produced in them. However, their flow patterns resemble
swirling eddies in water. This effect was discovered by physicist
Foucault (1819-1868) and these currents are called eddy
currents.
Consider the apparatus shown in Fig. 6.13. A copper plate
is allowed to swing like a simple pendulum between the pole
pieces of a strong magnet. It is found that the motion is damped
and in a little while the plate comes to a halt in the magnetic
field. We can explain this phenomenon on the basis of
electromagnetic induction. Magnetic flux associated with the
plate keeps on changing as the plate moves in and out of the
region between magnetic poles. The flux change induces eddy
currents in the plate. Directions of eddy currents are opposite
when the plate swings into the region between the poles and
when it swings out of the region.
If rectangular slots are made in the copper plate as shown
FIGURE 6.13 Eddy currents are in Fig. 6.14, area available to the flow of eddy currents is less.
generated in the copper plate, Thus, the pendulum plate with holes or slots reduces
while entering electromagnetic damping and the plate swings more freely.
and leaving the region of Note that magnetic moments of the induced currents (which
magnetic field. oppose the motion) depend upon the area enclosed by the
currents (recall equation m = I A in Chapter 4).
This fact is helpful in reducing eddy currents in the metallic
cores of transformers, electric motors and other such devices in
which a coil is to be wound over metallic core. Eddy currents are
undesirable since they heat up the core and dissipate electrical
energy in the form of heat. Eddy currents are minimised by using
laminations of metal to make a metal core. The laminations are
separated by an insulating material like lacquer. The plane of the
laminations must be arranged parallel to the magnetic field, so
that they cut across the eddy current paths. This arrangement
reduces the strength of the eddy currents. Since the dissipation
of electrical energy into heat depends on the square of the strength
of electric current, heat loss is substantially reduced.
Eddy currents are used to advantage in certain applications like:
(i) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated
above the rails in some electrically powered trains. When the
electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the
FIGURE 6.14 Cutting slots rails oppose the motion of the train. As there are no mechanical
in the copper plate reduces linkages, the braking effect is smooth.
the effect of eddy currents. (ii) Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed
core made of nonmagnetic metallic material. When the coil
oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the
218 motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.
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(iii) Induction furnace: Induction furnace can be used to produce high
temperatures and can be utilised to prepare alloys, by melting the
constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed
through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy
currents generated in the metals produce high temperatures sufficient
to melt it.
(iv) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter
(analogue type) rotates due to the eddy currents. Electric currents
are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally
varying currents in a coil.
You can observe the rotating shiny disc in the power meter of your
house.
ELECTROMAGNETIC DAMPING
Take two hollow thin cylindrical pipes of equal internal diameters made of aluminium and
PVC, respectively. Fix them vertically with clamps on retort stands. Take a small cylinderical
magnet having diameter slightly smaller than the inner diameter of the pipes and drop it
through each pipe in such a way that the magnet does not touch the sides of the pipes
during its fall. You will observe that the magnet dropped through the PVC pipe takes the
same time to come out of the pipe as it would take when dropped through the same height
without the pipe. Note the time it takes to come out of the pipe in each case. You will see that
the magnet takes much longer time in the case of aluminium pipe. Why is it so? It is due to
the eddy currents that are generated in the aluminium pipe which oppose the change in
magnetic flux, i.e., the motion of the magnet. The retarding force due to the eddy currents
inhibits the motion of the magnet. Such phenomena are referred to as electromagnetic damping.
Note that eddy currents are not generated in PVC pipe as its material is an insulator whereas
aluminium is a conductor.
6.9 INDUCTANCE
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by
another coil in its vicinity or flux change produced by the same coil. These
two situations are described separately in the next two sub-sections.
However, in both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the
current. That is, ΦB α I.
Further, if the geometry of the coil does not vary with time then,
dΦB dI
∝
dt dt
For a closely wound coil of N turns, the same magnetic flux is linked
with all the turns. When the flux ΦB through the coil changes, each turn
contributes to the induced emf. Therefore, a term called flux linkage is
used which is equal to NΦB for a closely wound coil and in such a case
NΦB ∝ I
The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance.
We shall see that inductance depends only on the geometry of the coil 219
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and intrinsic material properties. This aspect is akin to capacitance which
for a parallel plate capacitor depends on the plate area and plate separation
(geometry) and the dielectric constant K of the intervening medium
(intrinsic material property).
Inductance is a scalar quantity. It has the dimensions of [M L2 T –2 A–2]
given by the dimensions of flux divided by the dimensions of current. The
SI unit of inductance is henry and is denoted by H. It is named in honour
of Joseph Henry who discovered electromagnetic induction in USA,
independently of Faraday in England.
( ) (µ n I )
N1Φ1 = (n1l ) πr12 0 2 2
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where n2l is the total number of turns of S2. From Eq. (6.12),
M21 = µ0n1n2πr 21 l (6.13)
Using Eq. (6.11) and Eq. (6.12), we get
M12 = M21= M (say) (6.14)
We have demonstrated this equality for long co-axial solenoids.
However, the relation is far more general. Note that if the inner solenoid
was much shorter than (and placed well inside) the outer solenoid, then
we could still have calculated the flux linkage N1Φ1 because the inner
solenoid is effectively immersed in a uniform magnetic field due to the
outer solenoid. In this case, the calculation of M12 would be easy. However,
it would be extremely difficult to calculate the flux linkage with the outer
solenoid as the magnetic field due to the inner solenoid would vary across
the length as well as cross section of the outer solenoid. Therefore, the
calculation of M21 would also be extremely difficult in this case. The
equality M12=M21 is very useful in such situations.
We explained the above example with air as the medium within the
solenoids. Instead, if a medium of relative permeability µr had been present,
the mutual inductance would be
M =µr µ0 n1n2π r12 l
It is also important to know that the mutual inductance of a pair of
coils, solenoids, etc., depends on their separation as well as their relative
orientation.
Example 6.9 Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r1 and
the other of large radius r2, such that r1 << r2, are placed co-axially
with centres coinciding. Obtain the mutual inductance of the
arrangement.
Solution Let a current I2 flow through the outer circular coil. The
field at the centre of the coil is B 2 = µ 0I 2 / 2r2. Since the other
co-axially placed coil has a very small radius, B2 may be considered
constant over its cross-sectional area. Hence,
Φ1 = πr 12B2
µ0 πr12
= I2
2r2
= M12 I2
Thus,
µ0 πr12
M12 =
2r2
From Eq. (6.14)
µ0 π r12
M12 = M 21 =
EXAMPLE 6.9
2 r2
Note that we calculated M12 from an approximate value of Φ1, assuming
the magnetic field B2 to be uniform over the area π r12. However, we
can accept this value because r1 << r2.
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Now, let us recollect Experiment 6.3 in Section 6.2. In that experiment,
emf is induced in coil C1 wherever there was any change in current through
coil C2. Let Φ1 be the flux through coil C1 (say of N1 turns) when current in
coil C2 is I2.
Then, from Eq. (6.9), we have
N1Φ1 = MI2
For currents varrying with time,
d ( N 1Φ1 ) d ( MI 2 )
=
dt dt
Since induced emf in coil C1 is given by
d ( N 1Φ1 )
ε1 = –
dt
We get,
dI 2
ε1 = – M
dt
It shows that varying current in a coil can induce emf in a neighbouring
coil. The magnitude of the induced emf depends upon the rate of change
of current and mutual inductance of the two coils.
6.9.2 Self-inductance
In the previous sub-section, we considered the flux in one solenoid due
to the current in the other. It is also possible that emf is induced in a
single isolated coil due to change of flux through the coil by means of
varying the current through the same coil. This phenomenon is called
self-induction. In this case, flux linkage through a coil of N turns is
proportional to the current through the coil and is expressed as
N ΦB ∝ I
N ΦB = L I (6.15)
where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It
is also called the coefficient of self-induction of the coil. When the current
is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is induced
in the coil. Using Eq. (6.15), the induced emf is given by
d ( N ΦB )
ε=–
dt
dI
ε = –L (6.16)
dt
Thus, the self-induced emf always opposes any change (increase or
decrease) of current in the coil.
It is possible to calculate the self-inductance for circuits with simple
geometries. Let us calculate the self-inductance of a long solenoid of cross-
sectional area A and length l, having n turns per unit length. The magnetic
field due to a current I flowing in the solenoid is B = µ0 n I (neglecting edge
effects, as before). The total flux linked with the solenoid is
222 N ΦB = (nl ) ( µ0n I ) ( A )
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= µ 0n 2 Al I
where nl is the total number of turns. Thus, the self-inductance is,
ΝΦΒ
L =
I
= µ0n 2 Al (6.17)
If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability
µr (for example soft iron, which has a high value of relative permeability),
then,
L = µr µ0 n 2 Al (6.18)
The self-inductance of the coil depends on its geometry and on the
permeability of the medium.
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any
change in the current in a circuit. Physically, the self-inductance plays
the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.
So, work needs to be done against the back emf (ε ) in establishing the
current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy. For the
current I at an instant in a circuit, the rate of work done is
dW
= εI
dt
If we ignore the resistive losses and consider only inductive effect,
then using Eq. (6.16),
dW dI
=L I
dt dt
Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is
I
W = ∫ dW = ∫ L I dI
0
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Physics
M11 is the self-inductance and is written as L1. Therefore,
d I1 dI
ε1 = − L1 − M 12 2
dt dt
Example 6.10 (a) Obtain the expression for the magnetic energy stored
in a solenoid in terms of magnetic field B, area A and length l of the
solenoid. (b) How does this magnetic energy compare with the
electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor?
Solution
(a) From Eq. (6.19), the magnetic energy is
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/generator/ac.html
1 2
UB = LI
2
2
1 B
= L (since B = µ0 nI , for a solenoid)
2 µ0n
2
1 B
= ( µ0n 2 Al ) [from Eq. (6.17)]
2 µ0n
Interactive animation on ac generator:
1
= B 2 Al
2 µ0
(b) The magnetic energy per unit volume is,
UB
uB = (where V is volume that contains flux)
V
UB
=
Al
B2
= (6.20)
2 µ0
We have already obtained the relation for the electrostatic energy
stored per unit volume in a parallel plate capacitor (refer to Chapter 2,
Eq. 2.77),
1
uΕ = ε0 E 2 (2.77)
EXAMPLE 6.10
2
In both the cases energy is proportional to the square of the field
strength. Equations (6.20) and (2.77) have been derived for special
cases: a solenoid and a parallel plate capacitor, respectively. But they
are general and valid for any region of space in which a magnetic field
or/and an electric field exist.
6.10 AC GENERATOR
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction has been technologically
exploited in many ways. An exceptionally important application is the
generation of alternating currents (ac). The modern ac generator with a
typical output capacity of 100 MW is a highly evolved machine. In this
section, we shall describe the basic principles behind this machine. The
Yugoslav inventor Nicola Tesla is credited with the development of the
224 machine. As was pointed out in Section 6.3, one method to induce an emf
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Electromagnetic
Induction
or current in a loop is through a change in the
loop’s orientation or a change in its effective area.
As the coil rotates in a magnetic field B, the
effective area of the loop (the face perpendicular
to the field) is A cos θ, where θ is the angle
between A and B. This method of producing a
flux change is the principle of operation of a
simple ac generator. An ac generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The basic elements of an ac generator are
shown in Fig. 6.16. It consists of a coil mounted
on a rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil
is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field. The coil (called armature) is mechanically
rotated in the uniform magnetic field by some
external means. The rotation of the coil causes
the magnetic flux through it to change, so an
emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil
are connected to an external circuit by means
FIGURE 6.16 AC Generator
of slip rings and brushes.
When the coil is rotated with a constant
angular speed ω, the angle θ between the magnetic field vector B and the
area vector A of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt (assuming θ = 0° at t = 0).
As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines
changes with time, and from Eq. (6.1), the flux at any time t is
ΦB = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is
then,
dΦB d
ε=–N = – NBA (cos ω t )
dt dt
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is
ε = NBA ω sin ωt (6.21)
where NBAω is the maximum value of the emf, which occurs when
sin ωt = ±1. If we denote NBAω as ε0, then
ε = ε0 sin ωt (6.22)
Since the value of the sine fuction varies between +1 and –1, the sign, or
polarity of the emf changes with time. Note from Fig. 6.17 that the emf
has its extremum value when θ = 90° or θ = 270°, as the change of flux is
greatest at these points.
The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current
is called alternating current (ac). Since ω = 2πν, Eq (6.22) can be written as
ε = ε0sin 2π ν t (6.23)
where ν is the frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil.
Note that Eq. (6.22) and (6.23) give the instantaneous value of the emf
and ε varies between +ε0 and –ε0 periodically. We shall learn how to
determine the time-averaged value for the alternating voltage and current
in the next chapter. 225
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FIGURE 6.17 An alternating emf is generated by a loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field.
= 0.314 V
The maximum voltage is 0.314 V.
We urge you to explore such alternative possibilities for power
generation.
226
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MIGRATION OF BIRDS
The migratory pattern of birds is one of the mysteries in the field of biology, and indeed all
of science. For example, every winter birds from Siberia fly unerringly to water spots in the
Indian subcontinent. There has been a suggestion that electromagnetic induction may
provide a clue to these migratory patterns. The earth’s magnetic field has existed throughout
evolutionary history. It would be of great benefit to migratory birds to use this field to
determine the direction. As far as we know birds contain no ferromagnetic material. So
electromagnetic induction seems to be the only reasonable mechanism to determine
direction. Consider the optimal case where the magnetic field B, the velocity of the bird v,
and two relevant points of its anatomy separated by a distance l, all three are mutually
perpendicular. From the formula for motional emf, Eq. (6.5),
ε = Blv
Taking B = 4 × 10–5 T, l = 2 cm wide, and v = 10 m/s, we obtain
ε = 4 × 10–5 × 2 × 10–2 × 10 V = 8 × 10–6 V
= 8 µV
This extremely small potential difference suggests that our hypothesis is of doubtful
validity. Certain kinds of fish are able to detect small potential differences. However, in
these fish, special cells have been identified which detect small voltage differences. In birds
no such cells have been identified. Thus, the migration patterns of birds continues to remain
a mystery.
SUMMARY
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7. A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a nearby coil
(coil 1). This relation is given by,
dI 2
ε1 = − M 12
dt
The quantity M12 is called mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to
coil 2. One can similarly define M21. There exists a general equality,
M12 = M21
8. When a current in a coil changes, it induces a back emf in the same
coil. The self-induced emf is given by,
dI
ε = −L
dt
L is the self-inductance of the coil. It is a measure of the inertia of the
coil against the change of current through it.
9. The self-inductance of a long solenoid, the core of which consists of a
magnetic material of permeability µr, is given by
L = µr µ0 n2 A l
where A is the area of cross-section of the solenoid, l its length and n
the number of turns per unit length.
10. In an ac generator, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy
by virtue of electromagnetic induction. If coil of N turn and area A is
rotated at ν revolutions per second in a uniform magnetic field B, then
the motional emf produced is
ε = NBA ( 2πν ) sin (2π ν t)
where we have assumed that at time t = 0 s, the coil is perpendicular to
the field.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Electricity and magnetism are intimately related. In the early part of the
nineteenth century, the experiments of Oersted, Ampere and others
established that moving charges (currents) produce a magnetic field.
Somewhat later, around 1830, the experiments of Faraday and Henry
demonstrated that a moving magnet can induce electric current.
2. In a closed circuit, electric currents are induced so as to oppose the
changing magnetic flux. It is as per the law of conservation of energy.
However, in case of an open circuit, an emf is induced across its ends.
How is it related to the flux change?
3. The motional emf discussed in Section 6.5 can be argued independently
228 from Faraday’s law using the Lorentz force on moving charges. However,
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Electromagnetic
Induction
even if the charges are stationary [and the q (v × B) term of the Lorentz
force is not operative], an emf is nevertheless induced in the presence of a
time-varying magnetic field. Thus, moving charges in static field and static
charges in a time-varying field seem to be symmetric situation for
Faraday’s law. This gives a tantalising hint on the relevance of the principle
of relativity for Faraday’s law.
4. The motion of a copper plate is damped when it is allowed to oscillate
between the magnetic pole-pieces. How is the damping force, produced by
the eddy currents?
EXERCISES
6.1 Predict the direction of induced current in the situations described
by the following Figs. 6.18(a) to (f ).
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6.2 Use Lenz’s law to determine the direction of induced current in the
situations described by Fig. 6.19:
(a) A wire of irregular shape turning into a circular shape;
(b) A circular loop being deformed into a narrow straight wire.
FIGURE 6.19
6.3 A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 cm2
placed inside the solenoid normal to its axis. If the current carried
by the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A to 4.0 A in 0.1 s, what is
the induced emf in the loop while the current is changing?
6.4 A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut is
moving out of a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 T
directed normal to the loop. What is the emf developed across the
cut if the velocity of the loop is 1 cm s–1 in a direction normal to the
(a) longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop? For how long does the
induced voltage last in each case?
6.5 A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of
400 rad s–1 about an axis normal to the rod passing through its one
end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a circular metallic
ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the
axis exists everywhere. Calculate the emf developed between the
centre and the ring.
6.6 A circular coil of radius 8.0 cm and 20 turns is rotated about its
vertical diameter with an angular speed of 50 rad s–1 in a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 3.0 × 10 –2 T. Obtain the
maximum and average emf induced in the coil. If the coil forms a
closed loop of resistance 10 Ω, calculate the maximum value of current
in the coil. Calculate the average power loss due to Joule heating.
Where does this power come from?
6.7 A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is
falling with a speed of 5.0 m s–1, at right angles to the horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field, 0.30 × 10–4 Wb m–2.
(a) What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?
(b) What is the direction of the emf?
(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher electrical potential?
6.8 Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If an average emf
of 200 V induced, give an estimate of the self-inductance of the circuit.
6.9 A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the
current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A in 0.5 s, what is the
change of flux linkage with the other coil?
6.10 A jet plane is travelling towards west at a speed of 1800 km/h. What
230 is the voltage difference developed between the ends of the wing
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Electromagnetic
Induction
having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s magnetic field at the location
has a magnitude of 5 × 10–4 T and the dip angle is 30°.
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
6.11 Suppose the loop in Exercise 6.4 is stationary but the current
feeding the electromagnet that produces the magnetic field is
gradually reduced so that the field decreases from its initial value
of 0.3 T at the rate of 0.02 T s –1. If the cut is joined and the loop
has a resistance of 1.6 Ω, how much power is dissipated by the
loop as heat? What is the source of this power?
6.12 A square loop of side 12 cm with its sides parallel to X and Y axes is
moved with a velocity of 8 cm s –1 in the positive x-direction in an
environment containing a magnetic field in the positive z-direction.
The field is neither uniform in space nor constant in time. It has a
gradient of 10 – 3 T cm–1 along the negative x-direction (that is it increases
by 10 – 3 T cm – 1 as one moves in the negative x-direction), and it is
decreasing in time at the rate of 10 – 3 T s–1. Determine the direction and
magnitude of the induced current in the loop if its resistance is 4.50 mΩ.
6.13 It is desired to measure the magnitude of field between the poles of a
powerful loud speaker magnet. A small flat search coil of area 2 cm2
with 25 closely wound turns, is positioned normal to the field
direction, and then quickly snatched out of the field region.
Equivalently, one can give it a quick 90° turn to bring its plane
parallel to the field direction). The total charge flown in the coil
(measured by a ballistic galvanometer connected to coil) is
7.5 mC. The combined resistance of the coil and the galvanometer is
0.50 Ω. Estimate the field strength of magnet.
6.14 Figure 6.20 shows a metal rod PQ resting on the smooth rails AB
and positioned between the poles of a permanent magnet. The rails,
the rod, and the magnetic field are in three mutual perpendicular
directions. A galvanometer G connects the rails through a switch K.
Length of the rod = 15 cm, B = 0.50 T, resistance of the closed loop
containing the rod = 9.0 mΩ. Assume the field to be uniform.
(a) Suppose K is open and the rod is moved with a speed of 12 cm s–1
in the direction shown. Give the polarity and magnitude of the
induced emf.
FIGURE 6.20
(b) Is there an excess charge built up at the ends of the rods when
K is open? What if K is closed?
(c) With K open and the rod moving uniformly, there is no net
force on the electrons in the rod PQ even though they do 231
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experience magnetic force due to the motion of the rod. Explain.
(d) What is the retarding force on the rod when K is closed?
(e) How much power is required (by an external agent) to keep
the rod moving at the same speed (=12 cm s–1) when K is closed?
How much power is required when K is open?
(f ) How much power is dissipated as heat in the closed circuit?
What is the source of this power?
(g) What is the induced emf in the moving rod if the magnetic field
is parallel to the rails instead of being perpendicular?
6.15 An air-cored solenoid with length 30 cm, area of cross-section 25 cm2
and number of turns 500, carries a current of 2.5 A. The current is
suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10–3 s. How much is the average
back emf induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit?
Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the ends of the solenoid.
6.16 (a) Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance between a long
straight wire and a square loop of side a as shown in Fig. 6.21.
(b) Now assume that the straight wire carries a current of 50 A and
the loop is moved to the right with a constant velocity, v = 10 m/s.
Calculate the induced emf in the loop at the instant when x = 0.2 m.
Take a = 0.1 m and assume that the loop has a large resistance.
FIGURE 6.21
6.17 A line charge λ per unit length is lodged uniformly onto the rim of a
wheel of mass M and radius R. The wheel has light non-conducting
spokes and is free to rotate without friction about its axis (Fig. 6.22).
A uniform magnetic field extends over a circular region within the
rim. It is given by,
B = – B0 k (r ≤ a; a < R)
=0 (otherwise)
What is the angular velocity of the wheel after the field is suddenly
switched off ?
232
FIGURE 6.22
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Chapter Seven
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
We have so far considered direct current (dc) sources and circuits with dc
sources. These currents do not change direction with time. But voltages
and currents that vary with time are very common. The electric mains
supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies like a sine function
with time. Such a voltage is called alternating voltage (ac voltage) and
the current driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating current (ac
current)*. Today, most of the electrical devices we use require ac voltage.
This is mainly because most of the electrical energy sold by power
companies is transmitted and distributed as alternating current. The main
reason for preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages
can be easily and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by
means of transformers. Further, electrical energy can also be transmitted
economically over long distances. AC circuits exhibit characteristics which
are exploited in many devices of daily use. For example, whenever we
tune our radio to a favourite station, we are taking advantage of a special
property of ac circuits – one of many that you will study in this chapter.
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Physics
7.2 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR
Figure 7.1 shows a resistor connected to a source ε of
ac voltage. The symbol for an ac source in a circuit
diagram is . We consider a source which produces
sinusoidally varying potential difference across its
terminals. Let this potential difference, also called ac
voltage, be given by
v = vm sin ω t (7.1)
where vm is the amplitude of the oscillating potential
difference and ω is its angular frequency.
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Alternating Current
not mean that the average power consumed is zero and
that there is no dissipation of electrical energy. As you
know, Joule heating is given by i 2R and depends on i 2
(which is always positive whether i is positive or negative)
and not on i. Thus, there is Joule heating and
dissipation of electrical energy when an
ac current passes through a resistor.
The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is
p = i 2 R = i m2 R sin 2 ω t (7.4)
The average value of p over a cycle is*
p = < i 2 R > = < i m2 R sin 2 ω t > [7.5(a)]
where the bar over a letter (here, p) denotes its average
Geor ge Westinghouse
1 T
1 sin 2ω t T 1
** < cos 2ω t > = T ∫ cos 2ω t dt = T =
2ω 0 2ω T
[sin 2ω T − 0] = 0
0 235
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Physics
It is defined by
1 2 i
I = i2 = im = m
2 2
= 0.707 im (7.6)
In terms of I, the average power, denoted by P is
1 2
P = p= im R = I 2 R (7.7)
2
Similarly, we define the rms voltage or effective voltage by
vm
V= = 0.707 vm (7.8)
2
From Eq. (7.3), we have
v m = i mR
vm im
or, = R
2 2
or, V = IR (7.9)
Equation (7.9) gives the relation between ac current and ac voltage
and is similar to that in the dc case. This shows the advantage of
introducing the concept of rms values. In terms of rms values, the equation
for power [Eq. (7.7)] and relation between current and voltage in ac circuits
are essentially the same as those for the dc case.
It is customary to measure and specify rms values for ac quantities. For
example, the household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value with a peak
voltage of
vm = 2 V = (1.414)(220 V) = 311 V
In fact, the I or rms current is the equivalent dc current that would
produce the same average power loss as the alternating current. Equation
(7.7) can also be written as
P = V2 / R = I V (since V = I R )
Example 7.1 A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find
(a) the resistance of the bulb; (b) the peak voltage of the source; and
(c) the rms current through the bulb.
Solution
(a) We are given P = 100 W and V = 220 V. The resistance of the
bulb is
V 2 (220 V )
2
R= = = 484 Ω
P 100 W
(b) The peak voltage of the source is
EXAMPLE 7.1
v m = 2V = 311 V
(c) Since, P = I V
P 100 W
I = = = 0.454A
V 220 V
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the inductor. The negative sign follows from Lenz’s law (Chapter 6).
Combining Eqs. (7.1) and (7.10), we have
di v v
= = m sin ω t (7.11)
dt L L
Equation (7.11) implies that the equation for i(t), the current as a
function of time, must be such that its slope di/dt is a sinusoidally varying
quantity, with the same phase as the source voltage and an amplitude
Interactive animation on Phasor diagrams of ac circuits containing, R, L, C and RLC series circuits:
Using
π
− cos(ω t ) = sin ω t − , we have
2
π
i = i m sin ωt − (7.12)
2
vm
where im = is the amplitude of the current. The quantity ω L is
ωL
analogous to the resistance and is called inductive reactance, denoted
by XL:
XL = ω L (7.13)
The amplitude of the current is, then
vm
im = (7.14)
XL
The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance
and its SI unit is ohm (Ω). The inductive reactance limits the current in a
purely inductive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the
current in a purely resistive circuit. The inductive reactance is directly
proportional to the inductance and to the frequency of the current.
A comparison of Eqs. (7.1) and (7.12) for the source voltage and the
current in an inductor shows that the current lags the voltage by π/2 or
one-quarter (1/4) cycle. Figure 7.6 (a) shows the voltage and the current
phasors in the present case at instant t1. The current phasor I is π/2
behind the voltage phasor V. When rotated with frequency ω counter-
clockwise, they generate the voltage and current given by Eqs. (7.1) and
238 (7.12), respectively and as shown in Fig. 7.6(b).
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Alternating Current
FIGURE 7.6 (a) A Phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig. 7.5.
(b) Graph of v and i versus ωt.
We see that the current reaches its maximum value later than the
T π/2
voltage by one-fourth of a period =
ω
. You have seen that an
4
inductor has reactance that limits current similar to resistance in a
dc circuit. Does it also consume power like a resistance? Let us try to
find out.
The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is
π
p L = i v = im sin ω t − ×vm sin (ωt )
2
= −i m vm cos (ωt ) sin (ωt )
i m vm
=− sin (2ωt )
2
So, the average power over a complete cycle is
i m vm
PL = − sin (2ω t )
2
i m vm
=− sin (2ω t ) = 0,
2
since the average of sin (2ωt) over a complete cycle is zero.
Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete
cycle is zero.
Figure 7.7 explains it in detail.
= 7.85Ω
The rms current in the circuit is
V 220 V
I = = = 28A
X L 7.85 Ω 239
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Physics
0-1 Current i through the coil entering at A 1-2 Current in the coil is still positive but is
increase from zero to a maximum value. Flux decreasing. The core gets demagnetised and
lines are set up i.e., the core gets magnetised. the net flux becomes zero at the end of a half
With the polarity shown voltage and current cycle. The voltage v is negative (since di/dt is
are both positive. So their product p is positive. negative). The product of voltage and current
ENERGY IS ABSORBED FROM THE is negative, and ENERGY IS BEING
SOURCE. RETURNED TO SOURCE.
One complete cycle of voltage/current. Note that the current lags the voltage.
2-3 Current i becomes negative i.e., it enters 3-4 Current i decreases and reaches its zero
at B and comes out of A. Since the direction value at 4 when core is demagnetised and flux
of current has changed, the polarity of the is zero. The voltage is positive but the current
magnet changes. The current and voltage are is negative. The power is, therefore, negative.
both negative. So their product p is positive. ENERGY ABSORBED DURING THE CYCLE
ENERGY IS ABSORBED. 2-3 IS RETURNED TO THE SOURCE.
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Alternating Current
π
i = im sin ω t + (7.16)
2
where the amplitude of the oscillating current is im = ωCvm. We can rewrite
it as
vm
im =
(1/ ω C )
Comparing it to im= vm/R for a purely resistive circuit, we find that
(1/ωC) plays the role of resistance. It is called capacitive reactance and
is denoted by Xc,
Xc= 1/ωC (7.17)
so that the amplitude of the current is
vm
im = (7.18) 241
XC
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The dimension of capacitive reactance is the
same as that of resistance and its SI unit is
ohm (Ω). The capacitive reactance limits the
amplitude of the current in a purely capacitive
circuit in the same way as the resistance limits
the current in a purely resistive circuit. But it
is inversely proportional to the frequency and
the capacitance.
FIGURE 7.9 (a) A Phasor diagram for the circuit
A comparison of Eq. (7.16) with the
in Fig. 7.8. (b) Graph of v and i versus ωt. equation of source voltage, Eq. (7.1) shows that
the current is π/2 ahead of voltage.
Figure 7.9(a) shows the phasor diagram at an instant t1. Here the current
phasor I is π/2 ahead of the voltage phasor V as they rotate
counterclockwise. Figure 7.9(b) shows the variation of voltage and current
with time. We see that the current reaches its maximum value earlier than
the voltage by one-fourth of a period.
The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is
pc = i v = im cos(ωt)vm sin(ωt)
= imvm cos(ωt) sin(ωt)
i m vm
= sin(2ωt ) (7.19)
2
So, as in the case of an inductor, the average power
i m vm i v
PC = sin(2ωt ) = m m sin(2ωt ) = 0
2 2
since <sin (2ωt)> = 0 over a complete cycle. Figure 7.10 explains it in detail.
Thus, we see that in the case of an inductor, the current lags the voltage
by π/2 and in the case of a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by π/2.
the lamp will not glow. There will be no change even if C is reduced.
With ac source, the capacitor offers capacitative reactance (1/ω C )
and the current flows in the circuit. Consequently, the lamp will shine.
Reducing C will increase reactance and the lamp will shine less brightly
than before.
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Alternating Current
0-1 The current i flows as shown and from the 1-2 The current i reverses its direction. The
maximum at 0, reaches a zero value at 1. The plate accumulated charge is depleted i.e., the capacitor is
A is charged to positive polarity while negative charge discharged during this quarter cycle.The voltage gets
q builds up in B reaching a maximum at 1 until the reduced but is still positive. The current is negative.
current becomes zero. The voltage vc = q/C is in phase Their product, the power is negative.
with q and reaches maximum value at 1. Current THE ENERGY ABSORBED DURING THE 1/4
and voltage are both positive. So p = vci is positive. CYCLE 0-1 IS RETURNED DURING THIS QUARTER.
ENERGY IS ABSORBED FROM THE SOURCE
DURING THIS QUAR TER CYCLE AS THE
CAPACITOR IS CHARGED.
One complete cycle of voltage/current. Note that the current leads the voltage.
2-3 As i continues to flow from A to B, the capacitor 3-4 The current i reverses its direction at 3 and flows
is charged to reversed polarity i.e., the plate B from B to A. The accumulated charge is depleted
acquires positive and A acquires negative charge. and the magnitude of the voltage vc is reduced. vc
Both the current and the voltage are negative. Their becomes zero at 4 when the capacitor is fully
product p is positive. The capacitor ABSORBS discharged. The power is negative.ENERGY
ENERGY during this 1/4 cycle. ABSORBED DURING 2-3 IS RETURNED TO THE
SOURCE. NET ENERGY ABSORBED IS ZERO.
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V 220 V
I = = = 1.04 A
X C 212 Ω
The peak current is
i m = 2I = (1.41)(1.04 A ) = 1.47 A
EXAMPLE 7.4
Example 7.5 A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to
an ac source through a key as shown in Fig. 7.11.
FIGURE 7.11
The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into
the interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb (a) increases; (b)
decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted. Give your
answer with reasons.
Solution As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil
EXAMPLE 7.5
magnetizes the iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence,
the inductance of the coil increases. Consequently, the inductive
reactance of the coil increases. As a result, a larger fraction of the
applied ac voltage appears across the inductor, leaving less voltage
across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb decreases.
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7.6.1 Phasor-diagram solution
From the circuit shown in Fig. 7.12, we see that the resistor, inductor
and capacitor are in series. Therefore, the ac current in each element is
the same at any time, having the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
i = im sin(ωt+φ ) (7.21)
where φ is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and
the current in the circuit. On the basis of what we have learnt in the previous
sections, we shall construct a phasor diagram for the present case.
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by
Eq. (7.21). Further, let VL, VR, VC, and V represent the voltage across the
inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source, respectively. From previous
section, we know that VR is parallel to I, VC is π/2
behind I and VL is π/2 ahead of I. VL, VR, VC and I
are shown in Fig. 7.13(a) with apppropriate phase-
relations.
The length of these phasors or the amplitude
of VR, VC and VL are:
vRm = im R, vCm = im XC, vLm = im XL (7.22)
The voltage Equation (7.20) for the circuit can
be written as
vL + vR + vC = v (7.23)
The phasor relation whose vertical component
gives the above equation is FIGURE 7.13 (a) Relation between the
phasors VL, VR, VC, and I, (b) Relation
VL + VR + VC = V (7.24) between the phasors VL, VR, and (VL + VC)
This relation is represented in Fig. 7.13(b). Since for the circuit in Fig. 7.11.
VC and VL are always along the same line and in
opposite directions, they can be combined into a single phasor (VC + VL)
which has a magnitude vCm – vLm. Since V is represented as the
hypotenuse of a right-triangle whose sides are VR and (VC + VL), the
pythagorean theorem gives:
+ (vCm − v Lm )
2
vm2 = vRm
2
Substituting the values of vRm, vCm, and vLm from Eq. (7.22) into the above
equation, we have
vm2 = (im R )2 + (i m X C − i m X L )2
= im2 R 2 + ( X C − X L )2
vm
or, i m = [7.25(a)]
R + ( X C − X L )2
2
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Since phasor I is always parallel to phasor VR, the phase angle φ
is the angle between VR and V and can be determined from
Fig. 7.14:
vCm − v Lm
tan φ =
v Rm
Using Eq. (7.22), we have
XC − X L
tan φ = (7.27)
R
Equations (7.26) and (7.27) are graphically shown in Fig. (7.14).
FIGURE 7.14 Impedance This is called Impedance diagram which is a right-triangle with
diagram. Z as its hypotenuse.
Equation 7.25(a) gives the amplitude of the current and Eq. (7.27)
gives the phase angle. With these, Eq. (7.21) is completely specified.
If XC > XL, φ is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive.
Consequently, the current in the circuit leads the source voltage. If
X C < X L, φ is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive.
Consequently, the current in the circuit lags the source voltage.
Figure 7.15 shows the phasor diagram and variation of v and i with ω t
for the case XC > XL.
Thus, we have obtained the amplitude
and phase of current for an LCR series circuit
using the technique of phasors. But this
method of analysing ac circuits suffers from
certain disadvantages. First, the phasor
diagram say nothing about the initial
condition. One can take any arbitrary value
of t (say, t1, as done throughout this chapter)
and draw different phasors which show the
relative angle between different phasors.
The solution so obtained is called the
steady-state solution. This is not a general
FIGURE 7.15 (a) Phasor diagram of V and I. solution. Additionally, we do have a
(b) Graphs of v and i versus ω t for a series LCR transient solution which exists even for
circuit where XC > XL. v = 0. The general solution is the sum of the
transient solution and the steady-state
solution. After a sufficiently long time, the effects of the transient solution
die out and the behaviour of the circuit is described by the steady-state
solution.
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d 2q dq q
L 2
+R + = vm sin ω t (7.28)
dt dt C
This is like the equation for a forced, damped oscillator, [see Eq. {14.37(b)}
in Class XI Physics Textbook]. Let us assume a solution
q = qm sin (ω t + θ ) [7.29(a)]
dq
so that = qm ω cos(ω t + θ ) [7.29(b)]
dt
d2q
and = −qm ω 2 sin(ω t + θ ) [7.29(c)]
dt 2
Substituting these values in Eq. (7.28), we get
qm ω [ R cos(ω t + θ ) + ( X C − X L )sin(ω t + θ )] = vm sin ωt (7.30)
where we have used the relation Xc= 1/ωC, XL = ω L. Multiplying and
R (X − X L )
qm ω Z cos(ω t + θ ) + C sin(ω t + θ ) = v sin ω t (7.31)
Z Z m
R
Now, let = cos φ
Z
(XC − X L )
and = sin φ
Z
XC − X L
so that φ = tan −1 (7.32)
R
Substituting this in Eq. (7.31) and simplifying, we get:
qm ω Z cos(ω t + θ − φ ) = vm sin ω t (7.33)
Comparing the two sides of this equation, we see that
vm = qm ω Z = i m Z
where
i m = qm ω [7.33(a)]
π π
and θ − φ = − or θ = − + φ [7.33(b)]
2 2
Therefore, the current in the circuit is
dq
i = = qm ω cos(ω t + θ )
dt
= im cos(ωt + θ )
or i = imsin(ωt + φ ) (7.34)
vm vm
where i m = = [7.34(a)]
Z R + ( X C − X L )2
2
−1 XC − XL
and φ = tan 247
R
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Thus, the analytical solution for the amplitude and phase of the current
in the circuit agrees with that obtained by the technique of phasors.
7.6.3 Resonance
An interesting characteristic of the series RLC circuit is the phenomenon
of resonance. The phenomenon of resonance is common among systems
that have a tendency to oscillate at a particular frequency. This frequency
is called the system’s natural frequency. If such a system is driven by an
energy source at a frequency that is near the natural frequency, the
amplitude of oscillation is found to be large. A familiar example of this
phenomenon is a child on a swing. The swing has a natural frequency
for swinging back and forth like a pendulum. If the child pulls on the
rope at regular intervals and the frequency of the pulls is almost the
same as the frequency of swinging, the amplitude of the swinging will be
large (Chapter 14, Class XI).
For an RLC circuit driven with voltage of amplitude vm and frequency
ω, we found that the current amplitude is given by
vm vm
im = =
Z R 2 + ( X C − X L )2
with Xc = 1/ωC and XL = ω L . So if ω is varied, then at a particular frequency
(
ω0, Xc = XL, and the impedance is minimum Z = R + 0 = R . This
2 2
)
frequency is called the resonant frequency:
1
X c = X L or = ω0 L
ω0 C
1
or ω 0 = (7.35)
LC
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum; im = vm/R.
Figure 7.16 shows the variation of im with ω in
a RLC series circuit with L = 1.00 mH, C =
1.00 nF for two values of R: (i) R = 100 Ω
and (ii) R = 200 Ω. For the source applied vm =
1
100 V. ω0 for this case is = 1.00×106
LC
rad/s.
We see that the current amplitude is maximum
at the resonant frequency. Since im = vm / R at
resonance, the current amplitude for case (i) is
twice to that for case (ii).
FIGURE 7.16 Variation of im with ω for two Resonant circuits have a variety of
cases: (i) R = 100 Ω, (ii) R = 200 Ω, applications, for example, in the tuning
L = 1.00 mH. mechanism of a radio or a TV set. The antenna of
a radio accepts signals from many broadcasting
stations. The signals picked up in the antenna acts as a source in the
248 tuning circuit of the radio, so the circuit can be driven at many frequencies.
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But to hear one particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we
vary the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the
resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency
of the radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the
current with the frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in
the circuit is maximum.
It is important to note that resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a
circuit only if both L and C are present in the circuit. Only then do the
voltages across L and C cancel each other (both being out of phase)
and the current amplitude is vm/R, the total source voltage appearing
across R. This means that we cannot have resonance in a RL or
RC circuit.
Sharpness of resonance
The amplitude of the current in the series LCR circuit is given by
vm
im =
2
1
R2 + ω L −
ω C
i mmax = vm / R .
For values of ω other than ω0, the amplitude of the current is less
than the maximum value. Suppose we choose a value of ω for which the
current amplitude is 1/ 2 times its maximum value. At this value, the
power dissipated by the circuit becomes half. From the curve in
Fig. (7.16), we see that there are two such values of ω, say, ω1 and ω2,
one greater and the other smaller than ω0 and symmetrical about ω0. We
may write
ω1 = ω0 + ∆ω
ω2 = ω0 – ∆ω
(1/ 2 ) i max
m for ω1 = ω0 + ∆ω. Therefore,
vm
at ω1, im =
2
1
R + ω 1L −
2
ω 1C
i mmax v
= = m
2 R 2 249
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2
1
R 2 + ω 1L − =R 2
ω1 C
or
2
1
or R + ω1 L −
2
= 2R 2
ω1 C
1
ω 1L − =R
ω 1C
which may be written as,
1
(ω 0 + ∆ω ) L − =R
(ω 0 + ∆ω )C
∆ω 1
ω 0 L 1 + − =R
ω 0 ∆ω
ω 0C 1 +
ω 0
1
Using ω 02 = in the second term on the left hand side, we get
LC
∆ω ω0L
ω 0 L 1 + − =R
ω0 ∆ω
1 +
ω 0
−1
∆ω ∆ω ∆ω
We can approximate 1 + as 1 −
ω 0
since ω <<1. Therefore,
ω0 0
∆ω ∆ω
ω 0 L 1 + − ω 0 L 1 − =R
ω0 ω 0
2 ∆ω
or ω0L =R
ω0
R
∆ω = [7.36(a)]
2L
The sharpness of resonance is given by,
ω0 ω0L
= [7.36(b)]
2 ∆ω R
ω0 L
The ratio is also called the quality factor, Q of the circuit.
R
ω0L
Q= [7.36(c)]
R
ω0
250 From Eqs. [7.36 (b)] and [7.36 (c)], we see that 2 ∆ω = . So, larger the
Q
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Alternating Current
value of Q, the smaller is the value of 2∆ω or the bandwidth and sharper
is the resonance. Using ω 02 = 1/ L C , Eq. [7.36(c)] can be equivalently
expressed as Q = 1/ω0CR.
We see from Fig. 7.15, that if the resonance is less sharp, not only is
the maximum current less, the circuit is close to resonance for a larger
range ∆ω of frequencies and the tuning of the circuit will not be good.
So, less sharp the resonance, less is the selectivity of the circuit or vice
versa. From Eq. (7.36), we see that if quality factor is large, i.e., R is low
or L is large, the circuit is more selective.
Z = R 2 + X C2 = R 2 + (2π ν C )−2
= 291.67 Ω
Therefore, the current in the circuit is
V 220 V
I = = = 0.755 A
Z 291.5 Ω
(b) Since the current is the same throughout the circuit, we have
V R = I R = (0.755 A)(200 Ω) = 151 V
VC = I X C = (0.755 A)(212.3 Ω ) = 160.3 V
The algebraic sum of the two voltages, VR and VC is 311.3 V which is
more than the source voltage of 220 V. How to resolve this paradox?
As you have learnt in the text, the two voltages are not in the same
phase. Therefore, they cannot be added like ordinary numbers. The
two voltages are out of phase by ninety degrees. Therefore, the total
of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem:
EXAMPLE 7.6
V R +C = VR2 + VC2
= 220 V
Thus, if the phase difference between two voltages is properly taken
into account, the total voltage across the resistor and the capacitor is
equal to the voltage of the source. 251
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7.7 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR
We have seen that a voltage v = vm sinωt applied to a series RLC circuit
drives a current in the circuit given by i = im sin(ωt + φ) where
vm X − XL
im = and φ = tan −1 C
Z R
Therefore, the instantaneous power p supplied by the source is
p = v i = (vm sin ω t ) × [im sin(ω t + φ )]
vm i m
=
2
[cos φ − cos(2ω t + φ )] (7.37)
The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in
R.H.S. of Eq. (7.37). It is only the second term which is time-dependent.
Its average is zero (the positive half of the cosine cancels the negative
half). Therefore,
vm i m v i
P = cos φ = m m cos φ
2 2 2
= V I cos φ [7.38(a)]
This can also be written as,
P = I 2 Z cos φ [7.38(b)]
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and
current but also on the cosine of the phase angle φ between them. The
quantity cosφ is called the power factor. Let us discuss the following
cases:
Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called
resistive. In that case φ = 0, cos φ = 1. There is maximum power dissipation.
Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains
only an inductor or capacitor, we know that the phase difference between
voltage and current is π/2. Therefore, cos φ = 0, and no power is dissipated
even though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is sometimes
referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is
given by Eq. (7.38) where φ = tan–1 (Xc – XL )/ R. So, φ may be non-zero in
a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in
the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance
Xc – XL= 0, and φ = 0. Therefore, cosφ = 1 and P = I 2Z = I 2 R. That is,
maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.
EXAMPLE 7.7
Example 7.7 (a) For circuits used for transporting electric power, a
low power factor implies large power loss in transmission. Explain.
(b) Power factor can often be improved by the use of a capacitor of
appropriate capacitance in the circuit. Explain.
252
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Solution (a) We know that P = I V cosφ where cosφ is the power factor.
To supply a given power at a given voltage, if cosφ is small, we have to
increase current accordingly. But this will lead to large power loss
(I2R) in transmission.
(b)Suppose in a circuit, current I lags the voltage by an angle φ. Then
power factor cosφ =R/Z.
We can improve the power factor (tending to 1) by making Z tend to R.
Let us understand, with the help of a phasor diagram (Fig. 7.17) how
this can be achieved. Let us resolve I into two components. Ip along
FIGURE 7.17
the applied voltage V and Iq perpendicular to the applied voltage. Iq
as you have learnt in Section 7.7, is called the wattless component
since corresponding to this component of current, there is no power
loss. IP is known as the power component because it is in phase with
the voltage and corresponds to power loss in the circuit.
EXAMPLE 7.7
It’s clear from this analysis that if we want to improve power factor,
we must completely neutralize the lagging wattless current Iq by an
equal leading wattless current I′q. This can be done by connecting a
capacitor of appropriate value in parallel so that Iq and I′ q cancel
each other and P is effectively Ip V.
(a) To find the impedance of the circuit, we first calculate XL and XC.
XL = 2 πνL
= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 25.48 × 10–3 Ω = 8 Ω
1
XC =
2 πν C 253
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1
= = 4Ω
2 × 3.14 × 50 × 796 × 10−6
Therefore,
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 = 32 + (8 − 4)2
=5Ω
XC − X L
(b) Phase difference, φ = tan–1
R
4 − 8
= tan −1 = −53.1°
3
Since φ is negative, the current in the circuit lags the voltage
across the source.
(c) The power dissipated in the circuit is
P = I 2R
EXAMPLE 7.8
im 1 283
Now, I = = = 40A
2 2 5
Therefore, P = (40A)2 × 3 Ω = 4800 W
(d) Power factor = cos φ = cos ( –53.1°) = 0.6
1 1
ω0 = =
−3
LC 25.48 × 10 × 796 × 10 −6
= 222.1rad/s
ω0 221.1
νr = = Hz = 35.4Hz
2π 2 × 3.14
Z = R = 3Ω
V V 283 1
= = = = 66.7 A
Z R 2 3
P = I 2 × R = (66.7)2 × 3 = 13.35 kW
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Alternating Current
EXAMPLE 7.10
a capacitor tuned so that the circuit is in resonance. When
you walk through with metal in your pocket, the impedance of the
circuit changes – resulting in significant change in current in the
circuit. This change in current is detected and the electronic circuitry
causes a sound to be emitted as an alarm.
7.8 LC OSCILLATIONS
We know that a capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and
magnetic energy, respectively. When a capacitor (initially charged) is
connected to an inductor, the charge on the capacitor and
the current in the circuit exhibit the phenomenon of
electrical oscillations similar to oscillations in mechanical
systems (Chapter 14, Class XI).
Let a capacitor be charged qm (at t = 0) and connected
to an inductor as shown in Fig. 7.18.
The moment the circuit is completed, the charge on
the capacitor starts decreasing, giving rise to current in
the circuit. Let q and i be the charge and current in the
circuit at time t. Since di/dt is positive, the induced emf
in L will have polarity as shown, i.e., vb < va. According to
Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
q di FIGURE 7.18 At the
−L =0 (7.39) instant shown, the current
C dt
is increasing; so the
i = – (dq/dt ) in the present case (as q decreases, i increases). polarity of induced emf in
Therefore, Eq. (7.39) becomes: the inductor is as shown.
d2q 1
2
+ q=0 (7.40)
dt LC
d2 x
This equation has the form + ω 02 x = 0 for a simple harmonic
dt 2
oscillator. The charge on the capacitor, therefore, oscillates with a natural
frequency
1
ω0 = (7.41)
LC
and varies sinusoidally with time as
q = qm cos (ω 0 t + φ ) (7.42)
where qm is the maximum value of q and φ is a phase constant. Since
q = qm at t = 0, we have cos φ =1 or φ = 0. Therefore, in the present case, 255
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q = qm cos(ω 0t ) (7.43)
The current i = −
dq
is given by
dt
i = i m sin(ω0t ) (7.44)
where i m = ω 0qm
Let us now try to visualise how this oscillation takes place in the
circuit.
Figure 7.19(a) shows a capacitor with initial charge qm connected to
an ideal inductor. The electrical energy stored in the charged capacitor is
1 qm2
UE = . Since, there is no current in the circuit, energy in the inductor
2 C
is zero. Thus, the total energy of LC circuit is,
1 qm2
U = UE =
2 C
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The LC oscillation is similar to the mechanical oscillation of a block
attached to a spring. The lower part of each figure in Fig. 7.19 depicts
the corresponding stage of a mechanical system (a block attached to a
spring). As noted earlier, for a block of a mass m oscillating with frequency
ω0, the equation is
d2 x
+ ω 20 x = 0
dt 2
Here, ω 0 = k / m , and k is the spring constant. So, x corresponds to q.
In case of a mechanical system F = ma = m (dv/dt) = m (d2x/dt2 ). For an
electrical system, ε = –L (di/dt ) = –L (d2q/dt 2 ). Comparing these two
equations, we see that L is analogous to mass m: L is a measure of
resistance to change in current. In case of LC circuit, ω0 = 1/ LC and
for mass on a spring, ω 0 = k / m . So, 1/C is analogous to k. The constant
k (=F/x) tells us the (external) force required to produce a unit
displacement whereas 1/C (=V/q ) tells us the potential difference required
to store a unit charge. Table 7.1 gives the analogy between mechanical
and electrical quantities.
Mass m Inductance L
Force constant k Reciprocal capacitance
1/C
Displacement x Charge q
Velocity v = dx/dt Current i = dq/dt
Mechanical energy Electromagnetic energy
1 1 1 q2 1 2
E = k x 2 + m v2 U = + Li
2 2 2 C 2
Note that the above discussion of LC oscillations is not realistic for two
reasons:
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to
introduce a damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit
and the oscillations finally die away.
(ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would
not remain constant. It is radiated away from the system in the form
of electromagnetic waves (discussed in the next chapter). In fact, radio
and TV transmitters depend on this radiation. 257
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TWO DIFFERENT PHENOMENA, SAME MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT
You may like to compare the treatment of a forced damped oscillator discussed in Section
14.10 of Class XI physics textbook, with that of an LCR circuit when an ac voltage is
applied in it. We have already remarked that Eq. [14.37(b)] of Class XI Textbook is exactly
similar to Eq. (7.28) here, although they use different symbols and parameters. Let us
therefore list the equivalence between different quantities in the two situations:
2 d 2q dq q
m d 2x + b dx + kx = F cos ωd t L +R + = vm sin ω t
dt dt dt 2
dt C
Displacement, x Charge on capacitor, q
Time, t Time, t
Mass, m Self inductance, L
Damping constant, b Resistance, R
Spring constant, k Inverse capacitance, 1/C
Driving frequency, ωd Driving frequency, ω
Natural frequency of oscillations, ω Natural frequency of LCR circuit, ω0
Amplitude of forced oscillations, A Maximum charge stored, qm
Amplitude of driving force, F0 Amplitude of applied voltage, vm
You must note that since x corresponds to q, the amplitude A (maximum displacement)
will correspond to the maximum charge stored, qm. Equation [14.39 (a)] of Class XI gives
the amplitude of oscillations in terms of other parameters, which we reproduce here for
convenience:
F0
A=
{m }
1/ 2
2
(ω − ω ) + ω d2b 2
2 2 2
d
258
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1
ω = 2π ν =
LC
At an instant t, charge q on the capacitor and the current i are given
by:
q (t) = q0 cos ω t
i (t) = – q0 ω sin ω t
Energy stored in the capacitor at time t is
1 1 q 2 q02
UE = C V2 = = cos 2 (ωt )
2 2 C 2C
Energy stored in the inductor at time t is
1
UM = L i2
2
1
= L q 02 ω 2 sin 2 (ωt )
2
=
q02
2C
sin2 (ωt ) (∵ω = 1/ LC )
Sum of energies
q 02
U E +U M =
2C
(
cos2 ωt + sin2 ωt )
EXAMPLE 7.11
q 02
=
2C
This sum is constant in time as qo and C, both are time-independent.
Note that it is equal to the initial energy of the capacitor. Why it is
so? Think!
7.9 TRANSFORMERS
For many purposes, it is necessary to change (or transform) an alternating
voltage from one to another of greater or smaller value. This is done with
a device called transformer using the principle of mutual induction.
A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other.
They are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in
Fig. 7.20(a) or on separate limbs of the core as in Fig. 7.20(b). One of the
coils called the primary coil has Np turns. The other coil is called the
secondary coil; it has Ns turns. Often the primary coil is the input coil
and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer. 259
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FIGURE 7.20 Two arrangements for winding of primary and secondary coil in a transformer:
(a) two coils on top of each other, (b) two coils on separate limbs of the core.
dφ
v p = −N p [7.46(a)]
dt
From Eqs. [7.45 (a)] and [7.46 (a)], we have
vs N
= s (7.47)
260 vp N p
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Note that the above relation has been obtained using three
assumptions: (i) the primary resistance and current are small; (ii) the
same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux
escapes from the core, and (iii) the secondary current is small.
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses),
the power input is equal to the power output, and since p = i v,
ipvp = isvs (7.48)
Although some energy is always lost, this is a good approximation,
since a well designed transformer may have an efficiency of more than
95%. Combining Eqs. (7.47) and (7.48), we have
i p vs N
= = s (7.49)
is vp N p
Since i and v both oscillate with the same frequency as the ac source,
Eq. (7.49) also gives the ratio of the amplitudes or rms values of
corresponding quantities.
Now, we can see how a transformer affects the voltage and current.
We have:
N Np
Vs = s V p and I s = Ip
N s
(7.50)
Np
That is, if the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the
primary (Ns > Np), the voltage is stepped up (Vs > Vp). This type of
arrangement is called a step-up transformer. However, in this arrangement,
there is less current in the secondary than in the primary (Np/Ns < 1 and Is
< Ip). For example, if the primary coil of a transformer has 100 turns and
the secondary has 200 turns, Ns/Np = 2 and Np/Ns=1/2. Thus, a 220V
input at 10A will step-up to 440 V output at 5.0 A.
If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary (Ns < Np), we
have a step-down transformer. In this case, Vs < Vp and Is > Ip. That is, the
voltage is stepped down, or reduced, and the current is increased.
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without
any energy losses). But in actual transformers, small energy losses do
occur due to the following reasons:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of
the flux due to primary passes through the secondary due to poor
design of the core or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by
winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some
resistance and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire
(I 2R). In high current, low voltage windings, these are minimised by
using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents
in the iron core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by using a
laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by
the alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in
the core appears as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic
material which has a low hysteresis loss. 261
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The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over
long distances is done with the use of transformers. The voltage output
of the generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced and
consequently, the I 2R loss is cut down). It is then transmitted over long
distances to an area sub-station near the consumers. There the voltage
is stepped down. It is further stepped down at distributing sub-stations
and utility poles before a power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.
SUMMARY
vm
V = = 0.707 vm
2
We have P = IV = I 2R
3. An ac voltage v = vm sin ωt applied to a pure inductor L, drives a current
in the inductor i = im sin (ωt – π/2), where im = vm/XL. XL = ωL is called
inductive reactance. The current in the inductor lags the voltage by
π/2. The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle
is zero.
4. An ac voltage v = vm sinωt applied to a capacitor drives a current in the
capacitor: i = im sin (ωt + π/2). Here,
vm 1
im = , XC =
XC ωC is called capacitive reactance.
The current through the capacitor is π/2 ahead of the applied voltage.
As in the case of inductor, the average power supplied to a capacitor
over one complete cycle is zero.
5. For a series RLC circuit driven by voltage v = vm sin ωt, the current is
given by i = im sin (ωt + φ )
vm
where im =
R2 + ( XC − X L )
2
XC − X L
and φ = tan −1
R
Z = R2 + ( X C − X L )
2
is called the impedance of the circuit.
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ω0 L 1
Q= = is an indicator of the sharpness of the resonance,
R ω 0CR
the higher value of Q indicating sharper peak in the current.
9. A circuit containing an inductor L and a capacitor C (initially
charged) with no ac source and no resistors exhibits free
oscillations. The charge q of the capacitor satisfies the equation
of simple harmonic motion:
d2q 1
2
+ q=0
dt LC
1
and therefore, the frequency ω of free oscillation is ω 0 = . The
LC
energy in the system oscillates between the capacitor and the
inductor but their sum or the total energy is constant in time.
10. A transformer consists of an iron core on which are bound a
primary coil of Np turns and a secondary coil of N s turns. If the
primary coil is connected to an ac source, the primary and
secondary voltages are related by
N
Vs = s V p
Np
and the currents are related by
Np
Is = Ip
Ns
If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary, the
voltage is stepped-up (Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-
up transformer. If the secondary coil has turns less than the primary, we
have a step-down transformer.
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Physical quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remarks
2 –3 –1 vm
rms voltage V [M L T A ] V V = , vm is the
2
amplitude of the ac voltage.
im
rms current I [ A] A I= , im is the amplitude of
2
the ac current.
Reactance:
XL = ω L
2 –3 –2
Inductive XL [M L T A ]
XC = 1/ ω C
2 –3 –2
Capacitive XC [M L T A ]
2 –3 –2
Impedance Z [M L T A ] Depends on elements
present in the circuit.
1
Resonant ωr or ω0 [T ]
–1
Hz ω0 = for a
frequency LC
series RLC circuit
ω0 L 1
Quality factor Q Dimensionless Q= = for a series
R ω0 C R
RLC circuit.
Power factor Dimensionless = cos φ , φ is the phase
difference between voltage
applied and current in
the circuit.
POINTS TO PONDER
vm = 2V = 2(240) = 340 V
2. The power rating of an element used in ac circuits refers to its average
power rating.
3. The power consumed in an ac circuit is never negative.
4. Both alternating current and direct current are measured in amperes.
But how is the ampere defined for an alternating current? It cannot be
derived from the mutual attraction of two parallel wires carrying ac
264 currents, as the dc ampere is derived. An ac current changes direction
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with the source frequency and the attractive force would average to
zero. Thus, the ac ampere must be defined in terms of some property
that is independent of the direction of the current. Joule heating
is such a property, and there is one ampere of rms value of
alternating current in a circuit if the current produces the same
average heating effect as one ampere of dc current would produce
under the same conditions.
5. In an ac circuit, while adding voltages across different elements, one
should take care of their phases properly. For example, if V R and VC
are voltages across R and C, respectively in an RC circuit, then the
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EXERCISES
7.1 A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle?
7.2 (a) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage?
(b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit is 10 A. What is the
peak current?
7.3 A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine
the rms value of the current in the circuit.
7.4 A 60 µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine
the rms value of the current in the circuit.
7.5 In Exercises 7.3 and 7.4, what is the net power absorbed by each
circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
7.6 Obtain the resonant frequency ωr of a series LCR circuit with
L = 2.0H, C = 32 µF and R = 10 Ω. What is the Q-value of this circuit?
7.7 A charged 30 µF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is
the angular frequency of free oscillations of the circuit?
7.8 Suppose the initial charge on the capacitor in Exercise 7.7 is 6 mC.
What is the total energy stored in the circuit initially ? What is the
total energy at later time?
7.9 A series LCR circuit with R = 20 Ω, L = 1.5 H and C = 35 µF is connected
to a variable-frequency 200 V ac supply. When the frequency of the
supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average
power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
7.10 A radio can tune over the frequency range of a portion of MW
broadcast band: (800 kHz to 1200 kHz). If its LC circuit has an effective
inductance of 200 µH, what must be the range of its variable
capacitor?
[Hint: For tuning, the natural frequency i.e., the frequency of free
oscillations of the LC circuit should be equal to the frequency of the
radiowave.]
7.11 Figure 7.21 shows a series LCR circuit connected to a variable
frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C = 80µF, R = 40 Ω.
FIGURE 7.21
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ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
7.12 An LC circuit contains a 20 mH inductor and a 50 µF capacitor with
an initial charge of 10 mC. The resistance of the circuit is negligible.
Let the instant the circuit is closed be t = 0.
(a) What is the total energy stored initially? Is it conserved during
LC oscillations?
(b) What is the natural frequency of the circuit?
(c) At what time is the energy stored
(i) completely electrical (i.e., stored in the capacitor)? (ii) completely
magnetic (i.e., stored in the inductor)?
(d) At what times is the total energy shared equally between the
inductor and the capacitor?
(e) If a resistor is inserted in the circuit, how much energy is
eventually dissipated as heat?
7.13 A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 Ω is connected to a
240 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil?
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and the
current maximum?
7.14 Obtain the answers (a) to (b) in Exercise 7.13 if the circuit is
connected to a high frequency supply (240 V, 10 kHz). Hence, explain
the statement that at very high frequency, an inductor in a circuit
nearly amounts to an open circuit. How does an inductor behave in
a dc circuit after the steady state?
7.15 A 100 µF capacitor in series with a 40 Ω resistance is connected to a
110 V, 60 Hz supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
(b) What is the time lag between the current maximum and the
voltage maximum?
7.16 Obtain the answers to (a) and (b) in Exercise 7.15 if the circuit is
connected to a 110 V, 12 kHz supply? Hence, explain the statement
that a capacitor is a conductor at very high frequencies. Compare this
behaviour with that of a capacitor in a dc circuit after the steady state.
7.17 Keeping the source frequency equal to the resonating frequency of
the series LCR circuit, if the three elements, L, C and R are arranged
in parallel, show that the total current in the parallel LCR circuit is
minimum at this frequency. Obtain the current rms value in each
branch of the circuit for the elements and source specified in
Exercise 7.11 for this frequency.
7.18 A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 µF capacitor in series
is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of the circuit is
negligible.
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values.
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element.
(c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor?
(d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit? [‘Average’
implies ‘averaged over one cycle’.]
7.19 Suppose the circuit in Exercise 7.18 has a resistance of 15 Ω. Obtain
the average power transferred to each element of the circuit, and
the total power absorbed. 267
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7.20 A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R = 23 Ω is connected
to a 230 V variable frequency supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is
maximum. Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which average power absorbed
by the circuit is maximum. Obtain the value of this maximum
power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source is the power transferred to
the circuit half the power at resonant frequency? What is the
current amplitude at these frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit?
7.21 Obtain the resonant frequency and Q-factor of a series LCR circuit
with L = 3.0 H, C = 27 µF, and R = 7.4 Ω. It is desired to improve the
sharpness of the resonance of the circuit by reducing its ‘full width
at half maximum’ by a factor of 2. Suggest a suitable way.
7.22 Answer the following questions:
(a) In any ac circuit, is the applied instantaneous voltage equal to
the algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltages across the series
elements of the circuit? Is the same true for rms voltage?
(b) A capacitor is used in the primary circuit of an induction coil.
(c) An applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a dc voltage
and an ac voltage of high frequency. The circuit consists of an
inductor and a capacitor in series. Show that the dc signal will
appear across C and the ac signal across L.
(d) A choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a dc line. The
lamp is seen to shine brightly. Insertion of an iron core in the
choke causes no change in the lamp’s brightness. Predict the
corresponding observations if the connection is to an ac line.
(e) Why is choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac
mains? Why can we not use an ordinary resistor instead of the
choke coil?
7.23 A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300 V to a step-
down transformer with its primary windings having 4000 turns. What
should be the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output
power at 230 V?
7.24 At a hydroelectric power plant, the water pressure head is at a height
of 300 m and the water flow available is 100 m3s–1. If the turbine
generator efficiency is 60%, estimate the electric power available
from the plant (g = 9.8 ms–2 ).
7.25 A small town with a demand of 800 kW of electric power at 220 V is
situated 15 km away from an electric plant generating power at 440 V.
The resistance of the two wire line carrying power is 0.5 Ω per km.
The town gets power from the line through a 4000-220 V step-down
transformer at a sub-station in the town.
(a) Estimate the line power loss in the form of heat.
(b) How much power must the plant supply, assuming there is
negligible power loss due to leakage?
(c) Characterise the step up transformer at the plant.
7.26 Do the same exercise as above with the replacement of the earlier
transformer by a 40,000-220 V step-down transformer (Neglect, as
before, leakage losses though this may not be a good assumption
any longer because of the very high voltage transmission involved).
268 Hence, explain why high voltage transmission is preferred?
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Chapter Eight
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 4, we learnt that an electric current produces magnetic field
and that two current-carrying wires exert a magnetic force on each other.
Further, in Chapter 6, we have seen that a magnetic field changing with
time gives rise to an electric field. Is the converse also true? Does an
electric field changing with time give rise to a magnetic field? James Clerk
Maxwell (1831-1879), argued that this was indeed the case – not only
an electric current but also a time-varying electric field generates magnetic
field. While applying the Ampere’s circuital law to find magnetic field at a
point outside a capacitor connected to a time-varying current, Maxwell
noticed an inconsistency in the Ampere’s circuital law. He suggested the
existence of an additional current, called by him, the displacement
current to remove this inconsistency.
Maxwell formulated a set of equations involving electric and magnetic
fields, and their sources, the charge and current densities. These
equations are known as Maxwell’s equations. Together with the Lorentz
force formula (Chapter 4), they mathematically express all the basic laws
of electromagnetism.
The most important prediction to emerge from Maxwell’s equations
is the existence of electromagnetic waves, which are (coupled) time-
varying electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space. The speed
of the waves, according to these equations, turned out to be very close to
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the speed of light( 3 ×108 m/s), obtained from optical
measurements. This led to the remarkable conclusion
that light is an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell’s work
thus unified the domain of electricity, magnetism and
light. Hertz, in 1885, experimentally demonstrated the
existence of electromagnetic waves. Its technological use
by Marconi and others led in due course to the
revolution in communication that we are witnessing
today.
In this chapter, we first discuss the need for
displacement current and its consequences. Then we
present a descriptive account of electromagnetic waves.
The broad spectrum of electromagnetic waves,
James Clerk Maxwell stretching from γ rays (wavelength ~10–12 m) to long
(1831 – 1879) Born in radio waves (wavelength ~106 m) is described. How the
Edinburgh, Scotland, electromagnetic waves are sent and received for
was among the greatest
communication is discussed in Chapter 15.
physicists of the
nineteenth century. He
derived the thermal 8.2 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
velocity distribution of We have seen in Chapter 4 that an electrical current
molecules in a gas and
produces a magnetic field around it. Maxwell showed
was among the first to
obtain reliable that for logical consistency, a changing electric field must
estimates of molecular also produce a magnetic field. This effect is of great
parameters from importance because it explains the existence of radio
measurable quantities waves, gamma rays and visible light, as well as all other
like viscosity, etc. forms of electromagnetic waves.
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL (1831–1879)
Maxwell’s greatest
To see how a changing electric field gives rise to
acheivement was the
unification of the laws of a magnetic field, let us consider the process of
electricity and charging of a capacitor and apply Ampere’s circuital
magnetism (discovered law given by (Chapter 4)
by Coulomb, Oersted,
Ampere and Faraday) “B.dl = µ0 i (t ) (8.1)
into a consistent set of
to find magnetic field at a point outside the capacitor.
equations now called
Maxwell’s equations. Figure 8.1(a) shows a parallel plate capacitor C which
From these he arrived at is a part of circuit through which a time-dependent
the most important current i (t ) flows . Let us find the magnetic field at a
conclusion that light is point such as P, in a region outside the parallel plate
an electromagnetic capacitor. For this, we consider a plane circular loop of
wave. Interestingly, radius r whose plane is perpendicular to the direction
Maxwell did not agree
of the current-carrying wire, and which is centred
with the idea (strongly
suggested by the
symmetrically with respect to the wire [Fig. 8.1(a)]. From
Faraday’s laws of symmetry, the magnetic field is directed along the
electrolysis) that circumference of the circular loop and is the same in
electricity was magnitude at all points on the loop so that if B is the
particulate in nature. magnitude of the field, the left side of Eq. (8.1) is B (2π r).
So we have
270 B (2πr) = µ0i (t ) (8 .2)
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Now, consider a different surface, which has the same boundary. This
is a pot like surface [Fig. 8.1(b)] which nowhere touches the current, but
has its bottom between the capacitor plates; its mouth is the circular
loop mentioned above. Another such surface is shaped like a tiffin box
(without the lid) [Fig. 8.1(c)]. On applying Ampere’s circuital law to such
surfaces with the same perimeter, we find that the left hand side of
Eq. (8.1) has not changed but the right hand side is zero and not µ0 i,
since no current passes through the surface of Fig. 8.1(b) and (c). So we
have a contradiction; calculated one way, there is a magnetic field at a
point P; calculated another way, the magnetic field at P is zero.
Since the contradiction arises from our use of Ampere’s circuital law,
this law must be missing something. The missing term must be such
that one gets the same magnetic field at point P, no matter what surface
is used.
We can actually guess the missing term by looking carefully at
Fig. 8.1(c). Is there anything passing through the surface S between the
plates of the capacitor? Yes, of course, the electric field! If the plates of the
capacitor have an area A, and a total charge Q, the magnitude of the
electric field E between the plates is (Q/A)/ε0 (see Eq. 2.41). The field is
perpendicular to the surface S of Fig. 8.1(c). It has the same magnitude
over the area A of the capacitor plates, and vanishes outside it. So what
is the electric flux ΦE through the surface S ? Using Gauss’s law, it is
1 Q Q
ΦE = E A = A= (8.3)
ε0 A ε0
Now if the charge Q on the capacitor plates changes with time, there is a
current i = (dQ/dt), so that using Eq. (8.3), we have
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charges, but also the time rate of change of electric field. More
precisely, the total current i is the sum of the conduction current
denoted by ic, and the displacement current denoted by id (= ε0 (dΦE/
dt)). So we have
dΦE
i = i c + id = i c + ε0 (8.5)
dt
In explicit terms, this means that outside the capacitor plates,
we have only conduction current ic = i, and no displacement
current, i.e., id = 0. On the other hand, inside the capacitor, there is
no conduction current, i.e., ic = 0, and there is only displacement
current, so that id = i.
The generalised (and correct) Ampere’s circuital law has the same
form as Eq. (8.1), with one difference: “the total current passing
through any surface of which the closed loop is the perimeter” is
the sum of the conduction current and the displacement current.
The generalised law is
dΦE
Ñ∫ Bidl = µ0 ic + µ0 dt
ε0 (8.6)
and is known as Ampere-Maxwell law.
In all respects, the displacement current has the same physical
effects as the conduction current. In some cases, for example, steady
electric fields in a conducting wire, the displacement current may
be zero since the electric field E does not change with time. In other
FIGURE 8.2 (a) The cases, for example, the charging capacitor above, both conduction
electric and magnetic and displacement currents may be present in different regions of
fields E and B between space. In most of the cases, they both may be present in the same
the capacitor plates, at region of space, as there exist no perfectly conducting or perfectly
the point M. (b) A cross
insulating medium. Most interestingly, there may be large regions
sectional view of Fig. (a).
of space where there is no conduction current, but there is only a
displacement current due to time-varying electric fields. In such a
region, we expect a magnetic field, though there is no (conduction)
current source nearby! The prediction of such a displacement current
can be verified experimentally. For example, a magnetic field (say at point
M) between the plates of the capacitor in Fig. 8.2(a) can be measured and
is seen to be the same as that just outside (at P).
The displacement current has (literally) far reaching consequences.
One thing we immediately notice is that the laws of electricity and
magnetism are now more symmetrical*. Faraday’s law of induction states
that there is an induced emf equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
Now, since the emf between two points 1 and 2 is the work done per unit
charge in taking it from 1 to 2, the existence of an emf implies the existence
of an electric field. So, we can rephrase Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction by saying that a magnetic field, changing with time, gives rise
to an electric field. Then, the fact that an electric field changing with
time gives rise to a magnetic field, is the symmetrical counterpart, and is
* They are still not perfectly symmetrical; there are no known sources of magnetic
field (magnetic monopoles) analogous to electric charges which are sources of
272 electric field.
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a consequence of the displacement current being a source of a magnetic
field. Thus, time- dependent electric and magnetic fields give rise to each
other! Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Ampere-Maxwell
law give a quantitative expression of this statement, with the current
being the total current, as in Eq. (8.5). One very important consequence
of this symmetry is the existence of electromagnetic waves, which we
discuss qualitatively in the next section.
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
1. ∫
Ñ E dA =Q /ε0 (Gauss’s Law for electricity)
2. ∫
Ñ B dA = 0 (Gauss’s Law for magnetism)
–dΦB
3. ∫
Ñ E dl = dt
(Faraday’s Law)
dΦE
4. ∫
Ñ B dl = µ0 i c + µ0 ε 0
dt
(Ampere – Maxwell Law)
FIGURE 8.3
q (t ) q
E= = 2 2
ε 0 A πε 0 ; A = π (1) m = area of the plates.
Consider now a circular loop of radius (1/2) m parallel to the plates
passing through P. The magnetic field B at all points on the loop is
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along the loop and of the same value.
The flux ΦE through this loop is
ΦE = E × area of the loop
2
1 πE q
= E × π × = =
2 4 4ε0
The displacement current
dΦE 1 dq
i d = ε0 = = 0.5 × 10 –6 exp ( –1)
dt 4 dt
EXAMPLE 8.1
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succeeded in producing and observing electromagnetic
waves of much shorter wavelength (25 mm to 5 mm).
His experiment, like that of Hertz’s, was confined to the
laboratory.
At around the same time, Guglielmo Marconi in Italy
followed Hertz’s work and succeeded in transmitting
electromagnetic waves over distances of many kilometres.
Marconi’s experiment marks the beginning of the field of
communication using electromagnetic waves.
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ω = ck, where, c = 1/ µ0 ε 0 [8.9(a)]
The relation ω = ck is the standard one for waves (see for example,
Section 15.4 of class XI Physics textbook). This relation is often written
in terms of frequency, ν (=ω/2π) and wavelength, λ (=2π/k) as
2π
2πν = c or
λ
νλ = c [8.9(b)]
It is also seen from Maxwell’s equations that the magnitude of the
electric and the magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave are related as
(ii) http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/java/ntnujava/emWave/emWave.html
B0 = (E0/c) (8.10)
We here make remarks on some features of electromagnetic waves.
They are self-sustaining oscillations of electric and magnetic fields in free
space, or vacuum. They differ from all the other waves we have studied
so far, in respect that no material medium is involved in the vibrations of
the electric and magnetic fields. Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves
Simulate propagation of electromagnetic waves
and all matter, which responds to electric and magnetic fields just as any
elastic medium does. They called this medium ether. They were so
convinced of the reality of this medium, that there is even a novel called
The Poison Belt by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of the famous
detective Sherlock Holmes) where the solar system is supposed to pass
through a poisonous region of ether! We now accept that no such physical
medium is needed. The famous experiment of Michelson and Morley in
1887 demolished conclusively the hypothesis of ether. Electric and
magnetic fields, oscillating in space and time, can sustain each other in
vacuum.
But what if a material medium is actually there? We know that light,
an electromagnetic wave, does propagate through glass, for example. We
have seen earlier that the total electric and magnetic fields inside a
medium are described in terms of a permittivity ε and a magnetic
permeability µ (these describe the factors by which the total fields differ
from the external fields). These replace ε0 and µ0 in the description to
electric and magnetic fields in Maxwell’s equations with the result that in
a material medium of permittivity ε and magnetic permeability µ, the
velocity of light becomes,
1
v= (8.11)
µε
Thus, the velocity of light depends on electric and magnetic properties of
the medium. We shall see in the next chapter that the refractive index of
one medium with respect to the other is equal to the ratio of velocities of
light in the two media.
The velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space or vacuum is an
important fundamental constant. It has been shown by experiments on
electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths that this velocity is the
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same (independent of wavelength) to within a few metres per second, out
of a value of 3×108 m/s. The constancy of the velocity of em waves in
vacuum is so strongly supported by experiments and the actual value is
so well known now that this is used to define a standard of length.
Namely, the metre is now defined as the distance travelled by light in
vacuum in a time (1/c) seconds = (2.99792458 × 108)–1 seconds. This
has come about for the following reason. The basic unit of time can be
defined very accurately in terms of some atomic frequency, i.e., frequency
of light emitted by an atom in a particular process. The basic unit of length
is harder to define as accurately in a direct way. Earlier measurement of c
using earlier units of length (metre rods, etc.) converged to a value of about
2.9979246 × 108 m/s. Since c is such a strongly fixed number, unit of
length can be defined in terms of c and the unit of time!
Hertz not only showed the existence of electromagnetic waves, but
also demonstrated that the waves, which had wavelength ten million times
that of the light waves, could be diffracted, refracted and polarised. Thus,
he conclusively established the wave nature of the radiation. Further, he
produced stationary electromagnetic waves and determined their
wavelength by measuring the distance between two successive nodes.
Since the frequency of the wave was known (being equal to the frequency
of the oscillator), he obtained the speed of the wave using the formula
v = νλ and found that the waves travelled with the same speed as the
speed of light.
The fact that electromagnetic waves are polarised can be easily seen
in the response of a portable AM radio to a broadcasting station. If an
AM radio has a telescopic antenna, it responds to the electric part of the
signal. When the antenna is turned horizontal, the signal will be greatly
diminished. Some portable radios have horizontal antenna (usually inside
the case of radio), which are sensitive to the magnetic component of the
electromagnetic wave. Such a radio must remain horizontal in order to
receive the signal. In such cases, response also depends on the orientation
of the radio with respect to the station.
Do electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum like other
waves? Yes, they do. We have seen in chapter 2 that in a region of free
space with electric field E, there is an energy density (ε0E2/2). Similarly,
as seen in Chapter 6, associated with a magnetic field B is a magnetic
energy density (B2/2µ0). As electromagnetic wave contains both electric
and magnetic fields, there is a non-zero energy density associated with
it. Now consider a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the electromagnetic wave (Fig. 8.4). If there are, on this plane, electric
charges, they will be set and sustained in motion by the electric and
magnetic fields of the electromagnetic wave. The charges thus acquire
energy and momentum from the waves. This just illustrates the fact that
an electromagnetic wave (like other waves) carries energy and momentum.
Since it carries momentum, an electromagnetic wave also exerts pressure,
called radiation pressure.
If the total energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, it can be shown
that the magnitude of the total momentum delivered to this surface (for
complete absorption) is,
U
p= (8.12)
c 277
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When the sun shines on your hand, you feel the energy being
absorbed from the electromagnetic waves (your hands get warm).
Electromagnetic waves also transfer momentum to your hand but
because c is very large, the amount of momentum transferred is extremely
small and you do not feel the pressure. In 1903, the American scientists
Nicols and Hull succeeded in measuring radiation pressure of
visible light and verified Eq. (8.12). It was found to be of the order of
7 × 10–6 N/m2. Thus, on a surface of area 10 cm2, the force due to radiation
is only about 7 × 10–9 N.
The great technological importance of electromagnetic waves stems
from their capability to carry energy from one place to another. The
radio and TV signals from broadcasting stations carry energy. Light
carries energy from the sun to the earth, thus making life possible on
the earth.
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EXAMPLE 8.4
The average force exerted on the surface is
p 2.16 × 10 −3
F= = = 1.2 × 10 −6 N
t 0.18 × 10 4
How will your result be modified if the surface is a perfect reflector?
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Now, let us calculate the strength of the magnetic field. It is
E rms 2.9 V m −1
Brms = = = 9.6 × 10–9 T
EXAMPLE 8.5
c 3 × 108 m s −1
Again, since the field in the light beam is sinusoidal, the peak
magnetic field is B0 = 2 Brms = 1.4 × 10–8 T. Note that although the
energy in the magnetic field is equal to the energy in the electric
field, the magnetic field strength is evidently very weak.
gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet and infrared waves. The
classification of em waves according to frequency is the electromagnetic
spectrum (Fig. 8.5). There is no sharp division between one kind of wave
and the next. The classification is based roughly on how the waves are
Electromagnetic spectrum
FIGURE 8.5 The electromagnetic spectrum, with common names for various
280 part of it. The various regions do not have sharply defined boundaries.
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We briefly describe these different types of electromagnetic waves, in
order of decreasing wavelengths.
8.4.1 Radio waves
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting
wires. They are used in radio and television communication systems. They
are generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz. Higher
frequencies upto 54 MHz are used for short wave bands. TV waves range
from 54 MHz to 890 MHz. The FM (frequency modulated) radio band
extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Cellular phones use radio waves to
transmit voice communication in the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band. How
these waves are transmitted and received is described in Chapter 15.
8.4.2 Microwaves
Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), with frequencies in the
gigahertz (GHz) range, are produced by special vacuum tubes (called
klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes). Due to their short wavelengths,
they are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation. Radar
also provides the basis for the speed guns used to time fast balls, tennis-
serves, and automobiles. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic
application of these waves. In such ovens, the frequency of the microwaves
is selected to match the resonant frequency of water molecules so that
energy from the waves is transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of
the molecules. This raises the temperature of any food containing water.
MICROWAVE OVEN
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8.4.3 Infrared waves
Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules. This band
lies adjacent to the low-frequency or long-wave length end of the visible
spectrum. Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as heat waves. This
is because water molecules present in most materials readily absorb
infrared waves (many other molecules, for example, CO2, NH3, also absorb
infrared waves). After absorption, their thermal motion increases, that is,
they heat up and heat their surroundings. Infrared lamps are used in
physical therapy. Infrared radiation also plays an important role in
maintaining the earth’s warmth or average temperature through the
greenhouse effect. Incoming visible light (which passes relatively easily
through the atmosphere) is absorbed by the earth’s surface and re-
radiated as infrared (longer wavelength) radiations. This radiation is
trapped by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military purposes
and to observe growth of crops. Electronic devices (for example
semiconductor light emitting diodes) also emit infrared and are widely
used in the remote switches of household electronic systems such as TV
sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.
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8.4.6 X-rays
Beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray
region. We are familiar with X-rays because of its medical applications. It
covers wavelengths from about 10–8 m (10 nm) down to 10–13 m
(10–4 nm). One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal
target by high energy electrons. X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in
medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer. Because X-rays
damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be taken to
avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
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SUMMARY
z z t
= E0 sin 2π λ − νt = E 0 sin 2π λ − T
B = By(t) = B0 sin (kz – ω t)
z z t
= B0 sin 2π − νt = B0 sin 2π −
λ λ T
They are related by E0/B0 = c.
5. The speed c of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is related to µ0 and ε0 (the
free space permeability and permittivity constants) as follows:
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POINTS TO PONDER
EXERCISES
8.1 Figure 8.6 shows a capacitor made of two circular plates each of
radius 12 cm, and separated by 5.0 cm. The capacitor is being
charged by an external source (not shown in the figure). The
charging current is constant and equal to 0.15A.
(a) Calculate the capacitance and the rate of change of potential
difference between the plates. 285
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(b) Obtain the displacement current across the plates.
(c) Is Kirchhoff’s first rule (junction rule) valid at each plate of the
capacitor? Explain.
FIGURE 8.6
8.2 A parallel plate capacitor (Fig. 8.7) made of circular plates each of radius
R = 6.0 cm has a capacitance C = 100 pF. The capacitor is connected to
a 230 V ac supply with a (angular) frequency of 300 rad s–1.
(a) What is the rms value of the conduction current?
(b) Is the conduction current equal to the displacement current?
(c) Determine the amplitude of B at a point 3.0 cm from the axis
between the plates.
FIGURE 8.7
8.3 What physical quantity is the same for X-rays of wavelength
10–10 m, red light of wavelength 6800 Å and radiowaves of wavelength
500m?
8.4 A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along z-direction.
What can you say about the directions of its electric and magnetic
field vectors? If the frequency of the wave is 30 MHz, what is its
wavelength?
8.5 A radio can tune in to any station in the 7.5 MHz to 12 MHz band.
What is the corresponding wavelength band?
8.6 A charged particle oscillates about its mean equilibrium position
with a frequency of 10 9 Hz. What is the frequency of the
electromagnetic waves produced by the oscillator?
8.7 The amplitude of the magnetic field part of a harmonic
electromagnetic wave in vacuum is B 0 = 510 nT. What is the
amplitude of the electric field part of the wave?
8.8 Suppose that the electric field amplitude of an electromagnetic wave
is E0 = 120 N/C and that its frequency is ν = 50.0 MHz. (a) Determine,
B0,ω, k, and λ. (b) Find expressions for E and B.
8.9 The terminology of different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
is given in the text. Use the formula E = hν (for energy of a quantum
of radiation: photon) and obtain the photon energy in units of eV for
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. In what way are
the different scales of photon energies that you obtain related to the
sources of electromagnetic radiation?
8.10 In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates
286 sinusoidally at a frequency of 2.0 × 1010 Hz and amplitude 48 V m–1.
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(a) What is the wavelength of the wave?
(b) What is the amplitude of the oscillating magnetic field?
(c) Show that the average energy density of the E field equals the
average energy density of the B field. [c = 3 × 108 m s–1.]
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
8.11 Suppose that the electric field part of an electromagnetic wave in
vacuum is E = {(3.1 N/C) cos [(1.8 rad/m) y + (5.4 × 106 rad/s)t]} î .
(a) What is the direction of propagation?
(b) What is the wavelength λ ?
(c) What is the frequency ν ?
(d) What is the amplitude of the magnetic field part of the wave?
(e) Write an expression for the magnetic field part of the wave.
8.12 About 5% of the power of a 100 W light bulb is converted to visible
radiation. What is the average intensity of visible radiation
(a) at a distance of 1m from the bulb?
(b) at a distance of 10 m?
Assume that the radiation is emitted isotropically and neglect
reflection.
8.13 Use the formula λ m T = 0.29 cm K to obtain the characteristic
temperature ranges for different parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. What do the numbers that you obtain tell you?
8.14 Given below are some famous numbers associated with
electromagnetic radiations in different contexts in physics. State
the part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which each belongs.
(a) 21 cm (wavelength emitted by atomic hydrogen in interstellar
space).
(b) 1057 MHz (frequency of radiation arising from two close energy
levels in hydrogen; known as Lamb shift).
(c) 2.7 K [temperature associated with the isotropic radiation filling
all space-thought to be a relic of the ‘big-bang’ origin of the
universe].
(d) 5890 Å - 5896 Å [double lines of sodium]
(e) 14.4 keV [energy of a particular transition in 57Fe nucleus
associated with a famous high resolution spectroscopic method
(Mössbauer spectroscopy)].
8.15 Answer the following questions:
(a) Long distance radio broadcasts use short-wave bands. Why?
(b) It is necessary to use satellites for long distance TV transmission.
Why?
(c) Optical and radiotelescopes are built on the ground but X-ray
astronomy is possible only from satellites orbiting the earth.
Why?
(d) The small ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for
human survival. Why?
(e) If the earth did not have an atmosphere, would its average
surface temperature be higher or lower than what it is now?
(f ) Some scientists have predicted that a global nuclear war on the
earth would be followed by a severe ‘nuclear winter’ with a
devastating effect on life on earth. What might be the basis of
this prediction? 287
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ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1
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Answers
1.25 9.81 × 10–4 mm.
1.26 Only (c) is right; the rest cannot represent electrostatic field lines,
(a) is wrong because field lines must be normal to a conductor, (b) is
wrong because field lines cannot start from a negative charge,
(d) is wrong because field lines cannot intersect each other, (e) is
wrong because electrostatic field lines cannot form closed loops.
1.27 The force is 10–2 N in the negative z-direction, that is, in the direction
of decreasing electric field. You can check that this is also the
direction of decreasing potential energy of the dipole; torque is zero.
1.28 (a) Hint: Choose a Gaussian surface lying wholly within the
conductor and enclosing the cavity.
(b) Gauss’s law on the same surface as in (a) shows that q must
induce –q on the inner surface of the conductor.
(c) Enclose the instrument fully by a metallic surface.
1.29 Hint: Consider the conductor with the hole filled up. Then the field
just outside is (σ/ ε0) n̂ and is zero inside. View this field as a
superposition of the field due to the filled up hole plus the field due
to the rest of the charged conductor. Inside the conductor, these
fields are equal and opposite. Outside they are equal both in
magnitude and direction. Hence, the field due to the rest of the
σ
conductor is n̂.
2 ε 0
1.31 p;uud; n;udd.
1.32 (a) Hint: Prove it by contradiction. Suppose the equilibrium is
stable; then the test charge displaced slightly in any direction
will experience a restoring force towards the null-point. That
is, all field lines near the null point should be directed inwards
towards the null-point. That is, there is a net inward flux of
electric field through a closed surface around the null-point.
But by Gauss’s law, the flux of electric field through a surface,
not enclosing any charge, must be zero. Hence, the equilibrium
cannot be stable.
(b) The mid-point of the line joining the two charges is a null-point.
Displace a test charge from the null-point slightly along the
line. There is a restoring force. But displace it, say, normal to
the line. You will see that the net force takes it away from the
null-point. Remember, stability of equilibrium needs restoring
force in all directions.
1.34 1.6 cm
CHAPTER 2
2.1 10 cm, 40 cm away from the positive charge on the side of the
negative charge.
2.2 2.7 × 106 V
2.3 (a) The plane normal to AB and passing through its mid-point has
zero potential everywhere.
(b) Normal to the plane in the direction AB.
2.4 (a) Zero 289
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(b) 105 N C–1
(c) 4.4 × 104 N C–1
2.5 96 pF
2.6 (a) 3 pF
(b) 40 V
2.7 (a) 9 pF
(b) 2 × 10–10 C, 3 × 10–10 C, 4 × 10–10 C
2.8 18 pF, 1.8 × 10–9 C
2.9 (a) V = 100 V, C = 108 pF, Q = 1.08 × 10–8 C
(b) Q = 1.8 × 10–9 C, C = 108 pF, V = 16.6 V
2.10 1.5 × 10–8 J
2.11 6 × 10–6 J
2.12 1.2 J; the point R is irrelevant to the answer.
2.13 Potential = 4q/( 3 π ε0 b ); field is zero, as expected by symmetry.
2.14 (a) 2.4 × 105 V; 4.0 × 105 Vm–1 from charge 2.5 µC to 1.5 µC.
(b) 2.0 × 105 V; 6.6 × 105 Vm–1 in the direction that makes an angle
of about 69° to the line joining charge 2.5 µC to 1.5 µC.
2.15 (a) − q /(4 π r12 ), (Q + q ) / (4 π r22 )
(b) By Gauss’s law, the net charge on the inner surface enclosing
the cavity (not having any charge) must be zero. For a cavity of
arbitrary shape, this is not enough to claim that the electric
field inside must be zero. The cavity may have positive and
negative charges with total charge zero. To dispose of this
possibility, take a closed loop, part of which is inside the cavity
along a field line and the rest inside the conductor. Since field
inside the conductor is zero, this gives a net work done by the
field in carrying a test charge over a closed loop. We know this
is impossible for an electrostatic field. Hence, there are no field
lines inside the cavity (i.e., no field), and no charge on the inner
surface of the conductor, whatever be its shape.
2.17 λ/(2 π ε0 r ), where r is the distance of the point from the common
axis of the cylinders. The field is radial, perpendicular to the axis.
2.18 (a) –27.2 eV
(b) 13.6 eV
(c) –13.6 eV, 13.6 eV. Note in the latter choice the total energy of
the hydrogen atom is zero.
2.19 –19.2 eV; the zero of potential energy is taken to be at infinity.
2.20 The ratio of electric field of the first to the second is (b/a ). A flat
portion may be equated to a spherical surface of large radius, and a
pointed portion to one of small radius.
2.21 (a) On the axis of the dipole, potential is (± 1/4 π ε0 ) p/(x 2 – a2)
where p =2qa is the magnitude of the dipole moment; the
+ sign when the point is closer to q and the – sign when it is
closer to – q. Normal to the axis, at points (x, y, 0), potential is
zero.
(b) The dependence on r is 1/r 2 type.
(c) Zero. No, because work done by electrostatic field between two
290 points is independent of the path connecting the two points.
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Answers
2.22 For large r, quadrupole potential goes like 1/r 3, dipole potential goes
like 1/r 2, monopole potential goes like 1/r.
2.23 Eighteen 1 µF capacitors arranged in 6 parallel rows, each row
consisting of 3 capacitors in series.
2.24 1130 km2
2.25 Equivalent capacitance = (200/3) pF.
Q1 = 10 –8 C, V1 = 100 V ; Q2 = Q3 = 10 –8 C
V2 = V3 = 50 V
Q4 = 2.55 × 10 –8 C, V4 = 200 V
2.26 (a) 2.55 × 10 –6 J
(b) u = 0.113 J m –3, u = (½) ε0 E 2
2.27 2.67 × 10 –2 J
2.28 Hint: Suppose we increase the separation of the plates by ∆x. Work
done (by external agency) = F ∆x. This goes to increase the potential
energy of the capacitor by u a ∆x where u is energy density. Therefore,
F = u a which is easily seen to be (1/2) QE, using u = (1/2) ε0 E 2. The
physical origin of the factor 1/2 in the force formula lies in the fact
that just outside the conductor, field is E, and inside it is zero. So,
the average value E/2 contributes to the force.
2.30 (a) 5.5 × 10–9 F
(b) 4.5 × 102 V
(c) 1.3 × 10–11 F
2.31 (a) No, because charge distributions on the spheres will not be
uniform.
(b) No.
(c) Not necessarily. (True only if the field line is a straight line.)
The field line gives the direction of acceleration, not that of
velocity, in general.
(d) Zero, no matter what the shape of the complete orbit.
(e) No, potential is continuous.
(f ) A single conductor is a capacitor with one of the ‘plates’ at infinity.
(g) A water molecule has permanent dipole moment. However,
detailed explanation of the value of dielectric constant requires
microscopic theory and is beyond the scope of the book.
2.32 1.2 × 10–10 F, 2.9 × 104 V
2.33 19 cm2
2.34 (a) Planes parallel to x-y plane.
(b) Same as in (a), except that planes differing by a fixed potential
get closer as field increases.
(c) Concentric spheres centred at the origin.
(d) A periodically varying shape near the grid which gradually
reaches the shape of planes parallel to the grid at far distances.
2.35 Hint: By Gauss’s law, field between the sphere and the shell is
determined by q1 alone. Hence, potential difference between the
sphere and the shell is independent of q2. If q1 is positive, this potential
difference is always positive.
2.36 (a) Our body and the ground form an equipotential surface. As we
step out into the open, the original equipotential surfaces of
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open air change, keeping our head and the ground at the same
potential.
(b) Yes. The steady discharging current in the atmosphere charges
up the aluminium sheet gradually and raises its voltage to an
extent depending on the capacitance of the capacitor (formed
by the sheet, slab and the ground).
(c) The atmosphere is continually being charged by thunderstorms
and lightning all over the globe and discharged through regions
of ordinary weather. The two opposing currents are, on an
average, in equilibrium.
(d) Light energy involved in lightning; heat and sound energy in
the accompanying thunder.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 30 A
3.2 17 Ω, 8.5 V
3.3 (a) 6 Ω
(b) 2 V, 4 V, 6 V
3.4 (a) (20/19) Ω
(b) 10A, 5 A, 4A; 19A
3.5 1027 °C
3.6 2.0 × 10–7 Ω m
3.7 0.0039 °C–1
3.8 867 °C
3.9 Current in branch AB = (4/17) A,
in BC = (6/17) A, in CD = (–4/17) A,
in AD = (6/17) A, in BD. = (–2/17) A, total current = (10/17) A.
3.10 (a) X = 8.2 Ω; to minimise resistance of the connection which are
not accounted for in the bridge formula.
(b) 60.5 cm from A.
(c) The galvanometer will show no current.
3.11 11.5 V; the series resistor limits the current drawn from the external
source. In its absence, the current will be dangerously high.
3.12 2.25 V
3.13 2.7 × 104 s (7.5 h)
3.14 Take the radius of the earth = 6.37 × 106 m and obtain total charge
of the globe. Divide it by current to obtain time = 283 s. Still this
method gives you only an estimate; it is not strictly correct. Why?
3.15 (a) 1.4 A, 11.9 V
(b) 0.005 A; impossible because a starter motor requires large
current ( ~ 100 A) for a few seconds.
3.16 The mass (or weight) ratio of copper to aluminium wire is
(1.72/2.63) × (8.9/2.7) ≅ 2.2. Since aluminium is lighter, it is
preferred for long suspensions of cables.
3.17 Ohm’s law is valid to a high accuracy; the resistivity of the alloy
292 manganin is nearly independent of temperature.
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3.18 (a) Only current (because it is given to be steady!). The rest depends
on the area of cross-section inversely.
(b) No, examples of non-ohmic elements: vacuum diode,
semiconductor diode.
(c) Because the maximum current drawn from a source = ε/r.
(d) Because, if the circuit is shorted (accidentally), the current
drawn will exceed safety limits, if internal resistance is not large.
3.19 (a) greater, (b) lower, (c) nearly independent of, (d) 1022.
3.23 1.7 Ω
CHAPTER 4
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4.8 8π × 10–3 T Y 2.5 × 10–2 T
4.9 0.96 N m
4.10 (a) 1.4, (b) 1
4.11 4.2 cm
4.12 18 MHz
4.13 (a) 3.1 Nm, (b) No, the answer is unchanged because the formula
τ = N I A × B is true for a planar loop of any shape.
4.14 5π × 10–4 T = 1.6 × 10–3 T towards west.
4.15 Length about 50 cm, radius about 4 cm, number of turns about
400, current about 10 A. These particulars are not unique. Some
adjustment with limits is possible.
4.16 (b) In a small region of length 2d about the mid-point between the
coils,
−3 / 2 −3 / 2
µ0 IR 2 N R R
2 2
2 2
B=
× + d + R + − d + R
2 2
2
−3 / 2 −3 / 2 −3 / 2
µ0 IR 2 N 5R 2 4d 4d
−% × × 1 + + 1 −
2 4 5R 5R
3/2
µ0 IR 2 N 4 6d 6d
−% × × 1 − +1+
2R 3 5 5 R 5R
where in the second and third steps above, terms containing d2/R 2
d
and higher powers of d/R are neglected since << 1 . The terms
R
linear in d/R cancel giving a uniform field B in a small region:
3/2
4 µ 0 IN µ IN
B= −% 0.72 0
5 R R
4.17 Hint: B for a toroid is given by the same formula as for a solenoid:
N
B = µ0 nI, where n in this case is given by n = 2 π r . The field is
non-zero only inside the core surrounded by the windings. (a) Zero,
(b) 3.0 × 10–2 T, (c) zero. Note, the field varies slightly across the
cross-section of the toroid as r varies from the inner to outer radius.
Answer (b) corresponds to the mean radius r = 25.5 cm.
4.18 (a) Initial v is either parallel or anti-parallel to B.
(b) Yes, because magnetic force can change the direction of v, not
its magnitude.
(c) B should be in a vertically downward direction.
4.19 (a) Circular trajectory of radius 1.0 mm normal to B.
(b) Helical trajectory of radius 0.5 mm with velocity component
2.3 × 107 m s–1 along B.
4.20 Deuterium ions or deuterons; the answer is not unique because
only the ratio of charge to mass is determined. Other possible
294 answers are He++, Li+++ , etc.
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Answers
4.21 (a) A horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.26 T normal to the
conductor in such a direction that Fleming’s left-hand rule gives
a magnetic force upward.
(b) 1.176 N.
4.22 1.2 N m–1; repulsive. Note, obtaining total force on the wire as
1.2 × 0.7 = 0.84 N, is only approximately correct because the formula
µ
F = 0 I1 I 2 for force per unit length is strictly valid for infinitely
2π r
long conductors.
4.23 (a) 2.1 N vertically downwards
(b) 2.1 N vertically downwards (true for any angle between current
and direction and B since l sin θ remains fixed, equal to 20 cm)
(c) 1.68 N vertically downwards
4.24 Use τ = IA × B and F = I l × B
(a) 1.8 × 10–2 N m along –y direction
(b) same as in (a)
(c) 1.8 × 10–2 N m along –x direction
(d) 1.8 × 10–2 N m at an angle of 240° with the +x direction
(e) zero
(f ) zero
Force is zero in each case. Case (e) corresponds to stable, and case
(f ) corresponds to unstable equilibrium.
4.25 (a) Zero, (b) zero, (c) force on each electron is evB = IB/(nA) = 5 × 10–25 N.
Note: Answer (c) denotes only the magnetic force.
4.26 108 A
4.27 Resistance in series = 5988 Ω
4.28 Shunt resistance = 10 mΩ
CHAPTER 5
5.1 (a) Magnetic declination, angle of dip, horizontal component of
earth’s magnetic field.
(b) Greater in Britain (it is about 70°), because Britain is closer to
the magnetic north pole.
(c) Field lines of B due to the earth’s magnetism would seem to
come out of the ground.
(d) A compass is free to move in a horizontal plane, while the earth’s
field is exactly vertical at the magnetic poles. So the compass
can point in any direction there.
(e) Use the formula for field B on the normal bisector of a dipole of
magnetic moment m,
µ m
BA = − 0 3
4π r
Take m = 8 × 1022 J T –1, r = 6.4 × 106 m; one gets B = 0.3 G, which
checks with the order of magnitude of the observed field on
the earth.
(f) Why not? The earth’s field is only approximately a dipole field.
Local N-S poles may arise due to, for instance, magnetised
mineral deposits. 295
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5.2 (a) Yes, it does change with time. Time scale for appreciable change
is roughly a few hundred years. But even on a much smaller
scale of a few years, its variations are not completely negligible.
(b) Because molten iron (which is the phase of the iron at the high
temperatures of the core) is not ferromagnetic.
(c) One possibility is the radioactivity in the interior of the earth.
But nobody really knows. You should consult a good modern
text on geomagnetism for a proper view of the question.
(d) Earth’s magnetic field gets weakly ‘recorded’ in certain rocks
during solidification. Analysis of this rock magnetism offers
clues to geomagnetic history.
(e) At large distances, the field gets modified due to the field of ions
in motion (in the earth’s ionosphere). The latter is sensitive to
extra-terrestrial disturbances such as, the solar wind.
296 (b) (2 µ0m )/(4π r13 ) = 0.42 × 10 −4 i.e., r1 = 21/ 3 r = 6.3 cm.
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Answers
5.16 (a) The tendency to disrupt the alignment of dipoles (with the
magnetising field) arising from random thermal motion is
reduced at lower temperatures.
(b) The induced dipole moment in a diamagnetic sample is always
opposite to the magnetising field, no matter what the internal
motion of the atoms is.
(c) Slightly less, since bismuth is diamagnetic.
(d) No, as it evident from the magnetisation curve. From the slope
of magnetisation curve, it is clear that m is greater for lower
fields.
(e) Proof of this important fact (of much practical use) is based on
boundary conditions of magnetic fields (B and H) at the interface
of two media. (When one of the media has µ >> 1, the field lines
meet this medium nearly normally.) Details are beyond the scope
of this book.
(f ) Yes. Apart from minor differences in strength of the individual
atomic dipoles of two different materials, a paramagnetic sample
with saturated magnetisation will have the same order of
magnetisation. But of course, saturation requires impractically
high magnetising fields.
5.17 (b) Carbon steel piece, because heat lost per cycle is proportional
to the area of hysteresis loop.
(c) Magnetisation of a ferromagnet is not a single-valued function
of the magnetising field. Its value for a particular field depends
both on the field and also on history of magnetisation (i.e., how
many cycles of magnetisation it has gone through, etc.). In other
words, the value of magnetisation is a record or memory of its
cycles of magnetisation. If information bits can be made to
correspond to these cycles, the system displaying such a
hysteresis loop can act as a device for storing information.
(d) Ceramics (specially treated barium iron oxides) also called
ferrites.
(e) Surround the region by soft iron rings. Magnetic field lines will
be drawn into the rings, and the enclosed space will be free of
magnetic field. But this shielding is only approximate, unlike
the perfect electric shielding of a cavity in a conductor placed
in an external electric field.
5.18 Parallel to and above the cable at a distance at 1.5 cm.
5.19 Below the cable:
Rh = 0.39 cos35° – 0.2
= 0.12 G
Rv = 0.36 sin35° = 0.22 G
R = R h 2 + Rv 2 = 0.25 G
Rv
θ = tan −1 = 62°
Rh
Above the cable:
Rh = 0.39 cos35° + 0.2
= 0.52 G
Rv = 0.224 G
R = 0.57 G, θ 23° 297
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5.20 (a) Bh = ( µ0 IN /2r ) cos 45o = 0.39 G
(b) East to west (i.e., the needle will reverse its original direction).
5.21 Magnitude of the other field
1.2 × 10 −2 × sin15o
=
sin 45o
= 4.4 × 10−3 T
meV
5.22 R=
eB
2m e × kinetic energy
=
eB
= 11.3 m
Up or down deflection = R (1-cosθ ) where sinθ = 0.3/11.3. We get
deflection 4 mm.
5.23 Initially, total dipole moment
= 0.15 × 1.5 × 10-23 × 2.0 ×1024
= 4.5 J T –1
Use Curie’s Law m ∝ B/T to get the final dipole moment
= 4.5 × (0.98/0.84) × (4.2/2.8)
= 7.9 J T –1
µr µo NI
5.24 Use the formula B = where µr (relative permeability) to get
2π R
B = 4.48 T.
5.25 Of the two, the relation µl = – (e/2m) l is in accordance with classical
physics. It follows easily from the definitions of µl and l:
µl = IA = (e / T )πr 2
2 πr 2
l = mvr = m
T
where r is the radius of the circular orbit which the electron of mass
m and charge (–e) completes in time T. Clearly, µr / l = e / 2m .
Since charge of the electron is negative (= – e), it is easily seen that
µ and l are antiparallel, both normal to the plane of the orbit.
Therefore, µl = −e / 2m l. Note µs/S in contrast to µl / l is e/m, i.e.,
twice the classically expected value. This latter result (verified
experimentally) is an outstanding consequence of modern quantum
theory and cannot be obtained classically.
CHAPTER 6
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Answers
(c) Along yzx
(d) Along zyx
(e) Along xry
(f ) No induced current since field lines lie in the plane of the loop.
6.2 (a) Along adcd (flux through the surface increases during shape
change, so induced current produces opposing flux).
(b) Along a′d′c′b′ (flux decreases during the process)
6.3 7.5 × 10–6 V
6.4 (1) 2.4 × 10–4 V, lasting 2 s
(2) 0.6 × 10–4 V, lasting 8 s
6.5 100 V
6.6 Flux through each turn of the loop = π r 2B cos(ωt)
ε = –N ω π r 2B sin(ωt)
εmax = –N ω π r 2B
= 20 × 50 × π × 64 × 10– 4 × 3.0 × 10 –2 = 0.603 V
εavg is zero over a cycle
Imax = 0.0603 A
1
Paverage = ε max I max = 0.018 W
2
The induced current causes a torque opposing the rotation of the
coil. An external agent (rotor) must supply torque (and do work) to
counter this torque in order to keep the coil rotating uniformly. Thus,
the source of the power dissipated as heat in the coil is the external
rotor.
6.7 (a) 1.5 × 10–3 V, (b) West to East, (c) Eastern end.
6.8 4H
6.9 30 Wb
6.10 Vertical component of B
= 5.0 × 10 – 4 sin 30°
= 2.5 × 10 – 4 T
ε = Blv
ε = 2.5 × 10 – 4 × 25 × 500
= 3.125 V
The emf induced is 3.1 V (using significant figures).
The direction of the wing is immaterial (as long as it is horizontal) for
this answer.
6.11 Induced emf = 8 × 2 × 10 – 4 × 0.02 = 3.2 × 10–5 V
Induced current = 2 × 10 –5 A
Power loss = 6.4 × 10 –10 W
Source of this power is the external agent responsible for changing
the magnetic field with time.
6.12 Rate of change of flux due to explicit time variation in B
= 144 × 10 – 4 m2 × 10–3 T s–1
= 1.44 × 10 –5 Wb s–1
Rate of change of flux due to motion of the loop in a non-uniform B
= 144 × 10 –4 m2 × 10–3 T cm–1 × 8 cm s–1
= 11.52 × 10–5 Wb s–1 299
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The two effects add up since both cause a decrease in flux along
the positive z-direction. Therefore, induced emf = 12.96 × 10–5 V;
induced current = 2.88 × 10–2 A. The direction of induced current
is such as to increase the flux through the loop along positive
z-direction. If for the observer the loop moves to the right, the
current will be seen to be anti-clockwise. A proper proof of the
procedure above is as follows:
a
Φ (t ) = ∫ aB (x ,t ) dx
0
a
dΦ dB(x ,t )
= a ∫ dx
dt 0
dt
using,
dB ∂B ∂B dx
= +
dt ∂t ∂x dt
∂B ∂B
= +v
∂t ∂x
we get,
a
dΦ ∂ B ( x ,t ) ∂B( x ,t )
= a ∫ dx +v
dt 0 ∂ t ∂x
∂B ∂B
= A +v
∂t ∂x
where A = a2
∂B ∂B
The last step follows because , and v are given to be
∂t ∂x
constants in the problem. Even if you do not understand this formal
proof (which requires good familiarity with calculus), you will still
appreciate that flux change can occur both due to the motion of the
loop as well as time variations in the magnetic field.
tf
6.13 Q= ∫ Idt
ti
tf
1
=
R ∫ ε dt
ti
Φf
N
=−
R ∫ dΦ
Φi
N
= (Φi − Φf )
R
for N = 25, R = 0.50 Ω, Q = 7.5 × 10–3 C
Φf = 0, A = 2.0 × 10–4 m2, Φi = 1.5 × 10–4 Wb
300 B = Φi/A = 0.75 T
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Answers
6.14 |ε | = vBl = 0.12 × 0.50 × 0.15 = 9.0 mV;
P positive end and Q negative end.
(b) Yes. When K is closed, the excess charge is maintained by the
continuous flow of current.
(c) Magnetic force is cancelled by the electric force set-up due to
the excess charge of opposite signs at the ends of the rod.
(d) Retarding force = I B l
9 mV
= × 0.5 T × 0.15 m
9 mΩ
= 75 × 10–3 N
(e) Power expended by an external agent against the above retarding
force to keep the rod moving uniformly at 12 cm s–1
= 75 × 10 –3 × 12 × 10 –2 = 9.0 × 10 –3 W
When K is open, no power is expended.
(f ) I2R = 1 × 1 × 9 × 10 –3 = 9.0 × 10 –3 W
The source of this power is the power provided by the external
agent as calculated above.
(g) Zero; motion of the rod does not cut across the field lines. [Note:
length of PQ has been considered above to be equal to the spacing
between the rails.]
µ 0 NI
6.15 B=
l
(Inside the solenoid away from the ends)
µ 0 NI
Φ= A
l
Total flux linkage = NΦ
µ0 N 2 A
= I
l
(Ignoring end variations in B)
d
ε = (N Φ )
dt
total change in flux
ε av =
total time
4 π × 10 −7 × 25 × 10 −4
ε av = × (500)2 × 2.5
0.3 × 10−3
= 6.5 V
µ0 a a
6.16 M = ln 1 +
2π x
ε = 1.7 × 10 –5 V
6.17 B πa2 λ ˆ
− k
MR
301
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CHAPTER 7
(b) 10 2 = 14.1 A
7.3 15.9 A
7.4 2.49 A
7.5 Zero in each case.
7.6 125 s–1; 25
7.7 1.1 × 103 s–1
7.8 0.6 J, same at later times.
7.9 2,000 W
1 1 1
7.10 ν= , i.e., C =
2π LC 4π ν L
2 2
1
V LCrms = I rms ω 0 L − =0
ω0 C
7.12 (a) 1.0 J. Yes, sum of the energies stored in L and C is conserved if
R = 0.
(b) ω = 103 rad s−1 , ν = 159 Hz
(c) q = q0 cos ω t
T 3T
(i) Energy stored is completely electrical at t = 0, , T, , .....
2 2
(ii) Energy stored is completely magnetic (i.e., electrical energy
T 3T 5T 1
is zero) at t = , , ....... , where T = = 6.3 ms .
4 4 4 ν
T 3T 5T ωT π q0
(d) At t = , , ,....... , because q = q 0 cos = q 0 cos = .
8 8 8 8 4 2
q2 1 q0
2
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Answers
7.13 For an LR circuit, if V = V0 sin ω t
V0
I = sin (ω t − φ ) , where tan φ = (ω L / R ) .
2 2 2
R +ω L
(a) I0 = 1.82 A
(b) V is maximum at t = 0, I is maximum at t = (φ / ω ) .
2πν L
Now, tan φ = = 1.571 or φ ≈ 57.5°
R
57.5 π 1
Therefore, time lag = × = 3.2 ms
180 2π × 50
7.14 (a) I 0 = 1.1 × 10−2 A
(b) tan φ = 100 π, φ is close to π/2.
I0 is much smaller than the low frequency case (Exercise 7.13)
showing thereby that at high frequencies, L nearly amounts to
an open circuit. In a dc circuit (after steady state) ω = 0, so here
L acts like a pure conductor.
7.15 For a RC circuit, if V = V0 sin ω t
V0 1
I = sin( ω t + φ ) where tan φ =
2
R + (1 / ω C )
2
ωCR
(a) I0 = 3.23 A
(b) φ = 33.5°
φ
Time lag = = 1.55 ms
ω
7.16 (a) I0 = 3.88 A
(b) φ ≈ 0.2 and is nearly zero at high frequency. Thus, at high
frequency, C acts like a conductor. For a dc circuit, after steady
state, ω = 0 and C amounts to an open circuit.
7.17 Effective impedance of the parallel LCR circuit is given by
2
1 1 1
= + ω C −
Z R 2
ω L
1
which is minimum at ω = ω0 =
LC
Therefore, |Z| is maximum at ω = ω0 , and the total current amplitude
is minimum.
In R branch, I Rrms = 5.75 A
In L branch, I Lrms = 0.92 A
In C branch, IC rms = 0.92 A
Note: total current I rms = 5.75 A , since the currents in L and C branch
are 180° out of phase and add to zero at every instant of the cycle.
7.18 (a) For V = V0 sin ω t 303
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V0 π
I = sin ωt + ; if R = 0
1 2
ωL −
ωC
where – sign appears if ωL > 1/ω C, and + sign appears if ωL < 1/ω C.
I0 = 11.6 A, Irms = 8.24 A
(b) VL rms = 207 V, VC rms = 437 V
(Note: 437 V – 207 V = 230 V is equal to the applied rms voltage
as should be the case. The voltage across L and C gets
subtracted because they are 180° out of phase.)
(c) Whatever be the current I in L, actual voltage leads current by
π/2. Therefore, average power consumed by L is zero.
(d) For C, voltage lags by π/2. Again, average power consumed by C
is zero.
(e) Total average power absorbed is zero.
7.19 Irms = 7.26 A
2
Average power to R = I rms R = 791 W
Average power to L = Average power to C = 0
Total power absorbed = 791 W
7.20 (a) ω0= 4167 rad s–1; ν0 = 663 Hz
max
I0 = 14.1 A
2
(b) P = (1 / 2) I 0 R which is maximum at the same frequency (663 Hz)
for which I0 is maximum Pmax = (1 / 2)(I max )2 R = 2300 W.
(c) At ω = ω0 ± ∆ω [Approximation good if (R/2L ) << ω0 ].
∆ω = R/2L = 95.8 rad s–1; ∆ν = ∆ω/2π = 15.2 Hz.
Power absorbed is half the peak power at ν = 648 Hz and 678 Hz.
At these frequencies, current amplitude is (1 / 2 ) times I 0max ,
i.e., current amplitude(at half the peak power points) is 10 A.
(d) Q = 21.7
7.21 ω0= 111 rad s–1; Q = 45
To double Q without changing ω0, reduce R to 3.7 Ω.
7.22 (a) Yes. The same is not true for rms voltage, because voltages across
different elements may not be in phase. See, for example, answer
to Exercise 7.18.
(b) The high induced voltage, when the circuit is broken, is used to
charge the capacitor, thus avoiding sparks, etc.
(c) For dc, impedance of L is negligible and of C very high (infinite),
so the dc signal appears across C. For high frequency ac,
impedance of L is high and that of C is low. So, the ac signal
appears across L.
(d) For a steady state dc, L has no effect, even if it is increased by
an iron core. For ac, the lamp will shine dimly because of
additional impedance of the choke. It will dim further when the
iron core is inserted which increases the choke’s impedance.
(e) A choke coil reduces voltage across the tube without wasting
304 power. A resistor would waste power as heat.
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Answers
7.23 400
7.24 Hydroelectric power = h ρ g × A × v = h ρ g β
where β = Av is the flow (volume of water flowing per second across a
cross-section).
Electric power available = 0.6 × 300 × 103 × 9.8 × 100 W
= 176 MW
7.25 Line resistance = 30 × 0.5 = 15 Ω.
800 × 1000 W
rms current in the line = = 200 A
4000 V
(a) Line power loss = (200 A)2 × 15 Ω = 600 kW.
(b) Power supply by the plant = 800 kW + 600 kW = 1400 kW.
(c) Voltage drop on the line = 200 A × 15 Ω = 3000 V.
The step-up transformer at the plant is 440 V – 7000 V.
800 × 1000 W
7.26 Current = = 20 A
40,000 V
(a) Line power loss = (20 A)2 × (15 Ω) = 6 kW.
(b) Power supply by the plant = 800 kW + 6 kW = 806 kW.
(c) Voltage drop on the line = 20 A × 15 Ω = 300 V.
The step-up transformer is 440 V – 40, 300 V. It is clear that
percentage power loss is greatly reduced by high voltage
transmission. In Exercise 7.25, this power loss is (600/1400)
× 100 = 43%. In this exercise, it is only (6/806) × 100 = 0.74%.
CHAPTER 8
dQ dV
=C
dt dt
dV 0.15
= = 1.87 × 10 9 V s –1
dt 80.1 × 10 –12
d
(b) i d = ε0 ΦΕ. . Now across the capacitor ΦE = EA, ignoring end
dt
corrections.
dΦΕ
Therefore, i d = ε0 A
dt
Q dE i
Now, E = . Therefore, = , which implies id = i = 0.15 A.
εA
0
dt ε0 A
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Physics
(b) Yes. The derivation in Exercise 8.1(b) is true even if i is oscillating
in time.
µ0 r
(c) The formula B = id
2π R 2
1
Using E = cB, and c = , uE = uB
µ0 ε 0
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Answers
8.13 A body at temperature T produces a continuous spectrum of
wavelengths. For a black body, the wavelength corresponding to
maximum intensity of radiation is given according to Wein’s law by
the relation: λm=0.29 cm K/T. For λm=10–6 m, T = 2900 K. Temperatures
for other wavelengths can be found. These numbers tell us the
temperature ranges required for obtaining radiations in different
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, to obtain visible
radiation, say λ = 5 × 10–7 m, the source should have a temperature
of about 6000 K.
Note: a lower temperature will also produce this wavelength but not
the maximum intensity.
8.14 (a) Radio (short wavelength end)
(b) Radio (short wavelength end)
(c) Microwave
(d) Visible ( Yellow )
(e) X-rays (or soft γ-rays) region
8.15 (a) Ionosphere reflects waves in these bands.
(b) Television signals are not properly reflected by the ionosphere
(see text). Therefore, reflection is effected by satellites.
(c) Atmosphere absorbs X-rays, while visible and radiowaves can
penetrate it.
(d) It absorbs ultraviolet radiations from the sun and prevents it
from reaching the earth’s surface and causing damage to life.
(e) The temperature of the earth would be lower because the
Greenhouse effect of the atmosphere would be absent.
( f ) The clouds produced by global nuclear war would perhaps cover
substantial parts of the sky preventing solar light from reaching
many parts of the globe. This would cause a ‘winter’.
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