Sustainable Fibers For Fashion Industry

Environmental Footprints and Eco-design
of Products and Processes
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

Miguel Angel Gardetti Editors
Sustainable
Fibres for
Fashion
Industry
Volume 1
Environmental Footprints and Eco-design
of Products and Processes
Series editor
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, SGS Hong Kong Limited,
Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
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Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu
Miguel Angel Gardetti
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Sustainable Fibres
for Fashion Industry
Volume 1
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Editors
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Miguel Angel Gardetti
Environmental Services Manager-Asia Center for Studies on Sustainable Luxury
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Hong Kong Argentina
Hong Kong SAR
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Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes
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Contents
Luxury Hair Fibers for Fashion Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Ammayappan Lakshmanan, Seiko Jose and Sujay Chakraborty
Mainstreaming of Sustainable Cotton in the German
Clothing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Erik G. Hansen and Stefan Schaltegger
Possum Fiber—A Wonderful Creation of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Mohammad Mahbubul Hassan
Natural Fibres for Sustainable Development in Fashion Industry . . . . . 89
Sanjoy Debnath
Sustainable Biopolymer Fibers—Production, Properties
and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Karthik Thangavelu and Krishna Bala Subramani
Case Study of Renewable Bacteria Cellulose Fiber and Biopolymer
Composites in Sustainable Design Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Y.A. Lee
v
Introduction
The concept of sustainability is widely used in every industrial sector including

textiles and clothing. According to Muthu (2014, p. v) a sustainable textile product
is the one that is created, produced, transported, used and disposed of with due
consideration of environmental impacts, social aspects and economic implications.
The social and environmental impacts from textile production are varied and
evidence a mosaic of interconnected flows of the resources affected. According to
Kate Fletcher and Lynda Grose (2012), fibers visibly connect us to many of the
major issues of our time: Somehow we can relate climate change, waste production,
and water shortage to material use, treatment, and demand. More specifically,
Gardetti and Torres (2013, p. 7) state that the impacts of fiber extraction are the use
of pesticides during this process leads to workers’ health issues, causes soil
degradation and biodiversity loss. Water is vital in the processing of cotton, in
particular, that this crop has been called the “thirsty crop.” While the use of
agrochemicals tends to be reduced, the use of genetically modified organisms for
such purposes could lead to another type of impacts. Abuses on working conditions
are also commonly presented in other stages of these industries; many times,
human rights are violated in the so-called sweatshops which are characterized by
low wages and long working hours. The risks are even greater if safety and health
care systems are not appropriate. In turn, many of the synthetic fibers are derived
from a non-renewable resource such as oil. In general, environmental abuse
combines with ethical issues when water is overused, and when land for food
production is usurped.
Fibers (materials) are an essential element in fashion: They turn symbolic into
real production while providing us with the physical means to build our identity and
act as social beings as individuals. (Fletcher 2008 and 2014).
Fletcher (2008) explained very clearly that one of the first tasks is to
acknowledge this complexity and to build expertise with a portfolio of more sus-
tainable fibers because of their appropriateness to both product and user. Indeed,
perhaps one of the greatest challenges of sustainability is to become skilled at this
task. We should be able to translate the system “big-picture” issues (e.g., diversity,
ethics, or consumption) and the product “small-picture” detail (e.g., fiber life-cycle
vii
viii Introduction
analysis profile) and transfer such knowledge to our daily work so as to be able to
make decisions that are simple and practical.
The fashion and textile industry’s future success will depend on us reducing its
environmental and social burden across the entire life cycle. And, for such purpose,
we should develop a more pluralist, decentralized, and diverse approach. That is the
hallmark of this first volume of Sustainable Fibers for Fashion Industry.
This book begins with a chapter written by Ammayappan Lakshmanan, Seiko
Jose, and Sujay Chakraborty, titled “Luxury Hair Fibers for Fashion Industry”.
Their work analyzes animal hair fibers with limited production and unique char-
acteristics that are used in the fashion industry to enhance the aesthetic and prestige
look of garments. To sustain the luxury hair fiber industry, the authors look into
existing luxury hair fibers in the fashion market and their potential applications.
Along this line, the chapter titled “Mainstreaming of Sustainable Cotton in the
German Clothing Industry”, by Erik G. Hansen, analyzes the sustainability-oriented
transformation of clothing industries. While sustainability pioneers introduce new
products in niche markets, incumbents advance them into the mass market.
Together this can lead to the transformation of industries, markets, and consumer
habits. This chapter reviews the German clothing retail industry with a focus on
organic cotton and related sustainable fibers. The analysis also covers 4 of the 10
largest German textile retailers.
Moreover, in the third chapter titled “Possum Fiber—A Wonderful Creation of
Nature”, Mohammad Mahbubul Hassan analyzes possum fiber, which is harvested
from a rodent called the “possum.” The fiber is very soft and smooth unlike merino
wool fiber. In addition, it is quite different from other animal fibers because of its
unique shape and morphology. Over the past 15 years, the possum fur industry has
grown in New Zealand, and when the fiber is blended with merino wool it produces
various luxury apparels including coats, jackets, scarves, and cloaks. However, it
poses some challenges due to its color (reddish brown). Therefore, in this chapter,
the following are both analyzed and discussed: the brushtail possum and their
habitat and food; the harvesting of possum fur; the physical and mechanical
properties of possum fiber; and the mechanical and chemical processing methods,
including bleaching and dyeing, of possum fur. Sanjoy Debnath explains, in the
work “Natural Fibres for Sustainable Development in Fashion Industry”, the large
number of natural fibers available in nature from plants, animals, insects, and
minerals. Accordingly, these fibres—alone or mixed with other fibres—are used in
the design and development of specific fashion products. Different fashion indus-
tries have been developed all over the world to produce different fiber-based fashion
products. These fashion industries have a huge potential for value addition with the
intervention of newer product design. Recent trends also show the use of these
natural fibers for sustainable growth in the fashion industry. This chapter also deals
with future aspects of the use of uncommon natural fiber for sustainable fashion
industry.
The next chapter, “Sustainable Bio Polymer Fibers—Production, Properties and
Applications”, by Karthik Thangavelu and Krishna Bala Subramani, deals with the
less investigated and emerging biopolymer fibers, which will have huge impact on
Introduction ix
the sustainable luxury fashion going forward. The bio-fibers from animal protein
(spider silk, hag fish slime), regenerated cellulose (seaweed), regenerated protein
(milk fiber), and biopolymers synthesized from bio-derived monomers (PLA, PTT)
are discussed in depth. The raw materials for the production and extraction of fibers,
the properties and application of fibers, and the ecological impact of fibers are
analyzed as well.
The last chapter of this first volume, developed by Y.A. Lee, is a case study
titled “Case Study of Renewable Bacteria Cellulose Fiber and Biopolymer
Composites in Sustainable Design Practices”. This case study challenges
researchers and practitioners to rethink what constitutes sustainable consumer
products in a world of increasingly stressed natural resources by exploring inno-
vative ways to develop renewable biocomposite materials, such as leather-like
nonwoven fabrics, which can be used for apparel and footwear products.
References
Fletcher K (2008) Sustainable fashion and textiles, design journeys. Routledge, London
Fletcher K (2014) Sustainable fashion and textiles, design journeys, 2nd edn. Routledge, London
Fletcher K, Grose L (2012) Fashion & sustainability—design for change. Laurence King
Publishing, London
Gardetti MA, Torres AL (2013) Introduction. In: Gardetti MA, Torres AL, Sustainability in
fashion and textiles, Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield
Muthu SS (2014) Preface. In: Muthu SS, Roadmap to sustainable textiles and clothing:
eco-friendly raw materials, technologies, and processing methods. Springer, Hong Kong
Luxury Hair Fibers for Fashion Industry
Ammayappan Lakshmanan, Seiko Jose and Sujay Chakraborty
Abstract The fashion industry has been captivated by natural fibers, particularly
animal hair fibers due to their specific characteristics—such as fineness, warmth,
suppleness, visual appearance, and finally mystique—since ancient times. Animal
hair fibers protect the animal from extreme weather particularly at high altitude/low
temperature, and thus generally their production is not as high as fine wool fiber
from sheep. The limited production and unique characteristics lead them to be used
in the fashion industry to enhance the aesthetic and prestige look of garments.
Being utilized in luxurious fashion industry, they are also known as luxury or exotic
fibers. To reduce the cost of the end product and impart novelty, these hair fibers are
used often in conjunction with either sheep’s wool or other natural fibers. These
blends produce special effects, such as additional beauty, texture, colour, softness,
resilience, durability, and luster, on garments. Luxury hair fibers are exceptionally
fine (8–16 μ) and are in high demand for the production of fashion garments and
accessories, which led to brink of extinction of luxury hair fibre-producing animals
such as antelope in Tibet. To help sustain the luxury hair fiber industry, this chapter
considers the existing luxury hair fibers in the fashion market and their potential
applications.
Keywords Animal hair Luxury hair Fashion clothing Fineness Yield
1 Introduction
Clothing was introduced by mankind to protect him from the environment. After
civilization was more developed, mankind introduced different clothing, and the
western culture developed fashion clothing, particularly to differentiate royal people
from common people. Designers of fashion textiles are always fascinated with
A. Lakshmanan (&) S. Jose S. Chakraborty

ICAR, National Institute of Research on Jute and Allied Fiber Technology,
12 Regent Park, Kolkata 700040, West Bengal, India
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 1

S.S. Muthu and M.A. Gardetti (eds.), Sustainable Fibres for Fashion Industry,
Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_1
2
Table 1 Important luxury hair fiber properties, yield, annual production, and prices
Hair Family Diameter Fiber length Price Resource Annual Trend Yield/animal
(m) (mm) ($USD/kg) production (tons) (kg)
Mohair hair Angora goat 24–40 84–130 7.5–8 South Africa, Turkey, USA 20,000–22,000 Increasing 4–10
Cashmere Cashmere goat 12.5–19 35–90 100–130 Asia, Russia, Australia, New 6500–15,000 Increasing 0.1–0.16
hair Zealand
Pashmina Chanthangi/cheru 9–14 40–60 100–150 India, Nepal, Tibet 40–50 Stable 0.5–0.45
hair
Cashgora Angora goat × 18–23 30–90 45 Australia, New Zealand 50 Increasing 50 % of
hair cashmere goat fleece
Camel hair Camel 18–26 30–120 9.5–24 China, Mongolia, East Asia 4500 Stable 3.5–5.0
Alpaca hair Lama glama 20–36 200–550 2–10 South America, USA, 4000–6500 Increasing 3–5
pacos Canada
Llama hair Lama glama 19–30 80–250 2–4 South America, USA, 2500–2700 Increasing 2–5
glama Canada
Vicuna hair Lama vicuña 12–15 30–50 360 Peru, Chile 5–6 Direct 0.2
consume
Guanaco hair Lama guanacos 14–16 30–60 125–150 South America 1.5–2 Direct 0.7–1.0
consume
Angora Angora rabbit 11–15 25–60 20–30 China, France, South 2500–3000 Stable 0.4–0.8
rabbit hair America, Turkey
Musk ox hair Bovine 11–20 40–70 15 USA, Canada, Asia 4–5 Stable 0.9
Bison hair Bovine 12–19 50–70 300 USA, Canada 5 Stable 1–2
Yak hair Bovine 15–17 30–35 20 China, Mongolia, India, 1000 Stable 0.1
Tibet
Koztowski (2012), Atav et al. (2015), Atav (2010), Berger (1963), Bobswen (2001), Cardellino and Mueller (2008, 2009), Franck (2001), Townsend and Sette
(2013), Watkins and Buxton (1992), Ammayappan and Moses (2005)
A. Lakshmanan et al.
Luxury Hair Fibers for Fashion Industry 3
colour, design, and material. Designers believe that rich colour, aesthetic design,
and luxurious fibers make ordinary cloth into prestigious fashion cloth. Rich colour
is derived from fast natural dyes; aesthetic designs are developed by craft people;
and luxury hair fibers are harvested from rare animals (Gardetti and Muthu 2015).
In ancient times, hair-bearing animals were not domesticated; harvesting hair fiber
from those animals was considered a hobby; it was not until later that technocrats
found that animal hair fiber has softness, warmness, and fineness. These charac-
teristics are suitable for making fashion clothing.
Wool is an important animal fiber and has been used for the development of
fashion apparel for long time; however, traditionally other animal hair fibers, such
as pashmina, angora goat, angora rabbit, and vicuna, have been used in the man-
ufacture of textile clothing and fashion garments. Development of fashion textiles
from luxury hair fiber can also remunerate farmers due to their high price in the
market. Due to high cost, they have been generally used in conjunction with sheep’s
wool to produce special effects. Worldwide demand for total textile fiber was
approximately 75 million tons in 2013, to which the contribution of natural fiber
was estimated at 33 million tons (Atav et al. 2003; Atav 2010).
The annual production of natural fibers other than cotton fiber and wool fiber is
reported approximately 1.6 million tons and they worth approximately $3 billion
(Townsend and Sette 2013). For example, the share of angora goat hair is <0.05 %
of the total world fiber production, and the important luxury fiber annual production
and properties are given in Table 1. The low production of luxury hair fiber is due
to less productivity per animal, which ranges from 20 to 500 g of greasy hair per
shearing; however, this still plays an important role in the fashion textile industry.
Recently the production of luxury hair fiber for supply of the fashion industry has
also declined due to a reduction in the population of the animals, global warming,
less availability of manpower for animal grazing, poor supplementary nutrition, and
the introduction of synthetic fibers with similar properties. A group of fashion
textile industries existing in European countries, Japan, and America focuses on the
development of products from luxury hair fibers, and thus there is still a demand for
the luxury hair fibers. This chapter will give a roadmap to the availability of luxury
hair fiber, their properties, their processing and potential applications, their market,
and their future perspectives.
2 Luxury Hair Fibers
Fine hair fibers obtained from animals other than sheep, such as goat, camel, and
the camelid family, are used in the manufacture of fashion textile products. Due to
their high cost, they are used often in conjunction with fine wool fiber (20–30 µm,)
or other textiles fibers, such as silk, viscose rayon, nylon, and cotton, to impart
novelty effects. The largest groups of these fine hair fibers are known as “luxury
hair fibers,” and they generally are classified based on the source of the hair
(Fig. 1). The annual production of greasy hair fiber was approximately 50,000 tons
4 A. Lakshmanan et al.
Luxury Hair Fibers
Hair fibers Fur fibers
Rabbit Bovine family

Goat family Camel Family
Family & others
1. Angora goat-Mohair hairt Camel Camelids 1. Hare hair 1. Yak hair

2. Cashmere goat-Cashmere hair 2. Angora 2. Musk ox hair
3. Cashgora goat Camel hair Llama family rabbit hair 3. Bison hair
4. Common goat-Goat hair 4. Cow hair
5. Changthangi / Chegu goat –
1. Bactrian camel hair 1. Llama- Llama hair 5. Horse hair
Pashmina hair
2. Dromadarian camel
6. Pycora goat-Pycora hair 2. Alpaca- Suri/ Huacaya hair 6. Reindeer hair
hair
7. Chingora
7. Shatoosh hair 3. Vicuna-Vicuna hair
hair
4. Guanaco-Guanaco hair
Fig. 1 Classification of luxury hair fibers based on their source
in 2012, and it contributed nearly a 0.15 % share of the total natural fiber pro-
duction, i.e., 33.45 million tons, in the world. Due to their limited contribution in a
specialized market, they also called “specialty hair fibers.” The classification of
luxury hair fibers based on their source is given below (Bobswen 2001; Dalton and
Franck 2001; Koztowski 2012). Among luxury hair fibers, cashmere, mohair, and
alpaca hair occupy the first three ranks in terms of production. Due to less avail-
ability, vicuna is the most expensive hair fiber followed by qiviut, guanaco,
cashmere, and pashmina. Luxury hair fiber-based products, made by experienced
artisans, are relatively more expensive than fine wool products. For example,
cashmere sweater costs £100; cashmere suit fabric costs approximately £1200;
guanaco fabric costs approximately £500/m; a vicuna scarf costs approximately
$1500; and a men’s vicuna coat costs $20,000 (Atav 2011; Atav et al. 2015).
2.1 Goat Family
Based on the quality of hair obtained from the goat family, they are classified as
mohair/angora, cashmere, pashmina, pygora, cashgora (crossbreed), and common
goat hair. Mohair fiber is obtained from the long, lustrous coat of the angora goat;
cashmere fiber is obtained from the cashmere goat of family Capra hircus
(McGregor 1990); pashmina hair obtained from Indian changthangi/chegu goat
(Wani et al. 2007); Cashgora hair is obtained from a cross-breed of the cashmere
and angora goat and was developed in New Zealand (James 2000); and common
goat hair is generally obtained from the local goats of each country and used by
farmers (Westhuysen 2005).
2.1.1 Mohair Hair
Mohair is one of important luxury hair fibers and is obtained from the long, lustrous
coat of the angora goat, which originated in Turkey. This beautiful fiber is famous
for its luster, softness, and strength. South Africa accounts for 60 % of total pro-
duction, and other producers include the United States, Turkey, Argentina,
Australia, and New Zealand. It has also been reported that genetic breeding pro-
grams in Australia are resulting in a dramatic reduction in the level of kemp fiber,
which reduces the value of mohair fleece. Mohair fleece from the angora goat is
white, smooth, and lustrous, and it has high tensile strength. A good mohair fleece
will be characterized by locks or bunches of mohair hair held together by the curl of
the fleece with a light sheen of oil and a good long staple. The average fleece yield
is approximately 2.5–3.0 kg/shearing with a staple length between 12 and 15 cm;
the animal is usually sheared twice a year (Hunter 1993).
Mohair hair ranges from very fine and soft to coarse and scratchy. Goat kids
produce the finest fiber, and the first shearing (or fall clip) is the finest of all. These
fleeces generally have very little oil, are soft, and are in the fiber fineness range of
20–24 µm. Progressively, as the animal ages, the mohair becomes coarser, and the
average fiber diameter increases. The value of the fleece is determined by fiber
diameter, luster, softness, and free from kemps (Hunter et al. 2008). Mohair hair is
similar to wool in chemical composition, but it is more crystalline than wool.
Mohair hair is a strong fiber that is elastic, has considerable luster, and takes dye
very well. The cross-section form of mohair is round. The scales are larger than
those of wool and lie flatter, thus making for a smoother fiber surface. The resultant
greater reflection of light gives mohair its characteristic luster. The scale number is
5/100 µm, and the scale length ranges from 18 to 22 µm (Van Rensburg and
Maasdorp 1985). The annual production is estimated to be approximately 22,000
tons and is mainly used for clothing and furnishings. The spinning of mohair hair is
not easy, especially in drawing and spinning, due to low cohesion and the gener-
ation of static electricity. Blending mohair with wool is preferred to reduce
static-electricity problem as well as allows the use of lubricants and additives.
Fabrics made of mohair are very light in weight and have excellent insulation.
Mohair-based fabric provides warmth during the winter months but also makes a
cool suiting fabric for the humidity of summer; hence, it is popular in Japan. Mohair
is considered very valuable as an upholstering material for the making of plushes
and other covering materials where strength, beauty, and durability are desired. It is
used to make the knitting yarn used for hand or machine knitting to make light-
weight suiting, fabric for stoles and scarves, warm blankets, and durable velour
upholstery. It is often blended with wool for making top-quality blankets, in which
the mohair content makes the fabric warmer and at the same time lighter
(Harmsworth and Day 1990; Hess 1931; Appleyard 1978; Watkins and Buxton
1992; Franck 2001). Luxury products made from angora hair are given in Fig. 2.
Adult mohair goat Relaxed Navy jumper with 100% Mohair hair printed
round neck & long sleeves top (Mohair South Africa,
(65% Cotton: 35% Mohair) 2015)
Socks from 75% Kid Mohair Wool: Mohair hair blended 100% Mohair hair over coat
hair: 25% Nylon of Thermohair Navy Tuxedo Jacket (Mohair South Africa,
(Stilleagle, 2015) (Kingsman, 2015) 2015)
Fig. 2 Mohair goat and luxury products made from mohair
2.1.2 Cashmere Hair
Cashmere hair is referred to as the fine-bottom hair of the cashmere goat (Capra
hircus laniger). The cashmere goat originated in the Himalayan regions of central
and southwest Asia; later on cashmere goats spread, most notably to China and
Mongolia. The annual production of cashmere hair is estimated to be between
15,000 and 20,000 tons with a yield of 6500 tons of “pure cashmere.” The major
cashmere-producing countries are China (70 %), Mongolia (20 %), Iran,
Afghanistan, and India. China produces the best-quality cashmere fiber (<17 µm)
and is used for woven and knitted cloth. Iranian and Afghan cashmere is of lower
quality, and Indian cashmere hair is 14–19 µm and is used for making a wide
variety of shawls, stoles, scarves, and sweaters. It is one of the finest and softest
luxury hair fibers. Its visual appearance, extreme softness, scarcity, and image or
mystique character gives cashmere an unrivalled status as a luxury hair fiber
(McGregor and Butler 2009; McGregor 2003).
Chemically, cashmere is identical to fine wool and mohair fiber. It has higher
micro fibril-packing density, and this may be associated with the low crimp
exhibited by cashmere fiber. It has a bilateral structure, and the percentage of ortho
and para cortex is 50.4 and 49.6 %, respectively. There are 6.5–7 scales/100 µm.
The scale edges of cashmere fiber do not protrude as much as those of wool; this
leads to smoothness and lower shrinkage. Cashmere fiber is approximately 10 %
weaker than the finest wool and approximately 40 % weaker than mohair fiber.
Adult cashmere goat 100% Cashmere stole of Silk/ Nylon/ Cashmere

Johnstons of Elgin blended Julia Shimmer
Jacquard Stole of Gucci
100% Cashmere hand 100% Cashmere chunky knit 100% cashmere hand woven
knitted scarf of Cianti wrap with suede Fringe of glitter shawl of Willow
Cashmere Willow Cashmere Cashmere
Fig. 3 Mohair goat and luxury products from mohair hair
It has a superbly textural feel, drapes beautifully, feels soft, warm, and light to the
touch, and will serve a user well for years. Cashmere hair offers lightweight
insulation without bulk. The fibers are highly adaptable and appropriate for all
climates. Its high moisture content allows insulation to change with the relative
humidity of atmosphere (Patil et al. 2012).
The knitwear industry is the largest consumer of cashmere hair. Scottish knitters
comprise the largest market for cashmere fiber outside of China. The weaving sector
is a small consumer of cashmere followed by the knitwear industry. After shearing
wool from the animal, the greasy and coarse outer hair can be removed. De-haired fine
hair can be dyed with suitable dyes, and then the dyed hair is carded and spun into
yarn. Dyed cashmere yarn from reputable spinners is knitted into pieces on knitting
machines with suitable designs. Knitted fabrics are washed with great care in for-
mulated soap in soft water at low temperatures. Washed scarves are pressed and
undergo a final inspection before tabbing, folding, and bagging. A significant amount
of cashmere hair is used to make accessories, e.g., shawls, stoles, scarves, throws, and
wraps. The low-grade hair is used in carpets and under felts and interlining for men’s
suits and jackets (McGregor and Postle 2004; Meech 1997). Cashmere/Silk blend is
also used for the development of high-cost suiting, and it has been reported that
Richard Jewels, a famous designer, developed a suit costing approximately $900,000
USD and bedazzled with 480 half-carat diamonds. Brooks Brothers, a famous suit
manufacture from the United Kingdom, made suiting fabric from a blend of super
200s merino wool and Mongolian cashmere (Esteban 2012).
Recently the requirement for cashmere products has increased, and it is believed that
the rearing of cashmere goats is environmentally catastrophic because the grasslands in
China and Magnolia cannot support the necessary fodder for hungry goats. To sustain
the supply of cashmere hair to the fashion industry, breeders have introduced a cashmere
cross-breed to yield a good quantity hair rather than quality hair. Alternatively, the
demand for ultra-soft, lightweight, candy-colored cashmere sweaters has increased
recently, and this has lead to the selection of an alternative luxury hair fibre, particularly
camelid hair fibers, in the UK fashion market (Avins 2014). Some of the luxury clothing
based on cashmere hair fiber are given in Fig. 3. (Willow Cashmere Ltd 2015;
Sustainable Cashmere 2015; James Johnston & Company of Elgin 2015).
Environmental sustainability means that the end product consumes less energy
than it produces. M/s Chianti Cashmere, Italy, is a famous fashion outlet for
cashmere hair, and they have adopted sustainable techniques starting from sus-
tainably harvesting cashmere hair to finishing it. They believed that sustainable
processes can protect the environment, improve the landscape for animals, and
promote sustainable rural development. They have introduced a wide range of
fashion products such as hand-knit scarves, mini shawls, baby hats and shoes, and
neck scarves in natural colours.
2.1.3 Pashmina Hair
Pashmina hair is one of the finest hair fibers harvested from the domesticated goat
from the Leh and Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir called Chanthangi; Lahul &
Spitti of Himachal Pradesh called it Chegu (Koul et al. 1987; Thakur et al. 2005).
Pashmina hair is also considered the prince of specialty hair fiber, and the name
“pashmina” derives from the Persian word “pashm,” which means “soft gold.” It is in
great demand in European fashion textiles due to its fineness (9–14 µm), warmth,
lightness, softness, and dyes compared with other hair fibers (Acharya and Sharma
1980). Each goat produces 250 g of hair in a season, and the dehaired fibre sells for
approximately $35/kg. Pashmina hair is identical with fine wool and has a bilateral
structure of ortho and para cortex of 50.4 and 49.6 %, respectively. Because the cuticle
of pashmina hair does not protrude like other fine wool, it leads to a smoother and more
lustrous surface. However, it is 10 % weaker than fine wool and approximately 40 %
weaker than mohair fiber. It has also been observed that pashmina fiber has more of the
polar amino acids (serine, threonine, and tyrosine) than fine wool, so its cuticle is more
hydrophilic than that of fine wool (Franck 2001; Berger 1963) (Fig. 4).
The appeal and matchless status of pashmina hair compared with cashmere hair
is due to its fiber fineness (9–14 µm), visual appearance, extreme softness, scarcity,
and mystique. The annual production of pashmina fiber from the Himalayas of
India is approximately 30–40 tons (Fig. 5).
Pashmina shawls were sold into the western fashion market 20 years ago, and
initially the pashmina shawl was marketed in 60/40 ratio of pashmina to silk and
had a good sheen, strength, and pliability. Pashmina hair is also utilized for the
production of aesthetic products such as knitwear in Scotland, blended suit fabrics
Pashmina bearing Changthangi goat Hand crafted 100% Kashmiri Pashmina

Shawl
Fig. 4 Pashmina goat and pashmina shawl
Hand-spinning of Pashmina hair in Charkha Handloom weaving of Pashmina shawl
Block Printing of shawl for design Hand Embroidery on Pashmina shawl
Fig. 5 Production of a pashmina Shawl by traditional process (Ammayappan et al. 2011)
in Italy and Switzerland and shawls, stoles, rumals, and other high-quality apparel
in India and Nepal. The shawl prepared from fine pashmina fiber is traditionally
hand woven. It mainly involves highly skilled labours sorting, spinning, and
weaving the fiber on specified handlooms in the Kashmir valley. Making one
quality pashmina shawl requires nearly 4 to 200 man hours with the involvement of
2–4 man powers.
Indian craftsmen traditionally made renowned pashmina shawls, which were
woven on a hand loom and often embellished with fine embroidery; the cost was
between $200 and $600. The exports of pashmina shawls fetched $160 million in
2011–2012 per India’s economic survey (Penisola 2015). The coarse outer hair is
mainly used for rope, felt, blankets, and durries (Ishrat et al. 2012; Nazir et al.
2012). Some organized sectors have developed fine wool shawls that have been
treated with suitable softeners and are sold as “100 % Pure pashmina.” It has been
found that in the UK market, from 35 to 69 % of fashion garments were mislabeled
during 1995–2006. To sustain the quality of pashmina products, emphasis is given
to the quantitative analysis of pashmina hair by DNA sequencing, PAGE, and
chemical-staining methods (Ammayappan et al. 2011).
Recently the Changthang region of the larger Tibetan Plateau, India, envisaged a
heavy snowfall, which deprived their animals of fodder and leaving grassy areas
parched and barren in the summer. Such extremes of summer and winter lead to the
starvation of goats, and seriously jeopardizes the sustainable rearing and harvesting
of pashmina hair fiber. Ultimately farmers and their families are migrating toward
neighboring cities for alternative jobs (Parvaiz 2013). To sustain pashmina hair
cultivation for the fashion industry, government policy should be formed to
increase or at least maintain pashmina goat population by funding subsidies to
farmers to provide the necessary fodder to animals, optimize the supply of pash-
mina hair through co-operative systems, develop low-cost, innovative as well as
eco-friendly shawl-manufacturing and processing Technologies, and provide the
mandatory eco-label to final products (Arnott 2012).
2.1.4 Pygora Hair
Pygora hair is a fine hair fiber purposely bred for hand-spinning in Dalla, Canada. It
is obtained from the Pygora goat, which is a cross-breed of the NPGA Pygmy goat
and the white AAGBA angora goat, both bred by Katharine Jorgensen of Oregon
City, Oregon, Canada. The Pygora goat has a soft and long silky fleece and pro-
duces three types of fleece with different characteristics (Anon 2015)
• Type “A”: (angora type) A long, lustrous fiber, up to 6 in. long <28 µm in
diameter, that hangs in long, curly locks. This hair fiber has similar character-
istics to those of fine mohair hair.
• Type “B”: (blend type) A blend of the Pygmy goat undercoat, which is cash-
mere, and the angora mohair. The fleece is between 3 and 6 in. long with a nice
crimp (curl), and the fiber diameter is <4 µm. Type “B” fleece can either be
lustrous or have a matte (dull) finish.
• Type “C”: (cashmere type) A very fine fiber, with no luster, and a length of 1–
3 in. It is acceptable as an equivalent to commercial cashmere, and its fineness is
<18.5 µm.
Pygora fleece has guard hair and soft fiber, and before spinning guard hairs are
removed from the soft fiber. The B-type fleeces are usually finer than the A-type
fleeces (i.e., they have a lower micron count) and are used for both worsted and
Pygora goat Silk:Pygora blended scarf Pygora Scarf with beads of

Sweet River Range, USA
Lace Pygora wristlets kit, baby hat kit, and pygora guard-hair rug of Whistlekick Pygoras
(Whistlekick Pygoras, 2015)
Fig. 6 Pygora goat and its luxury products
lustrous yarn. Type C fiber, after dehairing, is used for development of delicate
cashmere yarn (Lisa 2014; Pygora Breeders Association 2013). The Pygora/silk
blended scarf is famous for its design and softness (Fig. 6).
2.1.5 Cashgora Hair
Cashgora fleece is obtained by shearing from the Cashgora goat, which is a

cross-breed of the angora goat with the cashmere goat. The goats are shorn twice a
year; the fiber diameter ranges from 18 to 23 µm; and the length varies from 30 to
90 mm. Their morphological features are closer to those of mohair than those of
cashmere. There are three types of Cashgora hair, which are marketed as Ligne Or
(18.5 µm), Ligne Emeraude (20 µm), and Ligne Saphir (22 µm). New Zealand is
the main producer of Cashgora hair, and it produced 200 tons of greasy hair in
1990, which declined approximately 60 tons in 2000. Cashgora hair has the
appearance of cashmere hair with mean fiber diameter of 19–20 µm as well as a
smoother surface and generally higher luster. Because it has good staple length and
tensile strength, high-quality suiting fabric can be made by a worsted spinning
process. After dehairing of the fleece, it behaves like fine wool and is mainly used
for making lightweight suits, jackets, coats, scarves, and stoles. It is considered
more suitable for weaving than for knitting (Scheurmann et al. 1990; Koztowski
2012).
Fig. 7 Cashgora goat and cashgora products from Tajikistan (Brent 2013)
In Tajikistan, the hair is harvested manually by the comber, sorted according to

fineness, dehaired of guard hairs, combed to form clouds, spun into yarn either by
hand-spinning or electric-spinning machine, followed by skein formation. Each
skein is labeled with weight, yardage, and the spinner’s name to ensure the quality
of the final product. Skeins can be distributed to village women for the creation of
different knitted products. These products can give good remuneration for village
women to sustain their lives due to their eco-friendly preparation (Fig. 7).
2.1.6 Common Goat Hair
Common goat hair for textile use comes mainly from the Asiatic countries. Greece
and Argentina are the leading exporters, and together they supply 2300 tons
annually. The hair ranges in fineness from 7 to 20 µm for fine fibers, 50–200 µm for
beard hair from a fully growth animal, and 15–19 µm for kid hair. The scale pattern
is similar to that of cashmere fiber. Goat hair is mainly used as writing brush
material, but it also has other uses. A large amount of this hair is used in the
manufacture of cheap felt and carpets for the automobile industry; smaller quan-
tities are used in the manufacture of interlining. Some studies have inferred that
60:20:20 blends of goat hair, wool, and proplon satisfy the Indian standards ISI:
1721-1960 for utilization as hair-belting yarns (Gupta 1988; Dellal et al. 2001).
ICAR-Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute in Avikanagar, India, has
developed the technology for the preparation of hand-made durry and carpets by
keeping cotton yarn as warp. Long, medium, fine, and sheer goat hair can be used
for the “hairy look” of certain fashion garments. Goat hair is primarily used by local
artisans, and its sustainability generally depends on the marketing and
eco-awareness of the products (Pokharna 2003).
Tibetan Chiru antelope 100% Shahtoosh A Kashmiri shawl weaver weaves a

shawl woven in Shahtoosh shawl in Srinagar, Jammu and
handloom Kashmir, India on 2000 (Mushtaq, 2008)
Fig. 8 Tibetan chiru antelope and shahtoosh products
2.1.7 Shahtoosh Hair
“Shahtoosh” refers to shawls made from the hair of the endangered Tibetan chiru
antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), which yields toosh (known as Shahtoosh), and this
is more delicate than pashmina hair. The Tibetan antelope lives in the Himalayas at
an altitude of >5000 m, and they have down fur, which is both very light and warm
(Rizvi 2015). During British rules, pashmina and Shahtoosh hair-based shawls were
introduced to the fashion world and until now both have been in greater demand.
However, the Tibetan antelope was hunted down specifically for its fur, and their
numbers have dropped; it is now an endangered species. Shawls from Shahtoosh
hair are woven by only master artisans because its fiber fineness ranges from 7 to
10 µm. Dehaired fibers from five Tibetan antelopes or Chiru are required to make a
shawl that is 2 m long. It is believed that Shahtoosh shawls can be passed through a
wedding ring and so are is known as “ring shawls.” The cost of one Shahtoosh
shawl is approximately $3000–$5000 in India and approximately $18,000 in luxury
boutiques of Europe, the United States, and Gulf countries, depending on the
quality (Wikipedia 2015a; Koztowski 2012) (Fig. 8).
Kashmir is the only place that produces Shahtoosh shawls; however, to sustain
the antelope population, the Indian government has banned the rearing/trading of
Shahtoosh products since 2000. This ban has ruined the income of Kashmiri
women in the shawl industry; however, traders from Tibet reared the hair and
smuggled it to India for shawl manufacturing, which increases the cost of the shawl
(Mushtaq 2008).
2.2 Orenburg Hair
Orenburg hair fibre is reared from the native-breed Orenburg goat, which is found
in the Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, and Aktyubinsk regions of Russia. Orenburg hair is
famous for its downy texture, and the development of traditional Orenburg shawl
has been followed for >300 years (Orekhov 2007). The fleece consists of long,
coarse, and bright guard hair and fine undercoat hair. Each goat yields an overall
Orenburg Goat Hand-woven Orenburg Orenburg (100%) wedding-

(100%) shawl ring shawls
Fig. 9 Orenburg hair
range of 180–400 g, and the average diameter of the hair is 15 µm. The fineness of
the hair is uniform in all over the fleece. Being the finest hair fibre, the hair is
famous for being made into shawls, known as Orenburg shawls/scarves/
“Orenburgskyi Platok” in Russian. It is often called the “wedding ring shawl,” i.e.,
it is believed that a shawl knit in the traditional fashion can be pulled through a
wedding ring like a pashmina shawl. The shawls are made from a blend of silk and
Orenburg hair fiber, similar to cashmere or mohair. After harvesting and dehairing
the guard hair, fine hair is then hand-spun using a supported spindle followed by
plying against a commercial silk thread. This yarn is used for making shawls by
knitting it in a variety of geometric designs. Similarly, for sustaining this luxury
hair fibre, the cost of the shawl is reduced by blending it with rayon viscose/nylon
or other synthetic fiber and then developed into scarves or shawls (Rusclothing
2015; Terletski 2015) (Fig. 9).
2.3 Camel Family
2.3.1 Camel Hair
Camels are part of the Camelidae grey family. There are two kinds of camels,
namely, the Arabian or Syrian camel, which has one hump and is known as the
“dromedary camel” (Camelus dromedarius), and the Eastern Asiatic camel, which
has two humps and is known as the “bactrian camel” (Camelus bactrianus)
(Fig. 10).
China is the leading producing country of camel hair followed by Mongolia,
Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, New Zealand, Tibet, and Australia; 4500 tons of greasy
camel hair is harvested annually (Taoufik et al. 2014). Camel hair is largely
obtained from the double-humped Bactrian camel, and it produces best, softest, and
finest hair fiber. Camel hair is normally “willowed” to remove most of the dirt, dust,
and vegetable matter and dehaired to recover the finer hair. It contains 15–35 %
sand and dust and 05–1 % wool wax. The diameter of the inner down hair varies
Fig. 10 Camel
Single hump adult camel Double hump adult camel
from 19 to 24 µm, and the fiber length varies from 25 to 125 mm. The outer coat
hair is coarse with a fiber length of 375 mm and a fiber diameter of 20–120 µm.
The colour of the hair varies from reddish to light brown, and it is sorted
according to colour and age of the animal. The scale edges are generally smooth
and vertical to the fiber axis. The number of scales varies from 4 to 9/100 µm. It is
capable being dyed with a broad range of dyes and accepts dye equally as well as
fine wool fiber (Msahli et al. 2008). Camel hair is blended with fine wool for
overcoating, tops, sportswear, and sports hosiery. Nylon/virgin-quality camel hair
blends are used in hosiery and in knitted products. The hairs are also used in the
preparation of worsted yarn for making industrial fabrics such as press cloth used in
the extraction of oil from seeds. The long hair is removed by a dehairing process
and is used to make felts. Camel hair-based felts are used for tents and Mongolian
herdsman’s winter coats due to its warmth and waterproof character. It is also used
in the manufacturing of men’s and women’s coats, jackets, and blazers, skirts,
hosiery, sweaters, gloves, scarves, mufflers, caps, and robes. Camel hair/wool
blends in combination with polyester staple/silk waste can improve the utilization
of available camel hairs for overcoats, knit wear, blankets, and carpets (Gupta et al.
1989; Pokharna 2003) (Fig. 11).
Similar to fine/medium wool fiber, camel hair is covered with fine scales, and fibers
have air-filled matrix called the “medulla” in the center of the fiber, which affords
warmth to camel hair-based garments. To enhance the look of the camel hair-based
coats and jackets for fall and winter garments, they are brushed. Fine camel hair and
camel hair/fine wool-blended coats and suits were introduced by UK-based clothing
company Jaeger in the nineteenth century followed by being popularized by polo
players in the United States. A camel hair blazer from the American fashion label Bill
Blass is shown in the figure (Wikipedia 2015b; Petrie 1995).
Longer camel hair is typically blended with fine sheep’s wool and used for
upholstery or coats and flippers, such as Zakhs, which was developed by artisan
cooperatives in the Asian Steppes. Being reared in the interior of hilly region of
China and Mongolia and semi-arid regions of Asian countries, camel hair is an asset
for local farmer communities, and a multi-purpose camel hair can sustain their lives
by producing income for them (Oijala 2012; Allen Edmonds Corporation 2015).
100% Camel Hair Pullover 100% fine camel hair cap Camel Hair Blazer of
of Fashion Classics, UK and scarf of Fashion Jos. A. Bank, USA
Classics, UK
100% Camel Hair Sport Coat 100% Fine camel hair Polo Camel hair based slipper by
of Allen Edmonds, USA Coat of Ben Silver, UK Zakhs
Fig. 11 Camel hair based luxury products
2.4 Camelid Family
South American camelids exist in four forms, all of which live in the high altitude
of the western coast of the Andes region in South America. Llamas (Lama glama
glama), alpacas (Lama glama pacos), guanacos (Lama guanicoe), and vicunas
(Vicugna vicugna) are collectively known as “new world camelids.” They are all
members of the camelid family and are related to bactrian and dromedary camels.
These animals can endure the climate of the highest Andean altitude from 2500 to
5000 m and from tropical areas to sub-polar regions by adapting to the rarefied
atmosphere and being able to survive on the tough natural vegetation of the steppes
(Rodriguez and Quispe 2007; Quispe et al. 2009).
Compared with camel hair, goat hair, and fine wool fibers, camelid hair fibers are
considered a sustainable fiber because they do not contain lanolin and thus do not
require any chemical treatments. These animals are believed to be better for the
pastures during grazing than goats, i.e., they are gentler on their food sources. These
fibers often afford incomes for local communities; in addition, locals develop dif-
ferent fashions using traditional hand-made items, which are then sold through
cooperatives to European and American markets. This sustainable supply chain

makes for a strong ethical and fair trade component. The poaching of vicuna and
guanaco for the illegal marketing of the luxury hair fiber is the only threat to their
sustainability (Alex 2011).
2.4.1 Llama Hair
The llama is a domesticated South American camelid that has been widely used as
meat and a pack animal by Andean cultures since pre-Hispanic times. They are very
social animals, and are also called “camels of the clouds,” “Peruvian sheep,” and
“silent brother.” The wool produced by a llama is very soft and lanolin-free. There
are two types of llama: kcara, a light-fleeced animal used mainly as a beast of
burden, and chaku, a heavy-fleeced animal used for its hair (Cardellino and Mueller
2008).
Like other fleece, llama fleece has a double coat: an outer coat of coarse guard
hair and an undercoat of soft, fine down. Llama fleece contains 0–20 % guard hair.
The failure to utilize llama fiber for high-quality garments resulted from the
inability of South American Indians to successfully dehair the fleeces. Modern
technology has enabled full use of llama fiber. Greasy hair annual production
ranges between 2500 and 3300 tons with a clean hair yield of 85–90 % (Fig. 12).
Llama hair fiber is fine, strong, comfortable, warm, lightweight (good
warmth-to-weight ratio), and is available in 22 natural colors such as white, black,
brown, red, gray, spotted, and tricolor. Negative characteristics of llama hair are
little elasticity, easily attacked by moths, and less resistance to sunlight. Because
llama hair lacks natural oils, it is very light and thus has 90–93 % yields. Fiber
diameter ranges from 20 to 40 µm, and fiber lengths range from 80 to 250 mm
(Cardellino and Mueller 2009; Frank et al. 2012). Llama hair has medullation, and
the degree of medullation decreases with fiber diameter. Llama wool is used mostly
for utilitarian items such as outer clothing, blankets, ropes, hats, scarves, vests,
jackets, ponchos, blankets, fishing flies, and batting for quilts, whereas guard hairs
can be used for making wall hangings, rugs, and felts (Gamze and Nilgun 2014)
(Fig. 13).
M/s Altiplano Insulation, Inc., has established a sustainable methodology to
develop a winter coat from state-of-the art equipment and craftsmanship of natives
of the Altiplano. Shepherds believe that llama hair is one of the most sustainable
Fig. 12 Different breeds of llama camelids

100% Llama scarf Woman’s coat from Alpaca/ Llama hair 100% Sustainable
from authentic knitting Llama/ Wool, blended hooded Llama suiting of
board (Rayannsom, Polyamide / Lining Poncho Rustic with Altiplano Insulation
2011) Polyester of Ethnic Andean
Doncaster, England Designs from Bolivia
Fig. 13 Llama hair based luxury products
fibers because the respective garments do not retain odours and can be cleaned
under moderate conditions. Low energy is consumed for the cleaning of llama
products and so has a low impact on the environment. No harm chemicals are used
for processing llama hair, and the hair can be made into yarns, fabrics, and garments
using traditional methods. A fashion product made from 100 % luxury hair fibre is
also naturally biodegradable and eliminates disposal problems. Luxury hair animals
graze native plants and yield organic fibres because they are a natural part of the
ecology of the region. Because llama hair fibre has natural colors such as white,
grey, reddish brown, brown, dark brown, and black, it may not require additional
dyeing (Altiplano 2015).
2.4.2 Alpaca Hair
Alpacas are native to the high Andes Mountain countries of Peru, Chile, and
Bolivia, and Peru is the major alpaca hair-producing country with 90 % of the world
trade; South America produces nearly 4055 tons of greasy alpaca hair annually
representing a 0.04 % share of world natural fiber production (Quispe et al. 2009)
(Fig. 14).
Eighty percent of alpaca hair is exported to fashion industries of China,
Germany, and Italy as raw fleece, and Peru earned approximately $50 million in
sales/year. Alpaca produces single-coated fleece; thus it does not require dehairing
process. There are two breeds of alpaca—called suri and huacaya—which produce
different hair. Their cross-breeds are also known as huarizo and misti. The huacaya
is the “teddy bear” alpaca, whose full coat presents a round and wooly appearance.
Huacaya fleece is crimped, very dense, and comes in eight basic colors: natural
white, natural light fawn, natural fawn, natural light grey, natural grey, natural rose
grey, natural dark brown, and black and most often come in five solid colors (The
British Alpaca Society 2015; Ammayappan and Moses 2005).
The Suri is the Alpaca hair resembling dreadlocks but without matted hair fibers.
Suri are very rare in the world and have extraordinary lustrous fiber, which makes
Fig. 14 Alpaca camelid
Alpaca Suri Alpaca Huacayo
this fleece more sought after and expensive. Suri is long and straight hair, and
Huacaya hair is short and curly hair. The annual production per animal is ranged
from 0.9 to 3.6 kg with a mean of 1.8 kg. Alpaca hair is highly medullated; the fiber
diameter ranges from 20 to 30 µm; and the staple hair length for Suri and Huacaya
ranges from 10 to 12 in. and 8 to 10 in., respectively. The tensile strength and the
elongation at break in Huacaya are greater than those in Suri. Alpaca hair has a
higher cystine content, especially in Suri. The chemical composition of Huacaya is
more closely related to wool, whereas Suri hair is more closely related to mohair.
The Suri variety is more affected due to its open fleece and straightness of the hair
(McColl et al. 2004).
Spinners are generally delighted with alpaca hair fleece because it comes in >22
different colors, which reduces the need to dye, which further protects and enhances
the resilience, softness, flexibility, and hypoallergenic qualities of the fiber. The
primary end use for alpaca hair is knitwear, but it is also goes into woven cloth for
clothing, accessories such as shawls and stoles, and rugs. Alpaca hair has been
blended with wool, cotton, and silk in knitwear and woven cloth as a means of
broadening its use. People often describe alpaca clothing as being finer than
cashmere, smoother than silk, softer than cotton, warmer than goose down, and
more “breathability” than thermal knitted products (McGregor 2006) (Fig. 15).
Alpaca hair is naturally water-repellent due to the presence of natural resin, which
makes it difficult to ignite. Huacaya hair has natural crimp, thus making a naturally
elastic yarn that is well-suited for knitting. Alpaca hair has less lanolin, and so it does
not require scouring before spinning. The Peruvian Society of Registered Alpaca
(SPAR) exports high-quality alpaca hair fiber to the Italian wool industry for making
high-quality garments. Alpaca hair is also utilized for outdoor sports clothing due to
its lighter weight and better insulation during cold weather (Alpaca Canada 2015).
Recently knitters have come to admire alpaca hair fiber due to its softness and the
quality of the yarns. In South America, it is sold in both dark and bright colours
suitable for garments, whereas in the UK market it is sold in wide range of natural
colours. Because this fiber comes in natural colours, it is very attractive to the fashion
industry as a sustainable and environmentally fiber. The consumption of products
made from this luxury hair fibre has increased in the European fashion market due to
its sustainable rearing. It is reported that alpacas are also more efficient than
Acrylic/alpaca Baby alpaca (100%) Alpaca/merino wool Crewneck made from

merino wool knitted poncho with (50/50 blend) throw by baby alpaca/wool/
(45/40/15 blend) fur trim of Alicia Woolme, Lithuania nylon (55/25/20 blend)
poncho by Alfredo Adams Alpaca, with ribbed trim of
Falcon, Peru USA Baltic, Peru
Baby alpaca/short Donegal weave Alpaca (100%) hand- Alpaca hair (100%)
silk (80/20 blend) suit of lambswool/ knitted wrap of Mayu, based woven scarf
scarf of Inis Meain, alpaca (65/35 blend) Peru by Alfredo Falcon,
Ireland by Magee of Ireland Peru
Fig. 15 Alpaca hair based luxury products
cashmere/pashmina goats, i.e., they drink less water than a goat and can yield four to
five time more hair than a goat in 1 year. An alpaca sweater costing $150–$200 and is
less likely to pill and is more durable than a sweater made of other luxury hair fibers,
which decreases the generation of textile waste each year (NRDC 2011).
2.4.3 Vicuna Hair
Vicuna hair is obtained from the vicuna, also known as the “bearer of the golden
fleece,” the smallest and most agile species of llama. vicuna yields the rarest and
finest fiber; in ancient times only royalty was allowed to wear this precious fiber.
The greasy fleece yield varies from 85 to 550 g with an average of 200 g/year. Peru
is the leading producer of vicuna fiber followed by Bolivia and Chile, and the
annual greasy hair production is approximately 5500–6000 kg (Quispe et al. 2009).
Vicuna fleece is mixed type containing approximately 10 % beard hair intermingled
with fine hair, and the clean yield is approximately 70 %. The hair fineness of hair
ranges from 13 to 14 µm, and the number of scales averages 10 (range 7–14)/
100 µm. Fine hair fibers <18 µm are nonmedullated and those ≤30 µm possess
interrupted to fragmented medullas. The fine fibers vary in length from 12 to 65 mm
Fig. 16 Vicuna camelid
(Quispe et al. 2010). Vicuna hair color ranges from red-brown to light tan to
yellow-red, and the fine hair has softness, luster, strength, and warmth without
weight, and it is highly desirable for fashion fabrics. Raw vicuña fleece can sell for
$200/pound (Fig. 16).
The tensile strength of vicuna hair is equal to that of cashmere hair, and its
chemical properties are similar to those of alpaca hair. Vicuna wool is finer than any
other wool and as such is softer, lighter, and warmer than any other wool. The fibers
of vicuna wool are so sensitive to chemical treatment that the wool is normally used
in its natural golden color. Because of the shorter fiber length, vicuna hair is usually
woolen spun, and the woolen yarns are woven into lightweight suiting, jackets,
overcoats, and scarves. It has been blended with fine wool and used for making
high-quality suiting. Vicuña hair is amazingly soft and has a natural cinnamon
shade. Garments, such as sport coats, made from vicuna hair costs $21,000 and are
marketed by Italian tailoring house Kiton; the high price is due to the fact that they
make only 100 pieces a year. Similarly, a vicuña hair scarf from Loro Piana costs
approximately $4000. Ermenegildo Zegna sold vicuna suits for $46,500 because
they produce only 30 vicuña suits/year (Coggines 2013). The Italian fashion outlet
Brioni sold fashion suits made from blend of vicuna, qiviuk, and pashmina that
fetched approximately $43,000/piece. It is reported that UK designer Alexander
Amosu has developed a Vanquish II Bespoke Suit, made from mixture of vicuna
and qiviuk wools, that sold for $103,000 (Esteban 2012) (Fig. 17).
Because vicuña is an endangered species, the hair is traded by shearing the hair
from a live vicuña at an officially authorized facility. Fashion industries carefully
examine the source of the fiber and follow government regulations to develop the
products for the sustainability of the fiber (Braaten 2015).
2.4.4 Guanaco Hair
Guanacos are the smallest camelids and roam in small herds in the High Andes.
Guanaco hair has recently been introduced as one a luxury hair fiber by the wool
sector, and the production is lower than that of vicuna hair. It is reported that from
Vicuna/qiviuk blend Handloom-woven Vicuña sport coat of Vicuña/baby

suit Vanquish II of men’s scarf made Ermenegildo Zegna, cashmere blend scarf
Alexander Amosu from natural dyed Italy (Coggins, 2012) of Loro Piana, Italy
vicuna hair (100%) (Coggins, 2012)
in Peru
Fig. 17 Vicuna hair based luxury products
South America, the greasy hair production is approximately 1500 kg (Quispe et al.
2009). The fleece is usually long and wooly, especially on the chest and thighs. The
fur is mainly a reddish-brown colour and usually white underneath the animal. Like
the llama, the guanaco is double-coated with coarse guard hair and a soft undercoat,
which is even more highly prized than that of the alpaca, although guanaco carry far
less of it. The colour varies very little, ranging from a light brown to dark cinnamon
and shading to white underneath. The fleece is very fine and silky and contains 10–
20 % beard hair and 50 % medullated fibers. Dehaired fleece that has a clean yield
is approximately 70 %. The fiber diameter ranges from 18 to 20 µm with 118
scales/mm, and its physical structure makes it much softer and more lustrous. The
fur of baby guanaco is famous for pelt, which resembles those of the almost
copper-coloured red fox. It is also blended with fine wool, silk, and cotton for
making high-quality fashion garments (Bas and González 2000; Anon 2011;
Cardellino and Mueller 2008; Apu Kuntur 2015) (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18 Adult guanaco

camelid
Guanaco fibre (100%) Guanaco fibre (100%) Guanaco/silk Hand-woven scarf

scarf of Guna, Peru stole of Guna, Peru (70%/30% blend) made from guanaco
scarf (Esgyrn fibre (100%)
Guanaco, 2015)
Fig. 19 Guanaco hair based luxury products
To sustain guanaco hair-based fashion products, the hair is often blended with
other fine hair fiber in order to reduce the cost and enhance the novelty of the final
products. Ultra-luxurious fabric, called “guanashina,” is used for making men’s
suit, and it is produced by France’s cloth maker Dormeuil. The name is the
amalgamation of guanaco (“guan”), baby cashmere (“ash”), and kid pashmina
(“ina”), and suits are priced at ≥$50,000 (Nicksbespoke 2015) (Fig. 19).
2.5 Rabbit Family
2.5.1 Angora Rabbit Hair
The hair of the angora rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has been used in the textile
industry since the nineteeth century. It is believed that French country women first
developed hand-knitted products from angora rabbit hair, and today it is in high
demand among an elite group of fashion consumers. Four angora breeds are used to
harvest hair: English angora, French angora, German angora, and Satin angora. The
annual production of angora rabbit hair is estimated at approximately 2500–3000
tons. China produces 90 % of the world trade, whereas Chile, the USA, and Eastern
Europe are also significant producers (Schlink and Liu 2003; Ammayappan 2014).
Angora rabbit hair has special characteristics such as excellent whiteness, superb
softness, lightness, and warmth. The staple length of angora rabbit hair varies from
25 to 55 mm; the fiber diameter varies from 11 to 20 µm; and the fiber medullation
ranges from 80 to 100 % (Fig. 20).
Due to the presence of a ladder-type medulla, products from angora rabbit hair
have good insulating properties. Angora rabbit hair poses a problem in spinning due
to its lesser scale height and medulla because they reduce interfiber cohesion.
During spinning, angora rabbit hair tends to slip out of the yarn and also sheds away
from the fabric (Perincek et al. 2008). It is primarily used for items such as
Fig. 20 Angora rabbit
sweaters, mittens, baby clothes, shawls, and millinery. Its chemical properties are
similar to those of wool and other keratin fibers. The tip end of the fiber has the
ability to curl, which encourages felting. It absorbs considerably less dye than wool
fiber because of the medulla and its fineness. Angora rabbits come in many colours
from pure white to peachy cream to black. To enhance its utilization, is the hair is
chemically modified at the fiber stage and blended with other natural fibers, such as
fine wool, cotton, and silk, for the development of knitted fabrics, shawls, and fancy
woven fabrics (Nida et al. 2009; Ammayappan et al. 2009; Raja et al. 2011).
There are five grades of angora rabbit hair, and first four grades are classified
based on their fiber length: grade one is 2–3 in. long, grade two is 1.5–2 in. long,
grade three is 1–1.5 in. long, and grade four is any length. These first four grades
must be white, clean, and without tangles or mats. Grade five is of any color and
can be soiled and matted or unmatted. Naturally colored angora rabbit hair is used
for mélange garments by small-scale manufacturers (Spalding and McLelland
1991) (Fig. 21).
Angora rabbit hair fibre is a by-product after the meat and fur. Angora rabbit hair
is famous for its utilization in sweaters for its soft and fuzzy clothing look as well as
warmth. It is reported that angora rabbit hair is plucked, and so rearing of angora
rabbits has been banned by animal rights organizations since 2013 (Alex 2011). As
a result, major retailers—such as Marks and Spencer, Top Shop, H&M, Primark,
and Next—have agreed to postpone the use of angora products. Now it is difficult to
Sam Edelman Scott Club Monaco Etsy
Fig. 21 Angora rabbit hair based luxury products from different brands
find angora rabbit hair sweaters. However to sustain angora rabbit hair-based
fashion products, it is common to find angora rabbit hair blended products sold by
famous fashion retailers such as Club Monaco (a mix of cotton, alpaca, cashmere,
and angora rabbit hair), Sam Edelman (64 % nylon/30 % angora/6 % wool), Scott’s
Sweaters ($325), and Etsy (45 % angora rabbit/36 % cotton/13 % lambswool/6 %
nylon) (Ang 2015; Etsy Inc 2015).
2.5.2 Hare Hair
A typical hare is larger than a rabbit and has longer ears with characteristic black
markings. The hair texture is woolly. Hare have short hairs compared with angora
rabbit hair. Their entire hair is pigmented from reddish brown to brown. Hare and
rabbit hairs can be distinguished by their respective felting and milling property. It
is largely used for making felts, hat making, and gloves, and for blending with other
fibers (Ammayappan and Moses 2005).
2.6 Bovine Family
2.6.1 Musk Ox Hair
Musk oxen (Ovibos moschatus) are similar to yaks, but they live in the Arctic
tundra. The musk ox is an Arctic mammal of the family Bovidae noted for its thick
coat and for the strong odor emitted during the seasonal rut by males. Musk oxen
primarily live in the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, Sweden, Siberia, Norway,
and Alaska (Fig. 22).
Musk ox hair and products are commonly sold under the Eskimo name “qiviut”
(pronounced kiv-ee-ute). Each animal produces approximately 1.5 kg of down hair,
of which perhaps 60 % is recoverable by conventional dehairing. Fine hair of the
musk ox is sold under the name of qiviut, and it has average fiber diameter of
15.2 µm and a fiber range of 17–22 µm without medullation. It is comparatively
Fig. 22 Musk oxen

100% Qiviut hand- cashmere/qiviut Cashmere/qiviut 100% Qiviut blanket

woven scarf of (50/50 blend) hand- (50/50 blend) hand- of Qiveut Designs,
Treadlers, USA woven scarf of knitted wrist USA
Treadlers, USA warmers of
Vancouver, Canada
Fig. 23 Qiviut hair based luxury products
smooth with low crimp, and the fiber length is 40–70 mm (Rowell et al. 2001).
Scoured and dehaired hair is light brown to chocolate brown in colour. qiviut, the
downy soft under-wool from the Arctic musk ox, is shed naturally each year during
the spring months. Native Alaskan women from remote coastal villages of Alaska
knit items by hand. Each village has a signature pattern derived from the traditional
aspects of village life and the Eskimo culture. The caps and scarves made by the
knitters are as comfortable to wear on cool days in a warm climate as they are in
chilly weather. Qiviut is most commonly used for hats and scarves and a
high-quality knitted scarf can cost >$300 USD. Qiviut hair yarn is eight times
warmer than wool, is softer and more valuable than cashmere, and is mainly used
by knitters and weavers (Arctic Qiviut 2015; Rowell et al. 2001) (Fig. 23).
Undercoat qiviut hair is smooth compared with fine wool and does not shrink in
hot water, i.e., it does not felt. Qiviut clothing may be cleaned by hand washing
gently in warm water, and is believed that qiviut is a sustainable fashion products.
In Alaska, Musk Ox Producers’ Co-Op helped to procure and develop products
such as 100 % qiviut hair and qiviut/silk (80/20 blend) scarves, stoles, head band
smokerings (Nachaq), tunics, and baby caps by traditional hand spinning and
knitting in the trade name “Oomingmak.” This supply chain gives supplemental
income and helps sustain the local farmers’ community (Oomingmak 2015).
2.6.2 Bison Hair
Bison are molting animals that shed their coats in the spring of each year. Native
Americans have used this luxury hair for rope and as stuffing for insulation. They
harvested 4–5 tons of greasy hair worth of $600 USD/kg. Bison hair fleece is made
up of course guard hairs and fine downy hairs. The guard hairs are hollow and range
from 21 to 110 qiviut in diameter with an average 59.0 qiviut. The fine downy hairs
are solid and are covered with fine scales (Fig. 24).
Downy fibers range in diameter from 12 to 29 qiviut. The fiber diameter of
downy bison fiber is similar to that of fine- and medium-grade sheep’s wool. The
moisture regain of bison hair ranges from 15 to 30 %, a property that is helpful to
Fig. 24 Adult bison
absorb away from the skin quickly. United by Blue, an outdoor goods company,
developed socks from a blend of bison hair and merino wool, which is sturdy yarn,
and they found that the products are ultra soft, temperature regulating,
hypo-allergenic, and antimicrobial, and are easy to care for. They are used in
making felts and blankets (Kailus 2014; McGregor 2012) (Fig. 25).
2.6.3 Yak Hair
The yak (Bos [poephagus] grunniens) is related to the bison and is a bovine. They
live in the high Tibetan Plateau where they are often domesticated and used as
transport animals. Yak hair is regarded by some as being an acceptable alternative
to cashmere. China is the leading producer followed by Mongolia, Russia, India,
and Nepal. Yak coats are black and consist of long coarse hairs and an undercoat of
quite soft, silky wool, which is available in the form of dehaired combed tops. The
outer coat resists wind, snow, and rain, and the inner fine hair fiber maintains
warmth and provides insulation. The annual yield per animal is an average of 100 g.
The hair is ≤50 mm in length and of 15- to 17-µm fineness in young animals and
18- to 19-µm fineness in adult animals. The colour of yak hair varies and depends
on the breed. The interesting shades of yak hair are red, white, black, and blackish
Bison/merino (50/50 blend) Bison down/silk (50/50 Merino wool/bison

cable-knit scarf of The blend) scarf of The down/nylon/spandex
Buffalo Wool Co, USA Buffalo Wool Co, USA (56/24/18/2 blend) socks of
United by Blue, USA
Fig. 25 Bison hair based luxury products

Fig. 26 Yak hair
Aduly Yak Hand spun of yarn from 100% Fine

Yak hair
brown. Coarse hair has a narrow medulla, and fine hair has no medulla. The outer
guard hair of the yak fleece is the longer, coarser, and stronger, and it is mainly used
locally for floor covering in huts and for mats. Strong ropes are made from the tail
hair and felted fabrics from the down hair (Watson 2010; Pokharna 2003; Anon
2014) (Fig. 26).
Fine yak hair is blended with cashmere hair for making fashion shawls and
scarves by German fashion brand “edelziege.” In the mid-twentieth century,
designers from Lyle and Scott introduced yak hair followed by French luxury brand
Louis Vuitton, who produced a yak hair-based cape-cum-neck cushion. Later on
suiting made from a blend of yak hair and merino wool was introduced by Dunhill,
Eileen Fisher, and Vince. The fashion industry, for different luxury hair fibers, takes
care about the sustainability of their manufacturing and supply chain of each
product. Because luxury hair fibers are costlier and rare, much of the fashion
industry prefers either alpaca or cashmere for making high-quality products. Some
designers prefer some alternative sustainable natural fibers for the fashion industry.
Paola Vanzo, the founder of Myak, introduced a woven stole made of 100 % baby
yak wool, a textured cable-stitch scarf with rib finish at the bottom, and different
fashion knit products (Vingan 2015; Myak 2014). Paola Vanzo also co-operated
with nomads in the Himalayan region for the direct procurement of baby yak hair,
which helps to sustain farmers by paying suitable remuneration. Exploring yak hair
as an alternative to cashmere hair/alpaca hair creates a steady wage for and
improves the living standards of farmers, particularly nomadic herders, who are
world’s poorest inhabitants as well farmers of sustainable hair-producing animals
(Fig. 27).
Fig. 27 Yak hair based luxury products (Vingan 2015; Myak 2014)
2.6.4 Cow Hair
The United States is probably the largest consumer of pulled cow hair. A cow’s hair
coat is made up of outside hair and inside down fiber. The hair fiber varies widely in
diameter. The average diameter for carpet grade is 36 µm. The fiber length varies
from 12 to 50 mm. The number of scales is 12/100 µm. The fibers are medullated
and are relatively narrow and unbroken. Cow hair, although harsh and coarse, can
be made up into blankets, felts, mattresses, and carpets, but it should first be mixed
with other fibers (Ammayappan and Moses 2005).
2.7 Other Hair Fibers
2.7.1 Reindeer Hair
Reindeer hair is obtained either by shearing or is a by-product from the fur of

reindeer found in polar regions. Its fleece has coarse outer guard hairs and fine
under hairs. Its fiber diameter varies from 20 to 30 µm; the hair length varies from
20 to 50 mm; and the colour ranges from white to brownish. It is mainly used as a
stuffing fiber for toys and sports materials and is used to give special appearance in
its blend with fine wool (Koztowski 2012).
2.7.2 Horse Hair
Horse hair is obtained from the tail of the horse (60- to 80-cm length and 80- to
400-µm fineness) as well as the mane (25- to 45-cm length and 50- to 200-µm
fineness). Horse tail hair can be sorted into black, white, grey, brown, and mixed
according to natural colors. Horse tail hair can be divided into 11 sizes according to
length. Clothes made with horse tail hair lining cloth are stiff, beautiful, durable,
and lasting and keep their shape. The average fiber diameter ranges from 75 to
280 µm. It is used mainly for making interlining for men’s jacket, violin bows, and
industrial and domestic brushes (Fig. 28).
Horse hair Horse hair bracelets Horse hair pendant Horse hair stuffed
mattress
Fig. 28 Luxury/fashion products made from horse hair

Horse hair is also used for making seat covers for top-grade sofas and car seat
covers, superior handbags, and all sorts of cases and bags. It is generally smooth,
stiff, well-ventilated, washable, and resists wear. Horse hair cotton union fabric is
usually used as interlining or stiffening for tailored garments and millinery. This
type of fabric was made into shirts worn by religious penitents and later became a
popular upholstery material in the nineteenth century. By the end of the nineteenth
century, horsehair was used as covering for parlour sofas (Abdurrahman 2014). It is
now widely used in the manufacturing of top-grade sofas, car seat covers, and
superior handbags. Argentina, Canada, Mongolia, China, and Australia are the main
exporters of horse hair for the textile industry.
2.7.3 Chiengora Hair
Chiengora is the yarn developed from dog hair. “Chien” is French for dog and
“gora” comes from “angora,” the fiber that dog hair most closely resembles.
Chiengora is mainly used for hats, mittens, and sweaters. These products are soft
and fluffy like angora; they are incredibly warm; and they shed water well.
Garments made of this hair have been worn proudly by the rich and famous for
generations. Chiengora yarns are also used in hand knitting, machine knitting,
crocheting, and even as weft yarns by hand weavers (Greer 2003).
3 Conclusion
Natural fibers provide employment to 4 % of the world’s population particularly for

the farmers, the growers, and the industry; similarly luxury hair fibers provide
employment for farmers who live under extreme conditions for whom this income
mitigates poverty. Business and fashion sector people wear clothes made of luxury
hair fibers, which is a status symbol in their society; synthetic fibers do not offer the
same effect (Fig. 29).
Due to their decline in the production, the sustainability of luxury hair fiber is the
need of the hour because luxury hair fibers are source of “high-class” status and
fashion clothing. This sector is in a position to procure the hair fibres required to
maintain their societal status. Sustaining the harvesting of luxury hair fiber can also
add more employment and enhance the economic activity of the country. The
greatest threat to the sustainability of the luxury hair fiber sector is the extinction of
hair-producing animals (Fletcher 2008; Gardetti and Muthu 2016).
Luxury hair fibers have a discriminate position in the textile clothing sector;
however, it competes with other fibers even they are costly. Imitators sell fake
products by mislabeling their products as luxury hair. Such fake products are sold at
a low price, and consumers buy these products without knowing their real value.
Thus, the grower of luxury hair fiber, i.e., the farmer community, is not remuner-
ated. Fashioner prefer to spend their money as worth as possible, and they also want
100% Nepal Pashmina product 100% Kashmir Pashmina 100% Mohair hair product
(Go International Project, product (Livemint, 2015) (Mohair South Africa,
2015) 2015)
100% Baby Alpaca hair 70% Alpaca hair blended Luxury brand Kinross
product (Bri Cain, 2014) product (Bri Cain, 2014) cashmere products of
Mongolian Pure Cashmere Product from 100% Alpaca 100% cashgora hair from
(ipaustralia.com.au, 2015) from Australia New Zealand
(LegalForce,2015)
Fig. 29 Different trademark for fashion products developed from 100 % luxury hair fiber
quality products. To sustain the luxury hair fiber sector, this is the right time to
create appropriate policies for reforming the marketing of pure products, identify
cost-effective technologies for value addition, and develop diversified clothing from
such fibres. These strategies can improve the economic status of growers. Some
possible ways to sustain luxury hair fiber are given below.
1. All luxury hair fibers are costly, and therefore 100 % pure luxury hair products
are not affordable by common people. It is better to develop diversified or
novelty products by blending them with other natural fibers such as fine wool
fiber. This can reduce the cost of products and increase the consumption of
luxury hair fibers over a shorter duration. This can enhance awareness of and
demand for luxury hair fiber (Ammayappan et al. 2009).
2. Luxury hair fibers are soft fibres, and processors are not preferred to provide
advanced finishing such as nano and aroma finishing. Advanced finishing can be
standardized, and such value addition can be used to increase the demand for
luxury hair fiber products.
3. Each luxury hair fiber is geo-specific, and each region should create suitable
rules and regulations to identify and explore pure luxury hair fiber products in
the markets by providing a unique label such as Woolmark. This can reduce the
adulteration of other wool products in the market.
4. Spinning and weaving of luxury hair fiber is traditional and manual work.
Suitable technology intervention is required to reduce the processing time by
modifying conventional spinning and weaving either for semi-automation or to
reduce wear and tear in the development of quality products.
5. Sustainable rearing of luxury hair producing animals also mainly depends on the
support of the local farmers’ community because they live and share natural
resources with animals. It is vital to involve the local farmers’ community in the
management of natural resources, in order to make it available to the animals
when needed, with the help necessary infrastructural and financial support from
the government and technical expertise from nongovernment organizations
(Namgail et al. 2010).
6. Luxury fiber-producing animals are reared under extreme weather conditions,
and so they are limited in population and their hair high in price. This situation
lends to poaching, whereby poachers illegally procure and trade fiber as well
duplicate products in the market. To sustain the animal population, the fol-
lowing steps must be implemented at the farmers’ location (Brent 2013).
(a) Organize a community-breeding structure to increase the animal population
(b) Train women ed to spin perfect yarn on advanced spinning and weaving
systems for qualitative and quantitative production
(c) Convey awareness of natural dyes and their market potential through
workshops
(d) Organize craft persons in a effective co-operative mode
(e) Train the weavers per the market needs
(f) Implement a micro-loan system so product developers can purchase fiber
(g) Establish a direct supply chain to exporters to obtain their products.
Luxury hair-based products still dominate the market and must meet the
requirements of customers, particularly for specific end uses. Diversified products,
innovative value addition, and proper labeling could improve the demand for luxury
hair products, which will ultimately enhance the economic status of growers
involved in harvesting luxury hair fiber.
Fig. 30 Fashion triangle
4 Conclusive Remarks
Consumption pattern of fashion clothing is similar to a triangle, in which the volu-

minous lower portion indicates regular clothing with less quality/design/
comfort/price in high quantity; middle portion occupies with the fast-fashion indus-
try with semi-durable quality/comfort in moderate price; the tiny-top rules by high
quality design and costliest luxury brands as mentioned in the Fig. 30. Fast-fashion
companies target middle class families and they are marketing in high quantity with
moderate quality clothing and it generally leads to mechanical dumping of used
clothing. It is reported that fashion and textiles industry is the second most polluting
industry in the world after oil industry.
There are nearly 8,000 different chemicals are used in dyeing and finishing
process to make single fashion apparel under fast-fashion products. Mechanical
dumping of used clothing can pollute the environment and pose many ecological
problems and now many fast-fashion industries switched towards the
quality-fashion companies with sustainable focus. It is also called as ‘slow fashion’
i.e. clothing manufactured under safe labour conditions, skilled manpower, sus-
tainable materials, eco-friendly processing with satisfaction of both ethical and
aesthetic desires. However luxury hair based fashion industry sells resource-
dependent and costliest products, which increases their need to sustain. Being
craftsmanship involved in the production, luxury fashion industry promote spe-
cialized skills and train employees to enhance and sustain their skills. Luxury
fashion industry is less anxious about cost reduction and enhancing the value of the
final product by novelty design. To keep their market values, they spot themselves
as green brands by labeling like “Mohair Mark”. They can redefine the concept of
quality by taking all environmental friendly steps i.e, most of the luxury fashion
brands follow eco-packaging, eco-friendly raw materials, sustainable processing
with lower water and energy consumption as well as supporting various environ-
mental initiatives (Joy 2013).
To sustain the production of luxury hair fiber, it is necessary to standardize the
supply chain of the luxury hair based fashion clothing by implementing sustainable
harvesting, environmental free processing, high skilled crafting, quality assurance
by eco-labeling and eco-friendly technologies in every step. Sustaining can be
implemented by taking responsibility of each person’s starting from farmer to
consumer. Such sustainability make the luxury hair fiber can also give a chance for
its utilization for our future generation.
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Mainstreaming of Sustainable Cotton
in the German Clothing Industry
Erik G. Hansen and Stefan Schaltegger
Abstract This chapter analyses the sustainability-oriented transformation of

clothing industries. Although sustainability pioneers introduce new products in
niche markets, incumbents advance them into the mass market. Together this can
lead to the transformation of industries, markets, and consumer habits. We examine
the German clothing retail industry with a focus on organic cotton and related
sustainable fibres. The analysis covers some of the largest German textile retailers.
Data collection is based on publicly available sources. We find that in the late
1970s, Hess Natur pioneered organic cotton practices and supported the develop-
ment of sustainability standards in the clothing industry. Although in the beginning
this was largely a phenomenon in niche markets, some of the organic practices have
now diffused amongst mainstream retailers. This is counterintuitive because pre-
vious theory suggests that incumbents only adopt practices with significantly lower
sustainability standards than do niche companies. The findings can support man-
agers to better understand their organization’s role in the transformation of indus-
tries and markets toward sustainability, and—vice versa—understand how the
transformation may affect them. Leading the transformation challenge by adopting
organic and other sustainable supply chain practices can be an important measure
for market success.

Keywords Sustainability-oriented innovation Corporate sustainability CSR

Organic cotton Integrated production Certification Environmental quality

standards Eco labels Transformation Textile industry Clothing industry
Supply chain
E.G. Hansen (&)

Institute for Integrated Quality Design (IQD), Johannes Kepler University (JKU) Linz,
Altenberger Str. 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
S. Schaltegger
Centre for Sustainability Management (CSM), Leuphana University Lüneburg,
Scharnhorststr. 1, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_2
40 E.G. Hansen and S. Schaltegger
1 Introduction
The key idea of a sustainable economy is the lasting, world-wide guarantee of

individual opportunities to secure basic needs as well as attain a greater quality of
life while at the same time preserving nature and promoting humane social rela-
tionships (cf. for example WCED 1987). Changed and changing markets and legal,
political, and social conditions challenge companies to take greater account of
sustainability. The degree of sustainability-oriented industry transformation varies
from one country to the next; however, it is always influenced or even shaped by
changes made within and by corporations. In this context, corporate sustainability
does not mean a (superficial) “repair” or “correction” of corporate activities but
rather making deep changes, i.e., making sustainability principles an integral ele-
ment of corporate value creation by knowing that engagement is most credible
when it is comprehensive and lasting and contributes not only to social and eco-
logical development but also to corporate success.
Industry transformation toward sustainability in the textile and clothing indus-
tries has been studied in the literature from diverse perspectives (e.g. Illge and
Preuss 2012; Villiger et al. 2000). Here we focus on an illustrative examination with
a focus on the diffusion of organic cotton through incumbent clothing retailers. The
change from conventional cotton to organic and other more sustainable forms of
cotton indeed represents a strategic innovation to incumbent retailers because they
must (a) develop the sustainability consciousness and purchasing patterns of con-
sumers or enter new consumer segments; (b) build up new competencies in
managing the upstream supply chain (i.e., cotton cultivation); and (c) create or
engage in co-operations to increase the cultivation of more sustainable cotton.
The chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 gives an overview of sustain-
ability issues and the important aspects of sustainability management in the clothing
industry. Section 3 presents the case study method. Section 4 presents the findings
of the illustrative case study in the clothing industry. Finally, Sect. 5 discusses the
findings.
2 Sustainability Challenges and Developments

in the German Clothing Industry
2.1 Overview of Industry
Clothing is a basic human need and the textile and clothing industry (in the fol-
lowing text simply “clothing industry”) delivers goods in response to this demand.
At the same time, the clothing industry is subject to severe ecological and social
problems in most of the phases of the supply chain spanning from fibre production,
spinning, fabric production and dyeing/finishing to clothing production (cf.
Goldbach et al. 2003). During the last few decades, the clothing industry has faced
Mainstreaming of Sustainable Cotton in the German … 41
price pressure exacerbating its efforts to become more sustainable. The pursuit of a
comparative cost advantage has led to the outsourcing of much of European and US
clothing production to emerging and developing countries in Asia. This covers most
of the value chain. The value creation remaining in Western countries is mostly
limited to value-added services such as design and overall brand management
(exceptions are some new entrepreneurial firms experimenting with new business
models based on local production; e.g., Plieth et al. 2012). This relocation of
value-chain activities to low-wage countries has increased the sustainability chal-
lenges because it becomes ever more difficult to manage or even oversee labour and
ecological practices at supplier sites in these supply chains (Harms et al. 2013).
More generally, taking a product innovation perspective, sustainability improve-
ments can occur across all life-cycle phases (Hansen et al. 2009). In the clothing
industry this has led to a plethora of standards, certification systems, and labels
covering different parts of the value chain (see Fig. 1). These approaches aim, for
example, at better inputs (particularly fibres), the control of production regarding
various chemicals and other risky substances (threatening the natural environment and
the health of workers and other stakeholders), the extension of product lifespans, or
closing the loops at the product's end-of-life (either by reusing/repairing/recycling or,
in case of biodegradable products, by reintroducing them into the biological meta-
bolism). In this chapter, we focus on the sustainability at the beginning of the value
chain, i.e., the provision and use of fibres. While the improvements of fibre production
is predominantly perceived as an environmental measure, it is in fact also linked to
Fibre Fabric Textile Product use End-of-life

production production production
Only ecologic
Only social
Fig. 1 Ecological and social quality standards, certification systems, and labels covering different
life-cycle phases in the textile industry (Hansen and Schaltegger 2013, p. 586)
both direct social effects (i.e. health of farmers and of nearby communities) and
indirect social effects (i.e. consumers' health).
The textile and clothing industry uses various natural and man-made fibres—
such as cotton, wool, polyester, and nylon—which all have advantages and dis-
advantages regarding environmental impact (Chouinard and Brown 1997; see also
the detailed classification of fibres in Sanches et al. 2015, p. 694). Still, cotton is the
main natural fibre used in the clothing industry globally accounting for 38 % of the
world’s textile consumption (DU 2009b; Sanches et al. 2015).
2.2 Sustainability Challenges Associated with Cotton
Cotton fibre production is a sustainability “hot spot” in textile production (Gminder

2006, p. 126; Villiger et al. 2000, p.159) both concerning the general characteristics
of the fibre (e.g., land use, water footprint) as well as the specific cultivation
practices used in today’s widely spread intensive agro-industrial farming (e.g.,
pesticide use). Overall cotton production is linked to many challenges to sustain-
ability (e.g., DU 2009b; Gminder 2006; Goldbach et al. 2003; Illge and Preuss
2012) covering “degraded land as a result of salinisation and erosion; water
depletion by excessive use of soil and surface water; natural habitat conversion due
to cutting of forests and dam constructions; eutrophication of surface water; wildlife
contamination by pesticides (insects, fish, mammals, birds); and human health due
to direct pesticide intake primarily by farm worker (Kooistra and Termorshuizen
2006, p. 33).” Excessive land use is also linked to displacement of the local or
indigenous population.
The major issues of cotton cultivation are usually considered to be land and
water use on the one hand and synthetic pesticide use and related toxic effects on
humans, other species, and the natural environment on the other. Conventional
cotton production uses very large quantities of synthetic pesticides and chemical
fertilizer, which not only contaminate soil and water and decrease biodiversity but
also have significant health impacts on farmers and local inhabitants, particularly in
developing countries where usually the most toxic pesticides are applied without
proper protection of workers. Due to residues, this can even affect consumers (e.g.,
those with allergic reactions). Approximately 10–16 % of worldwide pesticides and
25 % of insecticides are used on conventional cotton production while this covers
only 2–4 % of the global agricultural land (Gminder 2006; Sanches et al. 2015).
With the aim of solving some of these problems, genetically modified plants have
been on the rise; however, this is with severe negative side effects such as loss of
farmer rights to collect their own seeds (due to patents), heavy dependence on
(sometimes monopolistic) seed firms, increased cost of seeds, and negative impact
on alternative crops and wild plant populations (e.g., cross-pollination) (DU 2009b;
Gminder 2006). The price pressure on raw materials and particularly fibres has
further intensified agricultural production systems and their negative environmental
impacts (Goldbach et al. 2003).
2.3 General Approaches for Improved Sustainability

of Fibres
Two groups of alternatives to conventional cotton can be distinguished: alternative

farming systems for cotton can be pursued or alternative fibres can be sought.
2.3.1 Improving Sustainability of Cotton
A first set of options for sustainability-oriented improvement is to look at alternative

farming systems such as integrated or organic production:
• Integrated production of natural fibres. Integrated production or integrated pest
management (IPM) aims at the provision of a more sustainable production
system for natural fibres. The integrated production system (IOBC/WPRS 2004)
is an efficiency approach and deals with the reduction of environmental impacts
by using less pesticides and fungicides, chemical fertilizers, and water, and this
was already called for in the Brundtland Report (WCED 1987, p. 67). We will
use the term “improved cotton (IC)” in the remainder of the chapter to refer to
this type of ecological (and partly social) improved cotton. Integrated produc-
tion, including improved cotton, is often criticised for unclear standards and
missing certification systems, which leave too much room for uncertainty.
However, certification standards such as Cotton Made in Africa (AbTF 2012) or
initiatives such as the Better Cotton Initiative (BCI 2009) are exemplary certi-
fication systems promoting the idea of improved cotton. Some researchers and
practitioners also see genetically modified fibres as a solution to excess pesticide
use and thus as a contribution to sustainability. However, against the back-
ground of lack of knowledge of long-term effectiveness as well as the many
ecological, social, and ethical risks associated with the new technology, we
emphasize the precautionary principle and question the instrumentality of
genetic engineered plants for sustainability until the doubts are reasonably
resolved (Makoni and Mohamed-Katerere 2006).1 This debate is also reflected
1
The most prominent GMO fibre is Monsanto’s “Bt Cotton” plant which incorporates genes of the
bacterium “Bacillus thuringiensis” for the production of a biological insecticide and thus makes
the plant resistant to some insects at least in the short term. The introduction of GMO cotton in
major production countries, such as the US, China, and India, has often resulted in yield increase
and decreased pesticide use (e.g., Krishna and Qaim 2012) and is thus promoted by biotech
proponents as a solution to sustainable development. The effectiveness, however, has been
questioned as being far from fact because the technology depends on local circumstances (Qaim
et al. 2006) and seems to erode over the long-term due to secondary pests (Wang et al. 2008; Zhao
et al. 2011) or pesticide resistance (Tabashnik et al. 2012). However, others criticise the tech-
nology not for their (in)effectiveness but for their non-technical risks, both ethical and social (Hahn
2012). Overall, the potential benefits of GMO plants are controversially discussed and are linked to
overstated benefits, missing evidence on long-term effects, narrow assessment of risks based on
simplified cost-benefit analysis excluding many ethical, social and other aspects, and last but not
in the assessment criteria of the various cotton initiatives: the Better Cotton
Initiative is “technically neutral” and allows GMO cotton (BCI 2009), whereas
Cotton Made in Africa bans it (AbTF 2012).
• Organic fibres. In contrast to the integrated production system, the organic
production system is a consistency approach (Huber 2000; Schaltegger and
Burritt 2005) because it aims at producing cotton with material flow systems in
harmony with the natural environment. This is achieved by crop rotation and the
use of natural fertilizer (usually from animal husbandry) and natural pesticides,
thus it represents a circular economy in the agricultural sector. Chemical (also
called synthetic) pesticides and fertilizers are banned. Based on comparative
life-cycle analysis between organic and conventional crops (including cotton),
organic produce is sometimes considered less environmentally friendly because
the environmental benefits related to the organic practices are said to be over-
compensated by lower yields leading to the assumption that “organic production
is not necessarily any more or any less environmentally friendly than current
conventional cotton production” (Wakelyn and Chaudhry 2009). However, this
type of LCA study—due to the necessary system boundaries—usually does not
consider all of the direct and indirect effects, e.g., the human‒
toxicological/biodiversity effects of pesticide use and other indirect effects of
conventional industrial agriculture. In addition, the water footprint is often not
fully considered in LCA studies (Kooistra and Termorshuizen 2006, p. 34).
Moreover, while it is commonly accepted that the heavy use of fertilizers and
pesticides in conventional agricultural practices usually leads to higher pro-
ductivity (i.e. yield increases), it is often neglected that organic agricultural
practices can also do so, at least in specific contexts (e.g., Gminder 2006, p. 127;
Hess Natur 2009). Particularly in developing nations, the potential for yield
increases with organic (Badgley et al. 2007). Although the organic system does
not incorporate any regulation regarding water use, organic cotton farms are
predominantly (60 %) rainfed and therefore much less prone to water depletion
(Kooistra and Termorshuizen 2006, p. 34). Although organic cotton production
is more cost-intensive due to a higher demand for manual labour (which leads to
higher employment levels in developing nations and therefore represents a
desirable social effect), this is usually financially offset or even overcompensated
with price premiums for (certified) organic cotton. In the last decade, organic
cotton has become an important trend in the clothing industry, particularly in
Europe and the US (Willer and Kilcher 2011; Memon 2012). Organic cotton
production has experienced strong growth in the past, and although it experi-
enced a steep decrease in 2011/12 (a major problem, beside others, is the
provision of organic seeds due to pollution by genetically modified cotton),
(Footnote 1 continued)
least, unethical marketing practices of biotech companies (e.g., Makoni and Mohamed-Katerere
2006). Considering the lack of scientific knowledge on the long-term impacts and risks of GMO,
the precautionary principle should apply (Makoni & Mohamed-Katerere 2006; Zhao et al. 2011).
future growth is forecasted (TextileExchange 2012). Still, organic cotton

accounts for only approximately 1 % of worldwide cotton production (Pay
2009). Two main certification systems for organic cotton exist internationally:
the Organic Exchange standard (OE 100; OE Blended) only controls for the
organic content, whereas the “IVN certified BEST” and Global Organic Textile
Standard (GOTS) additionally define ecological and social criteria for the entire
textile supply chain (IVN-certified BEST is considered the most ecological
stringent standard in the industry; although it is derived from the latter, the
related GOTS standard relaxes some of the criteria). Moreover, a huge number
of company-specific labelling approaches exist, which may be used in addition
to or in replacement of independent certification (DU 2009a).
In summary, the three cotton-farming systems can be compared regarding their
environmental impacts (Table 1). In general, the challenges of heavy land and water
use do not differ much between the various farming systems, however, in practice
organic farms mostly provide for a better water footprint because the majority of
farms are rainfed. The major differentiator in the farming systems is the use of
pesticide and chemical fertilizer, which is banned in the organic farm system,
therefore eliminating toxic effects on humans, other species, and the natural envi-
ronment. At the same time, organic cotton is often linked to a decrease in pro-
ductivity per hectare (yield) depending on locality. However, over the long term,
organic agriculture can maintain productivity over infinite time periods, whereas
conventional intensive agriculture is subject to soil degradation and a decrease in
productivity in the long term.
Table 1 Characteristics of organic, integrated, and conventional cotton-farming systems (based

on Kooistra and Termorshuizen 2006, p. 32)
Organic Integrated Conventional
production
Synthetic/organic fertiliser use Organic Synthetic/organic Synthetic/organic
Synthetic/natural pesticide use Natural Synthetic/natural Synthetic/natural
Irrigation water use Yes (but often Yes Yes
rainfed)
Average yields Rel. low Rel. high Variable
(depending on
locality)
Soil degradation Low Medium High
Monocultivation/mixed-cropping Mono/mixed Mono/mixed Mono/mixed
systems
Continuous cultivation No No/yes No/yes
Land-clearing allowed Yes Yes Yes
Burning organic material (weeds, No Yes Yes
plants, etc.)
Mechanised labour Yes Yes Yes
Share of world production (%) 1 20 79
2.3.2 Alternatives to Cotton Fibres
A second set of options covers alternative fibres, both natural and man-made, as
well as recycled fibres:
• Switch to alternative natural fibres. One approach is to switch to alternative
natural fibres such as hemp or flax. Compared with cotton, hemp has much
lower environmental impacts because it requires almost no pesticides as well as
only a modest amount of fertilizer (van der Werf 2004) and has much higher
productivity levels per unit of land (Cherrett et al. 2005). Indeed, an LCA
analysis showed that organically grown hemp is much more environmentally
friendly than cotton (and polyester) (Cherrett et al. 2005). At the same time,
however, hemp is very much constrained regarding its diffusion in the clothing
industry because its fibre characteristics make textile production more difficult
and less appealing to consumers (Cherrett et al. 2005).
• Replacement of natural fibres with man-made fibres. Cotton can also be
replaced by manufactured (man-made) fibres. An increasing share of clothing
uses synthetic fabrics such as polyester (Shishoo 2007) which are also high-
lighted due to their durability. However, petrochemical-based (nonrenewable)
materials cause many environmental and health problems in all phases of the
product life-cycle and thus do not necessarily represent a more sustainable
alternative to clothing made from conventional cotton. A long overlooked fact is
that the use of synthetic materials in consumables such as clothes, shoes, tires
etc. leads to abrasion and, hence, leakage of non-biodegradable plastic particles
into the natural environment ultimately harming natural systems and species
(including humans) living therein (EMF 2016). It is for this reason that con-
sumables should be designed in harmony with the biological metabolism
(Braungart et al. 2007). A more promising alternative might be the substitution
of natural fibres with man-made fibres from renewable sources such as lyocell
fibres based on cellulose (Shishoo 2007; TextileExchange 2011), “qmilch”
based on milk proteins (Schölch 2013), or soybean protein fiber (Sanches et al.
2015). However, these fibres are currently representing only small niches in the
clothing industry, and their diffusion still needs to be proven.
• Use of recycled fibres. A further approach is the use of recycled fibres. Cotton
recycling is so far rarely used with one exceptions being H&M, which intends to
increase the use of recycled fibres of both cotton and polyester; however,
detailed information is given only on polyester (H&M 2011). Overall, polyester
occupies the lion’s share of recycled fibres, and cotton recycling is only slowly
gaining more attention (TextileExchange 2011). Certification systems are
increasingly available to guarantee recycled contents in the finished good, e.g.,
the Global Recycling Standard (GRS). However, the contribution of recycling to
increase the industry’s sustainability is often overstated. In fact, recycling is
mostly “downcycling” (Braungart et al. 2007), i.e., collected materials (e.g.,
from plastic bottles) are of lower value and are not used for the same purpose
again (i.e., plastic bottle) but for “more forgiving purposes” (e.g., carpets). Also,
products with recycled contents can often not be recycled again because of the
mix of different plastics. The diverse and sometimes unspecified sources of the
recycled content can also lead to a new problem: lower or uncertain
human-toxicological characteristics—or “material health” (Braungart et al.
2007)—of the recycled fabric. Some may even consider the term “plastic
recycling” to be misleading because the diffusion of recycled plastics in industry
applications also cements the demand for virgin plastic and thus further stabi-
lizes the existing (plastics) regime (e.g., Geels 2002).
Although all of the presented approaches can play a role in advancing sustain-
ability, natural fibres—particularly cotton—are considered to be the most popular
fibres with overall very good fibre characteristics regarding their use in clothing
(DU 2009b). It is thus unlikely that cotton will be generally replaced at least in the
near future. It is thus of major importance to consider sustainability strategies for
cotton, which is the topic of this chapter. Although we have introduced other
improvement approaches, it is not the aim of the chapter to compare the sustain-
ability of cotton versus noncotton fibres.
Given the chosen focus on cotton, we have explained organic and improved
cotton strategies as alternatives that are linked to organic production and integrated
production systems, respectively. As an umbrella category, practitioners and
researchers often refer to them as “sustainable cotton” (e.g., Goldbach et al. 2003;
H&M 2011; Illge and Preuss 2012) although, to be more precise, it should be called
“more sustainable cotton” (or “less unsustainable cotton”). Although we focus on
organic cotton in this chapter, empirically (as we will see later in the text) the two
approaches are closely interrelated, and thus it is not always practicable to deal with
the two production systems in a separate manner (it should also be mentioned that
organic and improved cotton often simultaneously lead to social benefits, such as
eliminated health threats of pesticides, higher incomes of farmers due to price
premiums, and better working conditions in production due to additional social
criteria in certification systems such as GOTS).
3 Method
We followed a case study research approach (Yin 2003) with the focus on the
clothing industry. The case is “illustrative,” emphasizing the dynamics of the
industry, rather than an “in-depth” case on a single company. It is an embedded
single-case design (Yin 2003, p. 43) using two units of analysis: The analysis
focuses on the industry level, although we also specifically consider individual
companies (incumbents) and how they respond to sustainability challenges. We
selected the clothing industry for its high relevance to society and severe negative
sustainability impacts. First, clothing is a basic human need. Second, the current
practices in the industry are mostly unsustainable in all phases of the product life
cycle from cotton plantation to fibre production, production of clothing, finishing of
Table 2 Top 10 textile retailers in Germany (Hansen and Schaltegger 2013, p. 589)
Company Sales Rank in Organic products Availability Selected
revenue global of public for case
(textiles) organic data study
2010 [Mio cotton
EUR] sourcing
2010
Otto 4.158 10 High +
Own collection
(“PURE WEAR”)
H&M 3.211 1 Own collection High +
(“Organic cotton”)
C&A 3011 2 High +
Own collection
(“Bio cotton”)
Metro (incl. 2.418 − Low −
Galeria Selected items
Kaufhof)
Karstadt 1.973 − Low −
n.a.
P&C 1.334 − Low −
n.a.
Tengelmann 1.195 − Low −
(includes Selected items
Kik)
Lidl 1.049 − Low −
Selected items
Aldi group 1.034 − Low −
Selected items
Tchibo 945 − High +
(textiles) Selected items
clothing, and end-of-life treatment (see previous above). As we focus on incum-

bents’ responses to sustainability challenges, we have chosen 4 of the 10 largest
players in the German clothing retail sector (TextilWirtschaft 2011), of which 3
belong to the top 10 organic cotton buyers (TextileExchange 2012). The selection
was also based on information availability and the related knowledge about the
scope of organic textile practices (Table 2).
The four companies in focus can be briefly characterised as follows:
• Otto is a major mail-order business belonging to the Otto Group, a family
business founded in Germany. The company operates in mainstream markets
but has aimed for integrating sustainability strategically for several decades.
• H&M, a Swedish company, is one of the global top players in fashion retail
focusing on fast fashion.
• C&A is Dutch fashion retail company with headquarters in the Netherlands and
Germany. It is fully family owned through its holding company. For many
decades associated with a low-budget image, the company has recently moved
toward higher quality and prices.
• Tchibo, based in Hamburg, Germany, is one of the largest German
consumer-goods retail companies. Through a shop-in-shop system and its own
stores, Tchibo sells a diverse product portfolio including coffee, textiles/clothing,
furniture, and mobile phone contracts, amongst others. The company is known for
its weekly changing assortment of goods.
For the following case study, we collected data from secondary sources such as
previously published research, industry studies and reports, market reports, and
company reports. For the sake of data availability (e.g., sustainability reports), the
data collection was based mainly on a snapshot from the year 2011, but it also
covered broader historical accounts where necessary.
4 Illustrative Case Study: Transformation in the German

Clothing Industry
4.1 Pioneering the Organic Market in Germany
The German market for ecological textiles and clothing was mainly pioneered by
Hess Natur. In 1976, Hess Natur was founded by Hans Hess as a mail-order
business in Germany with the aim of developing healthy and eco-friendly clothing
free of pesticides and other chemical residues (Hess Natur 2009, 2011; Illge and
Preuss 2012; Paulitsch 2001; Schaltegge 2002). Thus, they banned polyester and
other synthetic fibres (today this has partly changed) and focused on natural fibres
instead. They also exerted rigorous control of the clothing supply chain with regard
to the use (and ban) of chemicals and other health-threatening substances. Hess
Natur also focused on more regional sourcing and production (e.g., in Europe
instead of Asia) to spur local economic cycles, keep transportation impacts low, and
improve supply-chain transparency (Paulitsch 2001).
Although in the beginning the focus was on producing clothing without negative
health impacts, a next step further upstream the supply chain led to the questioning
of existing cultivation practices of natural fibres and hence to investigate the impact
of organic cotton. Because the supply for organic cotton was virtually non-existent,
Hess Natur, partly in cooperation with development aid institutions or NGOs,
invested in development projects aimed to increase organic cotton cultivation (e.g.,
in Africa). In 1991, in partnership with the Sekem farm in Egypt, Hess Natur was
the first company worldwide to invest in organic cotton cultivation (Hess Natur
2009). Ultimately, Hess Natur developed its own market for textiles and clothing
based on organic cotton. In 2008, Hess Natur was still the global number 10 organic
cotton user in the world, although its relative share dropped considerably with the
market entrance of large incumbents; hence, it is no longer part of the top 10

TextileExchange 2011).
Hess Natur probably developed the world’s most stringent sustainability criteria
for clothing and the textile supply chain and cofounded the International Natural
Textile Association in 1999, which issued organic textile standards and certification
schemes in Germany (Paulitsch 2001) and subsequently led to the GOTS standard,
which is now applied on a global level (Pay 2009, p. 4).2
While in the beginning the development of organic markets was the task of early
pioneers, mainstreaming was only possible through incumbents who followed and
reinforced this trend.
4.2 Mainstreaming the Organic Market in Germany
4.2.1 Overview
An “early follower” in the organic cotton trend was the Otto Group, the largest
textile retailer (mail-order business) in Germany (cf. Table 1). The company’s
engagement is strongly driven by the (family) majority owner and CEO Michael
Otto. Already in the 1980s, Otto acknowledged the importance of environmental
protection and formulated it as a corporate goal (Goldbach et al. 2003; Seuring et al.
2004). Otto confirmed its engagement by purchasing organic cotton and developing
its own label, “Pure Wear.” In 2010, Otto has become the 10th largest buyer of
organic cotton worldwide (TextileExchange 2012).
In the last few years, other conventional retailers have entered the market for
organic cotton clothing (Table 3). The retail sales volume of organic cotton prod-
ucts has grown steadily for the last decade (Fig. 2). For example, C&A has pur-
chased organic cotton since 2006 and in 2009 founded its own brand, “Bio Cotton,”
for 100 % organic clothing (C&A 2012a). Today C&A, the second largest textile
retailer in Germany, has taken a leading role in the purchase of organic cotton
making it one of the world’s largest buyers of organic cotton. In terms of quantity, it
has long overtaken the pioneers Hess Natur, Patagonia and Otto (TextileExchange
2011). In 2011, C&A sold approximately 32 million items made from organic
cotton, and the company plans to double this number in the short term. This strong
diffusion into the mass market is only possible because C&A did not pass the higher
resource costs of organic cotton (compared with conventional cotton) on to the
consumers but rather accepts a smaller profit margin (C&A 2012a, b, p. 104).
2
Internationally, the US-based outdoor clothing company Patagonia was another small pioneer
replacing conventional with organic cotton in 1996 (Fowler and Hope 2007). The company was
one of the largest organic cotton buyers in the world until 2006 (TextileExchange 2011).
Table 3 Organic cotton (OC) and improved cotton (IC) use by large German retailers (based on
Hansen and Schaltegger 2013, p. 591 and Schaltegger and Hansen 2013, p. 187)
C&A H&M Otto Tchibo
Organic First 2007 2004 1995 2006
cotton documented
(OC) history use:
Own collection 2008 2007 *1999 2008
since
Collection Bio cotton Conscious PURE n.a.
name collection WEAR
Use of Global #2 #1 #10 –
organic sourcing of OC
cotton (Rank)
(2011) OC (tons) 12.5001 15.000 450 210
OC items sold 32 n.a. n.a. 3.4 (OC + IC)
(Mio items)
OC (% of total 13 %a 7.6 %b 1.5 %a 0.5 %b
business)
OC + 13 %a 7.6 %b 2.2 %a 5 %b
IC/Sustainable
cotton (% of
total business)
Corporate By 2012/2013 – Double sales of – Use 5 % IC – 5 % OC – Maintain OC
goals OC items (BCI) – 10 % IC – Sell 8.5 Mio
(CmiA) (in sustainable
own brands textiles (OC
only) + IC) which
equals
15 % of total
cotton
products
By 2020 – Promoting OC – 100 % – 100 % n.a.
through Cotton sustainable sustainable
Connect initiative cotton (OC + cotton (OC
– 100 % IC + recycled + IC)
sustainable cotton)
cotton (OC + IC)
1
Data from 2008
a
items
b
tons
Fig. 2 Global retail sales of $10

Billions of U.S. Dollars
organic cotton products.

$8
Source TextileExchange
2012, p. 22 $6
$4
$2
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

4.2.2 Marketing Strategies, Long-Term Strategies, and Supply

Management
The strategies of the textile retailers in Germany to market organic cotton follow
different paths, which can be described by the following characteristics:
• First, retailers may sell only a selected item in organic quality for piloting or
experimentation (e.g., Tchibo), introduce a new organic collection (e.g., C&A,
H&M, Otto), or transform the entire product portfolio (the latter is limited to
pioneering companies such as Hess Natur and Patagonia; however, the future
will show whether incumbents such as C&A also take this route as planned in
the long-term).
• Second, differences exist with regard to certification. All retailers mention the
use of certification standards GOTS and/or OE. The actual certification is very
important because they differ with regard to whether they only control for the
organic content (OE) or additionally for production characteristics in the entire
supply chain (GOTS). However, detailed information on the share of certifi-
cation in relation to overall organic cotton use is very difficult to obtain.
• Third, not all retailers analysed use labels of independent certification systems
(e.g., GOTS) at the point of sales. Often they only use their own proprietary
label such as PURE Wear (Otto) or Bio Cotton (C&A). Reasons for this may
vary, but probably they include increased flexibility of retailers, desire to reduce
their dependency on a single certification system, and desire to simplify com-
munication to consumers in case several (competing) certification systems are
used simultaneously.
• Fourth, retailers do not always use either integrated or organic qualities in a pure
manner. Organic cotton is also used in blending strategies where integrated or
organic fibres are mixed with conventional cotton (Hustvedt and Dickson 2009).
Although all organic certification systems allow for a tolerance of ≤5 % of
conventional material in the final goods, specific blending certification allows to
vary the degree of organic cotton and other fibres (e.g., the minimum amount of
organic cotton in the final good is 5 and 70 % in the OE blended and the GOTS
“made with x % organic” standards, respectively). For example, H&M sells both
100 % organic and blended organic clothes (H&M 2013). With the
blended-cotton strategy, incumbents can transform the entire product portfolio
more easily because only a minimum amount of cotton needs to be mixed into
the clothes (although it is not part of this analysis, Nike now sells 90 % of brand
items with a minimum of 5 % organic cotton; Nike 2011, p. 27).
For future development, it will be interesting to investigate both the short- and
long-term goals of retailers more closely. Two of the four retailers aim to consid-
erably increase the share of organic cotton (C&A and Otto). H&M and Tchibo set
goals on increasing or introducing cotton from integrated production. As a response
to Greenpeace’s “Detox” campaign, C&A and H&M, together with other retailers,
have adopted the long-term goal of using 100 % sustainable cotton by 2020 (C&A
2012a, b, p. 100). To what extent this will include cotton with organic or integrated
quality remains open, but possibly both strategies could be pursued simultaneously,
and the specifics could depend on how quickly the different cotton-production
systems can be extended at which cost.
Because the strongly growing demand faces a very limited supply, C&A has had
problems similar to those Hess Natur had three decades earlier as the industry was
beginning to change. Their response was to found the initiative “Cotton Connect” to
promote the cultivation of organic cotton (C&A 2012a, p. 106). According to a
recent press release, C&A is planning to double the sales of certified organic
clothing (C&A 2012b). Other large retailers have also invested in more sustainable
cotton cultivation, although this was not with a specific focus on organic quality but
rather on integrated production. For instance, Otto founded and invested in the
initiative “Cotton made in Africa,” whereas H&M and Tchibo invested in the
“Better Cotton Initiative.”
In sum, the market observation shows that innovative pioneer companies and
conventional global retailers, who have often borrowed their strategies from the
pioneers, have initiated a notable change in the German clothing industry. This can
be seen in the forecasts of most of the market studies predicting strong growth of
the cultivated area for organic cotton as well as in an increasing need for retailers to
rethink their strategy in terms of sustainability (cf. Memon 2012; Pay 2009; Textile
Exchange 2011; Willer and Kilcher 2011). The currently low share of organic
cotton in the global cotton market of about 1 % (Pay 2009, p. 5) is thus expected to
grow considerably.
5 Discussion and Implications
5.1 Discussion
The example of the clothing industry shows how the diffusion of the certification of
organic cotton and the transformation of the market is driven by the efforts of
market actors alone. Regulatory aspects do not play a decisive role in this market.
The extraordinary efforts of an early pioneer and the related success in a niche
market led to new technological possibilities (organic cotton; healthy and
eco-friendly clothes) and related production and certification standards.
Conventional mass market retailers (e.g., C&A) have only recently engaged in this
trend, but are already leading purchasers of organic cotton and sometimes even
have ambitious goals for their further transformation. This rapid transformation of a
few conventional players in the market has taken place for at least four reasons:
• Value through healthy products: The introduction of organic textiles can, in
cases where a high level of health awareness exists and the intangible value of
the product is increased through sustainability attributes, represent additional
customer benefits (e.g., Hustvedt and Dickson 2009).
• Reputational risk: The risk of scandal accompanying conventional clothing

products can have a significant effect on brand value. The Detox campaign of
Greenpeace and the numerous responses on YouTube films and activities in
retailer stores may have spurred the transformational activities of the large
clothing retailers.
• Continuous use of existing production processes: Even if the scarcity of organic
cotton is a huge challenge and requires a strong and fast expansion of areas of
organic cotton cultivation, the change from conventional to organic cotton is
relatively simple and does not require new, expensive production technologies
(e.g., new machines) or work processes (this will change once the sustainability
focus is expanded from regular cotton production and use to the whole supply
chain as is done under certification systems such as GOTS).
• No sunk costs of transformation strategy: To switch to organic instead of
conventional cotton does not cause new substantial investments in production
technologies (e.g., for spinning, weaving, etc.) and thus neither endangers
existing sunk costs in production, warehouses, logistical systems, etc. nor causes
new ones. In case of missing demand for organic cotton, most costs do not have
a sunk cost character, but they can be seen as investments in improved supply
chain partner relationships, quality management, and efficiency improvements.
Extant research in sustainable entrepreneurship usually emphasizes that
incumbents use lower-level standards of sustainability for their innovations in the
mass market (e.g., Hockerts and Wüstenhagen 2010). The analysis of the organic
cotton transformation of the clothing market in Germany, however, shows that not
only lower-level standards (i.e., “improved cotton”) but also the highest level (i.e.,
organic cotton) is being diffused in and by incumbents. This should not hide the fact
that many differences can still exist with regard to pioneering and incumbent
companies. For example, whereas pioneer Hess Natur rigorously controlled the
entire textile value chain, incumbents differ in their ambition. Depending on the
specific certification standard, the control is often limited to fibre quality (e.g., OE
100) and does not account for chemical treatments during fabric and clothing
production (and thus, ironically, cannot say anything about the ecological and
health characteristics of the end product). We also did not explicitly examine the
social standards in the value chain besides those already integrated in the consid-
ered certification systems. Further research should investigate the contingencies
involved in which specific organic (and social) standards are adopted by
incumbents.
The change from conventional to organic cotton presents a case of strategic
innovation for large German clothing retailers because they are challenged to
(a) address new customer segments or develop the consciousness of their existing
customers, (b) develop new competencies for the tighter coordination of the
upstream supply chain (particularly regarding the organic quality of fibres through a
chain of custody), and (c) develop strategic partnerships with NGOs,
multi-stakeholder initiatives, or industry initiatives for developing the organic and
other forms of more sustainable cotton supply. This reflects the move from
anonymous price-based to negotiation-based coordination mechanisms in the sup-

ply chain, at least for the time that sustainable cotton fibres are scarce (Goldbach
et al. 2003).
Still, while switching to higher quality fibres is a good start for the
sustainability-oriented transformation of the industry, other ecological and social
improvements in later phases of the value chain—or its complete redesign—is also
necessary. One interesting development is the upsurge of new brand manufacturers
such as manomama in Germany (Plieth et al. 2012), Switcher in Switzerland, and
American Clothing in the USA, operating with innovative business models based
on regional value creation through vertical integration and thereby offer entirely
different solutions to broader social (and ecological) problems—together demon-
strating the importance of new business models for sustainability (Schaltegger et al.
2012, 2016). Another is of course to deal with (planned) fashion obsolescence as
the root cause for the every accelerating take-make-waste cycles in “fast fashion”.
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1007/s10661-010-1439-y
Possum Fiber—A Wonderful Creation
of Nature
Mohammad Mahbubul Hassan
Abstract Possum fiber is harvested from a rodent called the “possum.” The fiber is
very soft and smooth, unlike merino wool fiber. The fiber is quite different from
other animal fibers because of its unique shape and morphology: The fiber is hollow
lengthwise, which provides high warmth. Possum fiber is mainly harvested in New
Zealand from brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). During the past 15 years,
the possum fur industry has grown in New Zealand, and the fiber, when blended
with merino wool, produces various luxury apparel including coats, jackets,
scarves, and cloaks. However, the inherent color of possum fiber (reddish brown)
could be a problem because the fabric made from it needs to be white or other
lighter colors. It is difficult to bleach possum fiber by traditional bleaching methods
with hydrogen peroxide and chlorine. In this chapter, brushtail possum and their
habitat and food, the harvesting of fur from possum, the physical and mechanical
properties of possum fiber, and the mechanical and chemical processing methods,
including bleaching and dyeing, will be discussed.
Keywords Possum fibre Animal fibre New Zealand
1 Introduction
Possum fiber is obtained from the Australian brushtail possum (Trichosurus

vulpecula), a small, nocturnal, cat-size rodent animal. Brushtail possums are
available throughout the main islands of New Zealand except for some Alpine areas
and parts of South Westland and Fiordland. They are sometimes confused with the
American opossum (they are under the family Didelphidae). Opossums are found
only in North America, although there is another marsupial called the “water
possum” (also known as the “yapok”), which is found in Central and South
M.M. Hassan (&)

Food and Bio-Based Products Group, AgResearch Limited,
Cnr Springs Road and Gerald Street, Lincoln, Christchurch 7608, New Zealand

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_3
60 M.M. Hassan
America. The size of possum is double of the size of opossum. Possums are native
to Australia and produce fur far better than other marsupials. These Australian
possums were introduced in New Zealand in 1850s to establish an animal fur
industry, and their number in New Zealand now reaches 60–70 million. It is
claimed that possum fabrics are 55 % warmer than merino and 35 % warmer than
cashmere fabrics of the same weight and knit structure. Possum is a largely arbo-
real, nocturnal species that is generally found in dry eucalypt forests and wood-
lands. Large populations of this species can be found in pine plantations as well as
suburban and urban areas. The possums breeding behavior depends on their habitat
environment: Some breeds year round in some areas, and in others possums will
breed in one or two seasons. Females begin breeding at approximately year of age;
a single young is born after a gestation period of 16–18 days; and young have a
pouch life of 4–5 months.
This species is commercially produced in Tasmania. On Kangaroo Island,
possum is treated as a pest species (to humans and other threatened species), and
killing them is permitted by a law. Possum is major a pest species in pine plan-
tations in Australia where it can do considerable damage, and it acts as a host of
bovine tuberculosis in New Zealand. Therefore, to control their population in New
Zealand, killing them is permitted by law.
2 Characteristics, Habitat, Food and Reproduction

of Possum
2.1 Physical Description
Possum are usually 320–580 mm long, and they have quite long tail (i.e., more than
half of their body length [usually 240–350 mm]). They have large eyes and tall,
rounded ears. Its fur is short but dense, and its tail is typically long and covered in
long, bushy fur. In some subspecies, the fur on possum tail is the same length as on
the rest of the body. Throughout its range, there is considerable variation in the coat
color of T. vulpecula. Color seems to vary according to habitat, and several sub-
species have been identified. Three of the subspecies are typically grey in color. Of
them, T. vulpecula, is found throughout southern Australia and New Zealand.
In all subspecies, the underside is lighter in color (almost cream) than the upper
side, which is blackish-grey with some fibers being black. Figure 1 shows a fleece
collected from a dead possum and also possum fiber collected from under the belly
of the possum. A scent gland located on the chest is used to mark territories. The
reddish secretions from this gland give the fur around it a brown or reddish
appearance. Like most marsupials, the females have a small, forward opening
pouch that is used in reproduction.
Possum Fiber—A Wonderful Creation of Nature 61
Fig. 1 A possum fleece (a) and possum fur (b) collected from the skin under the belly of the
animal. Source The author’s own collection
2.2 Habitat
T. vulpecula (Fig. 2) usually resides in forested or woodland areas. These habitats

vary greatly throughout its range. In Tasmania, T. vulpecula can be found
throughout the rainforests and the dry woodlands that cover over 60 % of the area.
In the Australian northwest, it prefers eucalyptus forests and mangroves. In
southern Australia, they also reside in wooded areas but are sometimes found living
a semi-terrestrial life where they den in rock crevasses and termite mounds. In New
Zealand, T. vulpecula can be found in most forested areas. The common brushtail
Fig. 2 A possum in natural

habitat. Source The author’s
own collection
62 M.M. Hassan
possum is a social animal and remains in contact with its group through sound and
scents. At times, particularly during the breeding season, it makes piercing scree-
ches in the middle of the night to establish territories and warn of danger.
2.3 Food Habits
Possums have low metabolic rates and can maintain themselves on 30 % less food
than comparably sized eutherians such as rabbits. Captive adult possums housed
indoors consume 80 g digestible dry matter per day when feed either a diet of
commercial pellets or one containing natural foliar foods. Mean retention times of
digests are 1.5–3.0 days for both synthetic and natural foliar diets (Nugent et al.
2000). Possums usually spent <25 % of each night feeding (MacLennan 1984) in
one to three bouts with 2–3 h between bouts. Possums are omnivorous and live by
eating leaves, shoots, flowers, fungi, both invertebrates and vertebrates, and plant
material. Possum diets also routinely include insects and other animal material.
Possums also readily eat raw and cooked meat. Researchers found that they have
excellent adaptability in terms of foods and they can even eat highly toxic flowers
and leaves. Their preferable food is flowers of the eucalyptus plant, but they also eat
other plants and shrubs. They also eat clover grasses, garden fruits, and turnips.
2.4 Behavior
Possums are strictly nocturnal animals in terms of their activity; they spend the
daytime in hollowed-out logs or trees, but in more urban areas they find shelter
wherever they can find it. Possums awaken and start to become active in their
shelters approximately 1–2 h before sunset, but they do not usually come out of
their shelter until about 30 min after sunset (Ward 1978). They mark their territories
using secretions from both anal gland and the scent gland on their chests. Although
they do not leave in groups, clear dominance hierarchies have been observed where
co-dominants of the same sex purposely avoid one another. There appears to be
very little direct aggression among individuals. They use deep guttural vocaliza-
tions to communicate territory location and to attract mates during the breeding
season.
2.5 Reproduction
There are typically two breeding seasons for T. vulpecula throughout the year. It is
rare for a female to give birth twice in 1 year. The highest number of births occurs
in the fall with fewer occurring in the spring. The females’ estrous cycle lasts for
approximately 25 days. The gestation period is approximately 18 days, and a single

young emerges from the pouch in approximately 4 months. The young are typically
weaned by approximately 6 months, and disperse anytime between 8 and
18 months. Females can reproduce by approximately 12 months of age, and males
typically reach sexual maturity by age 2. They have an average life span of 7 years
in the wild. The mortality rate for T. vulpecula is 75 % in individuals around 1 year
of age. That number drops considerably as the young mature, and in adult
T. vulpecula, the mortality rate is only approximately 20 %.
3 Harvesting of Fiber from Possum
Possum fur is usually machine or hand plucked from the skin of possum.
3.1 Hand Plucking
Hand plucking is a laborious job. Hand plucking cannot be done for all possums.
Hand plucking is easy if plucking is carried out immediately after killing; otherwise
it become quite difficult to remove fur from the skin by hand. Possum is held for
stripping in a manner to enable efficient stripping. Fur is removed from the back
quarter to the front of the possum by holding the back legs by gently pulling fur
forward. Fur is not collected from the tail of the animal. During plucking, care must
be taken so that fur not becomes dirty. It is less likely that fiber breakage would
occur by hand plucking.
3.2 Machine Plucking
A number of portable or stationary plucking machines are available in the market to

pluck possum fur. This method is suitable for possums that have been poisoned and
the carcasses cold. Plucking machines can electrical or petrol driven (Fig. 3). In this
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of an electrical possum fiber plucking machine

64 M.M. Hassan
method, the animal skin is brought into contact with a rotating drum covered with
rubber spikes, which remove the fur without affecting the animal skin. Machine
plucking is more economical and faster compared with hand plucking.
4 Sustainability of Possum Production
The concept of sustainability was developed in the 1970s mainly to combat various
problems including climate change, damage to the environment, energy shortage,
human population, and exploitation of resources. Sustainability issues are based
mainly on four pillars: economical, environmental, social, and ethical. Sustainable
production means production of a product by using the least resources without
harming the environment and also by following ethical and social practices.
4.1 Social and Economic Impact
Killing animals to get their fur by unethical and cruel methods is an issue that has
been heavily criticized by animal rights and welfare activists. Possums are either
poisoned or killed to harvest their fiber. However, since its introduction to New
Zealand forests by fur traders in the late nineteenth century to develop a possum fur
industry, the nonnative brushtail possum population has reached such a level that
they are now treated as a pest because they destroy crops, native flora, and fauna.
Possum can lower productivity or add to costs in other areas of primary production.
Possums also damage newly planted willows and poplars commonly used for
catchment protection and erosion control. Therefore, control of possum population
is a necessity. In New Zealand, the population of possum is sustainably controlled.
Some possum-control options require compliance with complex local legislations.
The use of poisons in possum control is implemented various legislations such as
the Biosecurity Act 1993, the Civil Aviation Act 1990, the Pesticides Act 1979 and
the resource-management Act 1991. The possum population is controlled either by
killing with poison (sodium monofluoroacetate, phosphorous paste, brodifacoum,
cholecalciferol, and pindone) or by nontoxic but cruel techniques such as using
various possum traps as shown in Fig. 4.
However, it is necessary to improve the current techniques used to trap and kill
possum. Some of the traps that suffocate or cause significant damage to the legs of
the animals should be outlawed. The killing process also should be more humane
than the current practices. Possum could be stunned or the toxins that incapacitate
the nerve system of the animal should be applied before killing, or toxins that
quickly kill the animal should be used. The suggested approaches may overcome
the ethical issues related to possum-fiber harvesting.
Fig. 4 Various types of possum traps used in the possum industry. Source The author’s personal
collection
4.2 Environmental Impact
One of the measurements used to assess the environmental impact of a

product/process is calculation of the carbon footprint. The carbon footprint of a
fiber is the sum of all emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide,
caused from cradle-to-grave production of that fiber. Calculation of the total carbon
footprint is a complex process and requires a large number of data. The carbon
footprint of possum fiber could be smaller than that of other animal fibers. They are
minimally chemically processed, and only in rare cases are they are dyed, which
minimizes their carbon footprint.
5 Physical Properties of Possum Fiber
Possum fiber is very smooth and soft and has better luster than wool fiber. The
diameter of possum fiber is quite variable, from 10 to 45 µm, depending on the area
of the animal’s body from where the fiber is collected. The fibers are mainly made
66 M.M. Hassan
of keratin protein, similar to wool fibers, although amino acid compositions could
be slightly different from wool. Generally the underside fibers are thinner
(14–25 µm) than the topside fibers (20–45 µm). Figure 5 shows optical microscopic
images of possum fibers harvested from the top and underside of the animal. The
surface topologies of top and underside possum fibers are quite distinct, and their
morphologies are more resembles those of European beaver hair.
Scanning electron microscopic images (Fig. 6) shows that the fibers collected
from the back (top side) of the animals more closely resembles human hair, but the
fibers of the underside of belly more closely resembles wool fibers; however, the
geometry of the shape of the scales is different from the scales of wool fibers.
However, the scale height of possum fiber is shorter compared with the height wool
Fig. 5 Optical microscopic images of fur collected from the top side (left) of the animal and also
from underneath the belly (right). Source The author’s personal collection
Fig. 6 Scanning electron micrographs of possum fibers collected from the top side of the animal
(left) and from underneath the belly (right). Source The author’s personal collection
Fig. 7 Optical microscopic image of a lengthwise bisected possum fiber. Source The author’s
personal collection
fiber scales. Therefore, they have less tendency to felt, but felting of possum fiber
does occur under some conditions, such as agitation in a highly alkaline aqueous
solution.
Like wool fiber, the surface of possum fiber is also hydrophobic because of the
presence of 18-methyl eicosanoic acid (18-MEA), which is bound to the wool fiber
surface through thioester bonding. Because of the long hydrophobic tail of
18-MEA, the fiber surface is strongly hydrophobic.
The unique characteristic of possum fiber is that the inside of the fiber is hollow
in the direction of the length of the fiber, which makes is lightweight and very
warm. It is the third warmest natural fiber in the world after polar bear and the
Arctic fox fibers. Because of its hollow structure, which traps air, which in turn
works as a heat insulator, possum fiber is warmer than wool fiber. Figure 7 shows
magnified image of a lengthwise-bisected possum fiber.
6 Mechanical Processing
Mechanical processing may include yarn and fabric manufacturing from possum
fiber.
6.1 Manufacturing of Possum Yarn
Possum fibers are usually blended with merino wool and or silk at 20–30 % levels,
and the blending with wool and or silk is carried out during the drawing stage.
Following are the typical spinning routes for wool-fiber spinning (Fig. 8):
Sliver of possum fiber is made after carding, similar to wool-fiber carding. Loose
wool fibers are converted into yarn by two processes, namely, woollen and worsted
spinning processes. Scoured wool fibers are opened and passed through a process
called “carding” where the fibers are straitened and placed in parallel to each other
in a rope-like bundle of fibers called a “sliver.”
68 M.M. Hassan
Fig. 8 Wool-fiber
processing: loose wool fiber Loose wool fibers Loose wool fibers
to yarn
Carding
Carding
Pre-comb Drawing
Drawing
Combing
Post-comb drawing
Roving
Roving
Spinning Spinning
Woollen processing Worsted processing
A carding machine is a large machine, approximately ≥20 m long, with

large-diameter pin rollers (pins are in opposite direction) that tease the fibers, open
them up, and produce a nice even sliver. In the woolen-spinning process, this
carded silver is fed into a simplex machine (also called s “roving” machine) to form
rovings, and then these rovings are spun into yarn by a ring spinning machine. The
carded silver is fed to the simplex machine to reduce the linear density of the silver
and also to form a roving. In the worsted system, further parallelization and
straightening of fibers are carried by three extra processing steps: gill-drawing
(pre-comb drawing), combing, and finisher drawing (post-comb drawing). Figure 9
shows a carding machine (top) and a gill-drawing machine (bottom).
In the gill-drawing process, four to eight carded slivers are feed together,
blended, and their linear decreased by 4× to 8×. The fibers in the sliver are further
aligned and parallelized. At this stage, the sliver still contains particles of vegetable
matter as well as short fibers. Carded sliver of possum fiber is usually blended with
merino wool fibers at this stage. Then combing is carried out. short fibers are
removed, and further parallelization of fibers is carried out. Short fibers are hard to
control in a yarn and they affect the yarn’s tensile strength and other performances.
Further parallelization and alignment of fibers is carried out by the finisher drawing,
which also levels thick and thin areas of slivers. The slivers coming out from the
finisher drawing machine are then fed into the simplex/roving machine (Fig. 10) to
further reduce their liner density, and then spinning is carried out.
Fig. 9 A high-speed carding machine (top) and a gill-drawing machine. Source The top image is
from Melliand International 3 (2011) 133. Published with the authorization of Deutscher
Fachverlag GmbH, Germany. The bottom image is from the author’s personal collection
Fig. 10 A roving machine (left) and a ring-spinning machine (right). Source The author’s own
collection
70 M.M. Hassan
Spinning of wool/possum fibre blended roving is carried out by a ring-spinning

machine (Fig. 10) to convert the rovings into yarns. The yarn loop rotating rapidly
at a speed of 30,000–40,000 rpm around a fixed axis, which generates a surface
referred to as a “balloon.” Ring spinning is popular because ring-spun yarns have
the highest tensile strength compared with yarns manufactured by any other spin-
ning process. In a ring-spun yarn, fibers are almost completely aligned to one
another; therefore, when these aligned fibers are twisted, they provide high strength.
A ring-spinning machine is suitable for staple fibers and therefore is also appro-
priate for spinning animal fibers because of their short length.
6.2 Manufacturing of Possum Fabric
Yarns made from possum fiber blended with merino wool or other fibers are
converted into either knitted or woven fabrics. For most of the fibers, fabric
manufacturing is carried out before any chemical processing (e.g., scouring,
bleaching, dyeing, and finishing). However, luxury fibers, such as possum, wool,
and alpaca, are at least scoured (sometimes even dyed) in loose stock form before
into conversion to fabric. Possum fibers are mainly used in knitted fabrics, and
knitting is carried out either by hand or by a knitting machine.
Several types of knitting machines are used for making fabric from
possum-blended yarns such as single-jersey and double-jersey knitting machines
and V-bed knitting machines (Fig. 11). Sometimes rovings are used directly for
making thick garments (sweaters, cardigans, etc.) by hand knitting. For the man-
ufacturing of fabric from wool/possum yarns, sometimes hand looms (Fig. 11) and,
for high-quality suitings, power looms are used. Rapier and air-jet looms are quite
popular for weaving wool and wool/possum fabrics.
Hand loom Circular knittingmachine V-bed knittingmachine
Fig. 11 A handloom, a circular single-jersey knitting machine, and a V-bed knitting machine.
Source The author’s personal collection
7 Chemical Processing of Possum Fiber
7.1 Bleaching of Possum Fiber
Possum fibers harvested from the top side of the animals are dark brown, which will
be visible when blended with wool fiber and dyed in pastel shades. Therefore,
bleaching is essential if the fibers will be used in materials intended to be dyed in
pastel shades. However, if the fabric material will be dyed a deep black or deep
navy color, then possum fibers are not usually bleached.
The fiber is dark colored because of the presence of pigments called “eumelanin”
(which causes black, dark brown, and grey colors of the fiber) and “pheomelanin”
(which causes yellow, reddish-brown, and red color of the fiber) pigment in the
fiber cortex (Bereck 1994). Eumelanin and pheomelanin are formed by different
mechanisms because their chemical structure is quite different. Eumelanin is formed
by the enzymatic oxidation of tyrosine and by polymerization of several oxidation
products (Swan 1974). It is a highly heterogeneous polymer consisting of different
monomer units linked by a variety of bonds (Korytowski and Sarna 1990). On the
other hand, pheomelanin is composed of several yellow-red pigments such as tri-
chosiderin, trichoxanthin, pyrrotricholes, trichochromes, and gallopheomelanin
(Stoves 1976). Because they are highly cross-linked as well as insoluble in water,
they are extremely stable against any kind of chemical attack. Melanins are prac-
tically impervious to reducing agents, and therefore their bleaching is extremely
tricky. If care is not taken during bleaching, the treatments may cause substantial
damage to the fiber. Traditional peroxide bleaching at alkaline conditions does not
have any effect on the reduction or decolorization of these melanins. Strong oxi-
dizing agents, such as sodium peroxide and chlorine, used at high doses (10 % on
the weight of the possum fiber) also have a minimal effect on the color of melanin
as shown in Fig. 12.
pH 4 pH 8.5
Fig. 12 Possum fiber beached with 5 % potassium persulfate at pH 4 and pH 8.5. Source The
author’s own collection
72 M.M. Hassan
With sodium dithionite With sodium sulfite
Fig. 13 Possum fibers beached with sodium dithionite and sodium sulfite reducing agents. Source
The author’s own collection
It is evident that a strong oxidizing agent, even at high concentrations, only

slightly changes the color when oxidation treatment is carried at low pH (pH 4), but
at high pH, no change in color takes place. Reducing agents, such as sodium
dithionite and sodium sulfite, have no effect on the color of possum fiber even at
high doses (10 % of the weight of the fiber) as shown in Fig. 13.
The only way to decompose and decolorize these melanin pigments is the
oxidation at alkaline conditions in the presence of iron or copper salt, which causes
at least some level of damage to possum fiber. During the bleaching process, some
oxidation of keratin occurs, which causes damage to the fiber, which is often
referred to as “oxidative” damage. The damage arises from the attack on amino
acids in the keratin fiber, particularly cysteine, which is converted into cysteic acid.
It has been postulated that oxidative bleach reagents rupture the disulfide bonds
causing cross-linking components of proteins and possibly the polypeptide chains
(Holmes 1933; Wolfram 1970; Cegarra and Gacen 1983) as well as the modifi-
cation of other side chains (tyrosine, tryptophane, lysine, and arginine) (Zahn
1966). Rinsing after the mordanting step proved to be critical with regard to fiber
damage. The rinsing step is to remove excess iron from the keratin fiber matrix
which is not bound to a melanin pigment.
If excess iron is present in the fiber, then over-bleaching occurs throughout the
whole fiber rather than at the pigment source, thus causing a reduction in fiber
strength.
Pigmented fibers, such as possum fiber, require a specific mordant bleaching
process (doped peroxide bleaching) if the dark melanin pigment needs to be
decolorized (Duffield 1986). An efficient melanin decolorization with minimum
possum fiber damage is provided by the use of metal catalysts, such as iron and
copper, in the mordanting step before bleaching with alkaline hydrogen peroxide.
Melanin has a high affinity for metal ions (Hong and Simon 2007). Because the
electron density of native melanin is higher than that of keratin, the metal cations
are preferentially absorbed by the melanin (Liu et al. 2003). The doped metals work
as an activator for hydrogen peroxide and produce hydroxyl radicals, which

decompose melanin. It was found that the bleaching with this method is enhanced
by illumination from ultraviolet A (UVA) and Ferrous (II) or copper (II) bonded to
melanin also accelerates the bleaching of melanin by a Fenton-like oxidation
(Perez-Benito 2004). The industrial practice with possum fiber is to initially treat it
with ferrous sulfate and then bleach it with hydrogen peroxide. Typical bleaching
conditions for possum fiber are as follows:
Mordanting bath
11 g/l Ferrous sulfate
11 g/l Ammonium chloride
2 g/l Tartaric acid
0.5 g/l Sodium pyrophosphate
2 ml/l Formaldehyde
The fiber is soaked in the above-mentioned solution at 40 °C overnight and then
hydro-extracted without any washing or rinsing. Then the fiber is soaked in the
bleaching bath at 30 °C overnight. The bleaching bath composition is as follows:
Bleaching bath
2 g/l Oxalic acid
8 g/l Ammonium chloride
8 g/l Sodium pyrophosphate
35 ml/l Hydrogen peroxide (50 %)
2 g/l Sodium carbonate
2 g/l Sodium bicarbonate
The fiber is then washed several times in water and neutralized with acetic acid.
Some of the chemicals used in this process, such as oxalic acid and formaldehyde,
are toxic and therefore should not be used. Moreover, this treatment would cause
considerable loss of tensile strength of the fiber due to damage. A simpler method
than the one mentioned previously was used by Chen et al. (2001) for alpaca fiber
bleaching, which is as follows:
Mordanting bath
10 g/l Ferrous sulfate

6 ml/l Formic acid
0.5 g/l Cibaflow CIR (Huntsman Chemicals)
The bath is filled with cold water, and the above-mentioned chemicals are added.
The fiber is then introduced in the bath, and the bath pH is set at 2.9. The bath is
then heated to 80 °C at 3 °C/min and held for 60 min. The bath is then cooled, and
the liquor is drained. The bath is then filled again, and 4 g/l formic acid is added.
The bath is then heated to 80 °C at 3 °C/min and held for 20 min. Then bath is then
cooled to 70 °C; the bath is drained; and the fiber is rinsed several at 50 °C. The
bath is again filled with water, and the following chemicals are added:
74 M.M. Hassan
1 ml H2O2/ g possum fiber 4 ml H2O2/ g possum fiber
Fig. 14 Possum fibers bleached with two different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide in the
mordant bleaching process. Source The author’s own collection
28 g/l Hydrogen peroxide

10 g/l Tetrasodium pyrophosphate
4 g/l Oxalic acid
5 g/l Sodium carbonate
0.5 g/l Cibaflow CIR
The bath is then set at pH 8.5 with ammonium hydroxide and then heated to 70 °C
at 3 °C/min and held for 50 min, after which the bath is drained and again refilled and
run for 20 min at 50 °C. Toxic oxalic acid can be replaced with the same quantity of
ethyelendiaminetetraacetic acid or eco-friendly citric acid. Figure 14 shows bleached
possum fibers using two different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide in this
mordant bleaching process. It is evident that the concentration of hydrogen peroxide
in the bleaching solution has great effect on the bleaching performance of possum
fiber. In the case of low concentration of peroxide, it degrades the melanin com-
pound to golden yellow, but increasing the concentration to 4 ml H2O2/g possum
fiber decolorizes the fiber to almost white.
7.2 Dyeing of Possum Fiber
Like other animal fibers, possum fiber is a keratin protein fiber similar to wool and
silk fibers; therefore, it can be dyed with the same class of dyes used for dyeing
animal fibers. Keratin fibers are composed of a variety of amino acids. These amino
acids are amphoteric in nature because they have cationic amino groups as well as
anionic carboxylic and hydroxyl groups. In an aqueous bath, they are usually
cationic above pH 4.5, and below that pH they are anionic. Animal fibers are
usually dyed in acidic conditions to protect them from alkaline damage; therefore,
dyeing is usually carried out under acidic conditions. Because they are anionic at
acidic conditions lower than pH 4.5, animal fibers are usually dyed with anionic
dyes such as sulfonate groups containing acid, reactive, and direct dyes. The acid
dyes used in animal fiber dying usually contain one to three sulfonate groups in
each dye molecule. These sulfonate groups not only provide solubility in water but
also provide substantivity toward amino groups of animal fibers. Possum fibers are
dyed in an aqueous dye baths.
7.2.1 Dyeing with Acid Dyes
Acid dyes are quite popular for dyeing animal fibers because of easy dyeing pro-
cess, high dye exhaustion, and dyes are less expensive compared with reactive dyes.
The dyed fibers have quite good fastness to washing as well as rubbing. Acid dyes
are called this because they are applied to animal fibers from dye baths under acidic
conditions because they are anionic in nature. The dyes contain solubilizing groups,
mostly sulfonic acid (in some cases carboxylic acid) groups. The number of these
substituent groups in the dye molecule determines their solubility in water and also
the dyeing properties (Duffield 1992). Acid dyes mainly have azo chromophore
groups, but some acid dyes may have xanthene, anthraquinone, pyrazolone,
triphenyl methane, and metal-phthalocyanine chromophore groups. Depending on
their dyeing behavior, acid dyes are of three classes, namely, level dyeing, fast acid,
and milling/supermilling.
Dyeing behavior of acid dyes are very much controlled by their relative
molecular weight; with an increase in relative molecular weight, dye migration from
dye bath to fiber decreases, and substantivity and wet fastness increase. The dyeing
of possum fibers with reactive dyes must use a range of dyeing auxiliaries including
a dye-levelling agent (to control the absorption of dyes into fiber), a wetting agent
(to wet the surface of hydrophobic possum and wool fibers), an electrolyte (to
increase the absorption of dyes into fiber), an anti-setting agent (to prevent damage
of fiber at boil), a crease-protecting agent (to prevent the formation of crease
marks), and an antifoaming agent. Failure to use appropriate auxiliaries can cause
poor depth of shade, unlevel dyeing, and a crease mark in the dyed fabric along
with fiber damage.
Dyeing with level-dyeing acid dyes
The dyeing of animal fibers with level-dyeing acid dyes requires the no levelling
agent be used in dyeing. Mainly salt, acid, antifoaming agent, and wetting agent
must be used. The typical dye bath composition is as follows for the Tectilon
levelling acid dyes (Fig. 15):
Dye 0.05–10 % (depends on the shade desired)
Sodium sulfate 5–10 %
Sulfuric acid 4 % (to set the pH at 2.5–3.5)
Wetting agent 0.25–0.50 g/l
Defoamer 0.5 g/l
76 M.M. Hassan
120
100
Temperature (°C)
80
A. Salt + acid + wetting agent
60
B. Dyes C
B
40 A
C. Dropping the bath and rinsing
20
0
0 50 100 150
Dyeing time (min)
Fig. 15 Temperature profile for levelling acid dyes
TectilonBlue F-3R Tectilon Red F-2G
Fig. 16 Possum fiber dyed with TECTILON levelling acid dyes. Source The author’s personal
collection
The dye bath is filled water and salt, acid, and wetting agents are added at 40 °C.
The fabric is introduced in the dye bath, and running dyes are added after 10 min.
The temperature of the bath is raised to 100 °C at 2 °C/in and is held for 60–90 min.
The bath is then cooled to 60 °C and is dropped. The fabric is then rinsed and
soaped at 50 °C for 20 min using a 1 g/l nonionic detergent. Figure 16 shows fabric
samples dyed with two levelling acid dyes.
Dyeing with fast acid dyes
This group of acid dyes is generally monosulfonated, and they exhibit wet fastness
superior to levelling acid dyes. The shade range available in this dye group is
narrow compared with levelling and milling acid dyes.
Dye 0.05–10 % (depends on the shade require)
Sodium sulfate 5–10 %
Acetic acid 1–3 % (to set the pH at 4.5–5.0)
Anti-setting agent 1 g/l
Fig. 17 Temperature profile 120

for fast acid dyes (Sandolan P
dyes) 100
Temperature (°C)
80 A. Salt + acid + wetting agent +
Levelling agent
60 C
B. Dyes
A B
40
20
0
0 50 100 150
Dyeing time (min)
The dye bath is filled water and at 40 °C, salt, acid, levelling and wetting agents
are added. The fabric is introduced in the dye bath and after 10 min running dyes
are added. The temperature of the bath is raised to 100 °C at 2 °C/in and is held for
60–90 min. The bath is then cooled to 60 °C and is dropped. The fabric is then
rinsed and soaped at 50 °C for 20 min using 1 g/l a non-ionic detergent. Figure 16
shows fabric samples dyed with two levelling acid dyes.
Dyeing with milling acid dyes
Acid milling dyes are called this because of their high degree of fastness to milling
processes, i.e., they have higher degree of wet fastness compared with levelling or
fast acid dyes. The dyes have different substantivity toward tip and the bulk of the
fiber; therefore, highly substantive dyes may create uneven dyeing between the tip
and the bulk of the fiber. Levelling agents are used to slow down the migration of
dye from the dye bath to the fiber so that the tip and the bulk of the fiber are
uniformly dyed. Milling dyes are used for those applications where high wet-fatness
properties are required. The typical dye bath composition is as follows (Fig. 17):
Dye 0.05–10 %
Levelling agent 1.0–2.0 %
Sodium acetate 1.0–2.0 ml/l
Acetic acid to adjust the pH at 5.0–7.5
The dye bath is filled water, and salt, acid and, wetting agents are added at 40 °C.
The fabric is introduced in the dye bath, and running dyes are added after 10 min.
The temperature of the bath is raised to 100 °C at 2 °C/in and is held for 60–90 min.
The bath is then cooled to 60 °C and is dropped. The fabric is rinsed and soaped at
50 °C for 20 min using a 1 g/l nonionic detergent. Figure 16 shows fabric samples
dyed with two levelling acid dyes.
78 M.M. Hassan
7.2.2 Dyeing with Reactive Dyes
As the name suggests, reactive dyes have reactive groups that can react with the
functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl, amino and thiol groups) of the substrate forming
a covalent bond. The energy required to break this bond is of the same order as that
required to break carbon carbon bonds in the substrate itself, and they provide the
highest degree of wet fastness. In the case of animal fibers, reactive dyes mainly
bond to the amino groups (in the case of wool fibers they also react with thiols).
Reactive dyes are not very popular for dyeing animal fibers because the bonding
between the dye and the fiber takes place under alkaline conditions, which causes
degradation of the wool fiber. Actually, certain classes of reactive dyes have a
positive effect on the amount of wool damage produced when dyeing at the boil and
higher (Lewis 2014). However, some manufacturers dye animal fiber, such as silk
and wool, with reactive dyes because of their high degree of wet and light fastness.
In the case of reactive dyeing, a high degree of dye fiber covalent bonding is
achieved, which gives maximum wet fastness. The reactive dyeing has two stages:
adsorption and fixation (dye fiber bonding). The rate of adsorption always should
be higher than the rate of fixation; otherwise dyeing will be uneven (Lewis 1992)
(Fig. 18).
Structurally, reactive dyes used for wool are little bit different than ordinary
reactive dyes because in the case of wool dyeing, the dyes react with the amino groups
of wool; therefore, fiber-reactive groups of wool-reactive dyes are selected to achieve
maximum bonding with amino and thiol groups of wool fiber. Reactive dyes used for
dyeing cellulosic fibers have monochlorotriazine (Procion M) or dichlorotriazine
(Procion H), dichloroquinoxaline (Levafix E), and vinyl sulfone (Remazol) groups,
whereas typical wool-reactive dyes mainly have α-bromoacrylamido (Lanasol dyes),
5-chloro-2,4-difluoropyrimidyl (Drimalan F), and N-methyltaurine-ethyl sulfone
(Hostalan) reactive groups with the first one being the most popular for dyeing animal
fibers (Bühler et al. 1995). However, modern reactive dyes have more than one
reactive group, and some recent reactive dyes have three reactive groups (either the
same type or different types of reactive groups in the same molecule of dye) to
Fig. 18 Temperature profile 120

for milling acid dyes (polar
dyes) 100
Temperature (°C)
80
A. Salt + acid + wetting agent
60
C
A B B. Dyes
40
20
0
0 50 100 150
Dyeing time (min)
maximize their fixation with the substrates. Reactive groups in commercially avail-
able reactive dyes used for wool dyeing mainly react by two systems: nucleophilic
substitution reaction and Michael addition reaction (Duffield 1992).
Because of increasing environmental concerns with heavy metals (e.g., chro-
mium, copper, etc.) related to metal-complexed acid dyes, it is now usual to use
reactive dyes to match deep shades of black and navy blue (usually dyed with
chrome dyes) in order to offer textile dyers a real alternative to chrome dyes. It is
expected that textiles dyed with chromium dyes in a landfill or effluent containing
chromium dyes will liberate chromium due to the degradation of the dyes in the
environment. Although trivalent chromium does not appear to be carcinogenic, its
hexavalent form is highly toxic as well as carcinogenic (Norseth 1981; Mayfield
et al. 2000). Recently, several dye manufacturers marketed ranges of reactive dyes
that are free from heavy metals and that can match the shades produced by chrome
dyes. These dyes are not only attractively priced, their application can give a dyer
huge environmental benefits including compliance with various eco-labelling as
well as decreased effluent treatment cost. Such dyes include Lanasol CE dyes from
Huntsman, Realan dyes from DyStar, and Drimalan dyes from Clariant.
Dyeing methods
The dyeing method of animal fibers using reactive dyes is quite complicated
compared with the dyeing method using acid dyes. The affinity of reactive dyes to
cellulose is not high; therefore, a large quantity of salt is used to increase the dye
absorption, but no levelling agent is needed. On the other hand, the affinity of
reactive dyes to animal fiber is very high under acidic conditions; therefore, con-
trolling the absorption of reactive dyes by using wool a combination of salt and
dye-levelling agent is required. Levelling agents either form a complex with the
dyes used, or they temporarily bind to dyeing sites. At an elevated temperature, this
dye levelling agent complex is either slowly broken down or the high molecular
weight dye molecules slowly kick out the levelling agent from the dyeing sites and
then binds to those sites. In this way, the absorption of dye into fiber is controlled to
accomplish level dyeing. The application level of dye very much depends on the
required depth of shade. For pale shades, 0.05–1 % dye of the weight of fiber is
used, but a deeper black or navy shade, sometimes even 10 % dye of the weight of
fiber is used. Dyeing is usually carried out in a slightly acid dye bath at pH 5.5–6.0
for pale shades and 5.0–5.5 for deep shades. The temperature of dyeing depends on
the reactive groups of the dyes used. Depending on the depth of dyeing, an alkaline
treatment is necessary to achieve a high level of wet fastness (Fig. 19).
The dye bath is filled water, and salt, ammonium sulfate, acetic acid, and wetting
agents are added at 40 °C. The fabric is introduced in the dye bath, and running
dyes are added after 10 min. The temperature of the bath is raised to 65 °C (55 °C
for chlorinated wool) in 20 min and is held for 30 min. The temperature is again
raised to 98 °C in 30 min and is held for 30–45 min (depending on the depth of
shade required). The bath is then cooled to 85 °C in 10 min, and the pH is set at 8.5
80 M.M. Hassan
120
Non-chlorinated wool
100
Chlorinated wool
C
Temperature (°C)
80
60 A. Glauber’s salt + ammonium D

sulphate + acetic acid + wetting
40 A B agent
B. Dyes
20
C. Ammonium hydroxide
0
0 50 105 170
Dyeing time (min)
Fig. 19 Temperature profile for reactive dyes (Drimalan F) for possum-fiber dyeing
with ammonium hydroxide. After 15 min, the bath is further cooled 60 °C and
dropped. The fabric is rinsed and soaped at 50 °C for 20 min using a 1 g/l nonionic
detergent. Figure 16 shows fabric samples dyed with two levelling acid dyes.
7.2.3 Dyeing with Natural Dyes
People have used natural dyes since ancient times for dyeing carpets, rugs, and
clothing using the roots, stems, barks, leaves, berries, insects, vegetables, and
flowers of various dye plants (Yusuf et al. 2015). In recent decades, there has been a
renewed interest to use eco-friendly natural materials in daily life. Natural dyes
have been receiving increasing attention from researchers and dyers due to their
green image, low cost, environment friendliness, and their beneficial health and
safety aspects. Moreover, some of the natural dyes used in textile dyeing have
antimicrobial and UV-protective properties (Shahid et al. 2012; Dev et al. 2009;
Grifoni et al. 2011). Natural dye can be obtained from many plants, vegetables, and
insects—such as eucalyptus leaf extract (Mongkholrattanasit et al. 2009), Fusarium
oxysporum isolated from the roots of citrus trees (Nagia and El-Mohamedi 2007),
Chinese gall extract (Zhang et al. 2014), tea extract (Moiz et al. 2010), lac (Kamel
et al. 2005), and indigo carmine (Komboonchoo and Bechtold 2009)—to make a
variety of shades on various animal fibers. Natural dyes are always applied on
textile substrates by mordanting method, in which fiber is treated (before dyeing or
after dyeing) with a mordanting agent that forms a complex with the natural dyes
and provide wet-fastness properties. Tin chloride, potassium dichromate, copper
chloride, potassium alum, tannin, etc., are used as mordanting agents (Räisänen
et al. 2001; Smith et al. 2005; Grifoni et al. 2014; Prabhu and Teli 2014). However,
100
Temperature (°C)
80
60 D
B
40 C
A. Mordant + acetic acid + C. Dyes in the fresh bath + salt
wetting agent + acetic acid + levelling agent
20
A D. Drop the bath
B. Drop the bath
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Dyeing time (min)
Fig. 20 Temperature profile for natural dyes in premordanting process
some of the mordants used in dyeing animal fibers with natural dyes are not only
toxic but also carcinogenic or teratogenic. Copper beyond a certain limit also falls
under the eco-standard norms as an objectionable heavy metal (Samanta and Konar
2011). Stannous chloride is teratogenic and genotoxic, whereas potassium dichro-
mate is a possible carcinogen and mutagen (Sisman 2011; Gasiorowski et al. 1997;
Levis et al. 1978).
Dyeing procedure
Mordanting is carried out before dyeing (pre-mordanting) or after dyeing
(post-mordanting). Mordanting is carried out before dyeing (pre-mordanting) or
after dyeing (post-mordanting). Mordanting agents not only increase dye uptake by
the fiber but also form a complex with the dyes, thus making the dyes insoluble in
water and provide good wet-fastness properties. In the pre-mordanting method, the
fiber substrate is first treated with a mordanting agent at a materials-to-liquor ratio
of 1:5–1:30. The dye bath is filled with water, and the required quantity of mor-
danting and wetting agents are added. The substrate is then introduced, and the pH
of the bath is set at 3.0 with acetic/formic acid. The temperature is then raised to
boil at 2 °C/min and held for 1 h. Then bath is then cooled to 60 °C, dropped, and
rinsed. The bath is then filled, and pre-dissolved natural dye, leveling agent, and salt
are added. The temperature is again raised to boil at 2 °C/min and held for 1 h; after
which the bath is cooled to 60 °C; when the temperature reaches 60 °C, the bath is
dropped. The dyed samples are then rinsed and soaped at 60 °C for 15–20 min with
a 2 g/l nonionic detergent. Figure 20 shows the dyeing procedure in a schematic
diagram.
In the post-mordanting method, at first dyeing with natural dyes is carried out
according to the second step shown in Fig. 20. After the completion of dyeing, the
bath is dropped, and a new dye bath is prepared with fresh water. Then mordanting
with a mordanting agent is carried out according to the first step shown in Fig. 20.
After completion of mordanting, the bath is dropped, and the dyed materials are
rinsed and soaped with a nonionic detergent.
82 M.M. Hassan
Fig. 21 A winch (left) and a jet-dyeing machine (right). Source Melliand International 3 (2010)
112 and 3 (2010) 120. Published with the authorization of Deutscher Fachverlag GmbH, Germany
7.3 Dyeing Machines
Luxury textiles fibers are usually dyed in loose stock form; therefore, a
round-shaped, perforated basket type, loose-stock dyeing machine is used. In the
case of yarn dyeing, yarns are wrapped onto spools; several columns of spools are
stacked inside a yarn-dyeing machine; and dyeing is carried out. For fabric stage
dyeing, winch or jet-dyeing machines are mostly used. Figure 21 shows the internal
structure of a closed-loop winch-dyeing machine as well as a jet-dyeing machine.
7.4 Finishing Treatments
Finishing treatments are the last operations before marketing the fabric. Finishing
treatments are carried out to enhance the aesthetic appeal and also to improve the
functional performance of the fabric. However, possum fiber processing industries
sell their products as a finished garment rather than as a fabric. Possum fibers are
usually blended with wool; therefore, mostly wool-finishing processes are followed
for possum/merino wool blended fabrics or garments. The main finishing processes
are singeing, decatizing, softening, antimicrobial, antistatic, anti-shrinking,
anti-shedding, etc. In the singeing process, a fabric in flat form is passed over a
flame to burn out projecting fibers, which improves the aesthetic property of the
fabric. Decatizing is carried out on a decatizing machine (Fig. 22) to flatten the
fabric to remove creases, reduce shrinkage, and improve the stability and luster of
the fabric. In this process, the fabric is wrapped on a perforated drum, and the drum
is placed in a hot water bath or exposed to pressured steam. Decatizing is carried
out at 110–120 °C under 1- to 2-bar pressure.
Fig. 22 Schematic diagram

of a decatizing machine
To increase the softness and handling properties, the fabric is treated with
aminosilicone pre-polymers. A dispersion of the polymer is taken in a padding
mangle, and the fabric is passed through it and then squeezed to remove the extra
liquor. The fabric is then dried in a stenter machine in a stretched condition and then
cured at 150–180 °C for 60–90 s. Wool/possum blended fabrics are sometimes
treated with an insect-resistant or antibacterial agent to protect them from moth or
antimicrobial attack, respectively. Permethrin and imidacloprid are used as
insect-resist agents, and triclosan, polyhydroxybiguanide, and quaternary ammo-
nium compounds are used as antibacterial sgents (Goetzendorf-Grabowska et al.
2008; Hassan and Sunderland 2015). These are either added to the dye bath or to
the finishing bath (padding mangle).
8 Applications of Possum Fiber
Possum fur is used in furnishings, clothing, clothing accessories, blankets, and

footwear. Possum fiber made furnishings may include cushions and throws, which
at various weight ranges are very soft and comfortable. Clothing and accessories
made from possum fiber blends may include cardigans, jumpers, sweaters, wraps,
vests, jackets, scarves, beanies, gloves, socks, wrist warmers, shawls, tunics, hats,
berets, knee rugs, etc. It is also used in footwear including slippers and shoes.
Possum fiber made blankets are very soft and warm. In the near future, possum
fibers may find applications in duvets and pillows.
84 M.M. Hassan
8.1 Possum Fiber in Fashion Wear
During the last 15 years, possum fibre blended with merino or cashmere has been
accepted and established in the market as differentiated luxury yarn. Luxury
European brand Hermes-Paris produced and commercialized ready-to-wear collec-
tions of luxury ladies wear using brushtail possum fiber/wool blend yarns made by a
New Zealand-based yarn manufacturer named Woolyarns Limited. In New Zealand
and overseas, several merino wool/possum blends are marketed by a number of
brands including Koru, Lothlorian, Native World, Noble Wilde, Perino, and
Zealana. There are always sold as a luxurious fashion wear and fashion accessories at
premium prices that are much higher than those of merino wool products.
MERINOMINK© is a wool/possum fiber made into apparel and accessories is
marketed by Snowy Peak Limited (New Zealand) as shown in Figs. 23 and 24.
Fig. 23 Luxurious fashionable MERINOMINK© menswear and women’s wear. Source Images
are from Fiona Bretherton of Snowy Peak Limited. Published with the authorization of Snowy
Peak Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand
Fig. 24 Luxurious fashionable MERINOMINK© accessories. Source Images are from Fiona
Bretherton of Snowy Peak Limited. Published with the authorization of Snowy Peak Limited,
Christchurch, New Zealand
86 M.M. Hassan
9 Conclusions
Possum fiber is a wonderful fiber of nature with high warmth, light weight, very
soft, and lustrous. The fibers are hollow in the length direction, which traps air, thus
providing high warmth. The fibers are bluish grey to black and are mostly produced
without any kind of chemical processing, which reduces environmental impacts and
the carbon footprint of possum-fiber processing. The key sustainability issue is the
trapping and killing methods used to harvest the fiber from possum. Alternatives
could be stunning possum before killing or poisoning the animals with toxins that
incapacitate the nerve system of the animal or toxins that quickly kill the animal.
Possum fiber is rich in melanins, which give them a quite dark color. However, for
dyeing in bright shades, they must be bleached, which is quite complicated and
cannot be done without causing some level of damage to the fiber. Possum fiber is
used in making various kinds of clothing and clothing accessories, blankets, and
footwear. There is the opportunity to make the fiber further sustainable by using no
harmful chemicals and also by stopping the use of dangerous toxicants to kill
possum, which can endanger other forest animals and birds.
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Natural Fibres for Sustainable
Development in Fashion Industry
Sanjoy Debnath
Abstract Ample numbers of natural fibres are available in nature from plants,
animals, insects, and minerals. Each fibre is different from others, and that causes
difference in their properties. Accordingly, these fibres alone, or in admixture with
other fibres, are used in the design and development of specific fashion products.
With time, different fashion industries have been developed all over the world for
manufacturing different fibre-based fashion products. There is a huge potential of
value addition in these fashion industries with the intervention of newer product
design. Again, in this fashion industry, apart from newer design, avoiding the use of
common natural fibres (cotton, wool, silk, etc.) commands more profit. Recent
trends also show the use of these natural fibres for sustainable growth in this fashion
industry. This chapter also deals with future aspects of the use of uncommon natural
fibre for sustainable fashion industry.
Keywords Fashion industries Natural fibres Plant fibres Sustainable devel-

opment Known plant fibres
1 Introduction—Natural Fibres, Sources and Application

—An Overview
Nature has gifted humankind with a wide range of fibrous material. Based on the
source, natural fibres are primarily classified into two categories: plant fibre and
animal fibre. These plant fibres further classified into various categories such as leaf
fibre, bast fibre, seed fibre, fruit fibre, etc.; on the other hand, animal fibres are also
categorized as hair fibre, insect-secretion fibre, etc. Almost all animal fibres are
protein-based, and plant fibres are cellulosic. Apart from the protein and cellulose as
S. Debnath (&)
Division of Mechanical Processing, ICAR-National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied
Fibre Technology, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 12, Regent Park, Kolkata
700040, West Bengal, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_4
90 S. Debnath
major components for animal and plant fibres, respectively, these fibres contain
many other components. Because all of these natural fibres come from biological
sources, renewability or sustainability is not a big issue. For the fashion industry,
along with manmade fibres, developments in the progress of the product and
process of natural fibre are parallel.
Nowadays, people are more conscious about natural fibres and their uses
(Debnath 2014a) due to their environmentally friendly nature because the
disposal/degradation after use is not questionable. For this reason, many fashion
products are now being stressed for development with natural fibres. In this chapter,
most of the natural plant fibres used in the fashion industry will be covered. These
fashion products are of two types: wearable and nonwearable. People are looking
more for the use of uncommon/unexplored natural fibres in fashion products.
Elite-class people are ready to pay more money for fashion products made out of
natural fibres rather than products made out of common plant fibres such as cotton,
wool, etc. Sometimes some manmade and natural fibres are blended with these
known fibres to improve the functional properties of the final products (Basu and
Roy 2008). The long plant fibres used most in fashion are jute, flax/linen, ramie,
pineapple, sisal, nettle, coir, etc.; these fibres are sometimes blended with uncon-
ventional fibres such as cotton, viscose, polyester, acrylic, etc., to improve the look
and feel of the final fashion product.
In the fashion industry, apart from manmade fibres, long plant fibres are gen-
erally extracted from different parts of the plant, viz., bark/bast/stem, seed, leaf, etc.
are converted into textile yarn and fabric, which are used for fashion applications.
There are many such plants in nature whose sap extracted from root, stem, leaves,
barks, fruits, and seeds are used to extract natural dye used to colour fashion
products. The natural fibres are cultivated; hence they are annually renewable in
nature. This fact should be given more emphasis so that fashion products can be
diversified. The fashion industry can be sustainable if the proper market and value
of the fashion products are paid. Nevertheless, the present term “sustainable” also
means taking care of mother Earth so that fibre can be green, production processes
can be green, and fashion products can be free from synthetic materials. Minimal
use of toxic chemicals and maximize utilization of plant extracts would sustain the
fashion industry for the long term. This present chapter will cover to a great extent
sustainable fashion textiles with reference to plant fibres other than cotton.
2 Fibres for the Fashion Industry—Natural

and Man-Made Fibres, Blending of Fibres for Fashion
Textiles, and the Importance of Using Known Fibres
Jute fibre has been a fibre known for more than a century for its industrial appli-
cations such as sacking/packaging, geotextiles, and carpet backing (Debnath et al.
2009). However, in last few decades, there have been lots of works wherein jute has
Natural Fibres for Sustainable Development in Fashion Industry 91
been used as fashion products in different wearable and nonwearable fashion

products. The demand for conventional products has declined due to the easy
availability of low-cost synthetic materials. Export demand has also been reduced
due to stringent norms due to presence of band residual chemical traces. Hence,
many industries are now concentrating on the development jute-diversified products
for fashion and jute bags for the packaging of agricultural produce. It has been
found from the literature that jute with ornamentation—using suitable modifications
in spinning (Debnath 2013b, 2014c), weaving, and knitting as well as nonwoven,
handloom fabrics with an attractive look of elegance—can be made (Anonymous
2006a). Fashion design aspects have been considered at the fabric-manufacturing
stage and others in dress making with designed fabric (garment manufacturing).
Figure 1 shows a fashion shawl made from jute-based material (Anonymous
2006a). A jute-based fashion jacket and blazer are shown in Fig. 2a, b, respectively.
Furthermore, jute-based fashion garments were exhibited in fashion shows at
GIFTEX Stationex and Jutex 2005 in August 2005 at Mumbai (Anonymous
2006b). Models wore jute-based decorative fashion garments in the fashion parade
(Figs. 3a through c). The literature also reveals that apart from these conventional
products, jute can be used for the development of value-added green textiles. Some
of these jute-based green textiles are fashionable, and some are of industrial
application in nature. Fashionable green products from jute-based materials
(Debnath et al. 2009) include fashion garments (Debnath 2013a, 2014b, 2015b)
such as bulked yarns for sweaters, jute slippers, decorative and fashion products
Fig. 1 Jute-based fashion

shawls
92 S. Debnath
Fig. 2 a Jute-based fashion jacket as winter garment. b Jute-based fashion blazer
Fig. 3 a Jute-based fashion ladies’ garment worn in fashion show. b Fancy jute-based ladies’
wear worn in fashion show. c Male fashion apparel from jute used worn in fashion show
from handmade paper, fashionable shopping bags, fancy curtain materials, etc.
These uncommon products are being marketed to some extent at prices that fetch
good revenue.
The earliest example of preserved linen appears to be a needle-netted linen
headpiece from Nahal Hemar Cave in Israel from 8500 years ago, and Swiss Lake
Dwellers used a native flax to make cloth 5000–6000 years ago. Linen was the
preferred textile of the ancient Egyptians who used it for clothing, bed linen,
shrouds for mummies, and ships’ sails. The earliest Egyptian linen cloth dates from
the Old Kingdom, but flax appears to be have been grown for linen approximately
5000 years ago in the Early Dynastic period. In today’s scenario, when we talk
about flax fibre, it is well known as linen fashion as well as formal apparel for both
males and females. Many leading manufacturers of linen-based products exist all
over the world. Different blended linen products (Basu and Dutta 2014) are
linen/cotton (warp cotton, weft linen or warp cotton, weft cotton/linen blend yarn),
linen-based/cotton (warp cotton, weft linen/jute, linen/ramie, linen-pineapple, or
linen/silk waste, etc.), linen/synthetic (warp polyester/cotton or polyester/viscose
blend, weft linen, linen/jute, or linen/cotton, etc.), etc. Apart from these, there is
huge scope to develop many other blended materials from linen. Elite men as well
as women currently prefer linen-based apparel mainly for comfort apart from its
esthetic look. Linen fibre material can absorb moisture quickly from body perspi-
ration, and this provides cool and comfort in humid conditions. As far as the
properties of the fibre are concerned, linen fibre material swells and thus improves
the strength under wet conditions. This is one of the reasons linen/flax blend is
normally preferred to spin under wet rather than dry conditions. As far as the
international market is concerned, many pure/blended linen products are available
such as ramie/linen Kurti for women for casual wear, linen blend trousers (50 %
viscose, 35 % cotton, 15 % linen. The White label (65 % viscose, 25 % cotton,
10 % linen) by Joanna Hope, linen-mix trousers and shorts (55 % linen, 45 %
cotton) by SOUTHBAY, single-breasted linen mix blazer (55 % linen, 45 % cotton;
lining: polyester) by Williams and Brown: All of these are examples of lightweight
fashion fabrics will keep you cool but stylish in the warm weather. Apparel (54 %
cotton, 46 % linen) by Black Level Jacamo, linen mix 3/4 pants (55 % linen, 45 %
cotton) by Southbay, ladies fashion linen-bow decorated straw-braid summer sun
hat (linen 100 %), linen women’s summer wide-brim sun hat style “Wedding
Church Sea Beach” (linen 100 %) by Kentucky Derby, ladies sexy pleated
criss-cross fashion linen dress, women’s white linen dress (100 % linen), female
slim blazer/short jacket/linen blazer/ladies coat, ladies linen thongs and
underwear/briefs (85 % linen, 12 % nylon, 3 % spandex), women’s linen socks
(85 % linen,15 % nylon), etc. all show that there a good fashion market exists
internationally.
Pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) is another unexplored natural fibre extracted from
the green pineapple plant leaf, which is normally considered an agricultural product
(Banik et al. 2011). Pineapple leaf fibre also has immense potential for use as a fibre
source in the arena of sustainable fashion textiles (Debnath 2016). This fibre is very
strong, lustrous, and creamy in colour. It found during a review (Anonymous
2015a) that pineapple leaf fibre is considered to be more delicate in texture than any
other vegetal fibre. One kilo of leaves may provide ≤15 to 18 pieces of white,
creamy, and lustrous silk-like fibre approximately 60 cm long, and it easily retains
dyes. These leaf fibres are scraped by means of a broken plate or coconut shell, and
a fast scraper can extract fibre from >500 leaves/day, after which the fibres are
washed and dried in the open air. Then they are waxed to remove tangles, and the
94 S. Debnath
fibres are knotted and bound into yarns for the next process of weaving it the yarn
to fabric. Pineapple fabrics are mainly used for creating Barong Tagalog and other
formal wear. It is also used for other products where a lightweight but stiff and sheer
fabric is needed. It is sometimes combined with silk or polyester to create a textile
fabric. The end fabric is lightweight, easy to care for, and has an elegant appearance
similar to that of linen. Pineapple silk is considered the “queen” of Philippine
fabrics and is considered the fabric of choice of the Philippine elite. In the
Philippines, PALF-based fabric is also popularly known as pina fabric. Different
fashion products (both apparel and nonapparel) are available in the market made up
of PALF. Figure 4 shows Filipino shirts that are national dress, worn by everyone
from the Filipino president to brides and grooms, made from piña, a type of fabric
made from pineapple fabric (Anonymous 2015b). Because the pineapple leaf fibre
is lustrous, the cloth made out of this fabric is very lustrous even after it is dyed, and
thus garments become even more eye-catching (Fig. 5).
Although pineapple fabrics were first created in the Philippines, the pineapple
plant actually originated in South America around the region of Paraguay. In the
16th century, Spaniards invaded the Northern Philippines and planted pineapple
plants, which they had discovered can grow successfully in their hot and moist
island tropical climate. As far as the global market is concerned, Anonymous
(2015d) is one of the commercial sellers of different types of pineapple leaf fibre
based fabric globally. As far as blended pineapple leaf fibre material is concerned,
Ghosh and Sinha (1977) is a pioneer in textile product development from PALF
fibre. In their study, they used a special technique to spin pineapple in jute-spinning
machinery. They found that fine pineapple leaf fibre could be spun into in yarns of
70- to 170-tex linear densities, which are prerequisite for fashion textiles. However,
Fig. 4 Fashion shirt made

from pineapple leaf fibre used
during wedding in the
Philippines (Anonymous
2015b)
Fig. 5 Pineapple fabrics and

their lustrous eye-catching
luxury and beauty as made by
couture designers
(Anonymous 2015c)
in admixture with jute, 10–15 % pineapple fibre will improve the performance of
jute-blended yarn, and fine jute/pineapple blend yarn can be produced. These fine
pineapple and pineapple/jute blend yarns, plain and twill woven cloth, have been
developed for sustainable fashion fabric development. Furthermore, these light-
weight fashion fabrics are used to design fashion bags, curtains, furnishing fabrics,
etc. Finally, the authors concluded that for sustainable fashion textiles, pineapple
leaf fibre or jute/pineapple leaf fibre blend products have huge potential. Along the
same line of research, Ghosh et al. (1982) carried out the processing of pineapple
leaf fibre in a cotton-spinning system. Before processing in the cotton-spinning
system, they studied and compared the physical and mechanical properties of
cotton, jute, and pineapple leaf fibres. It was observed in their study that the 100 %
pineapple leaf fibre is not at all possible to spin into yarn in cotton-spinning
machinery. Hence, they tried to process PALF of different proportions (50, 33,
20 %) with cotton. From this study they optimized a blend of pineapple and cotton
(50:50). Although the spinning performance is poor in cotton/pineapple blended
fibre, a huge amount of cotton can be saved, and thereby value-added green
products can be made out of this blended yarn. In the same area of blending
pineapple leaf fibre evidence exists to study the performance of blended pineapple
leaf fibre/acrylic fibre in jute-spinning systems (Ghosh et al. 1987; Dey et al. 2009).
These authors studied the fibre properties of pineapple leaf fibre and acrylic fibres
and compared their similarities and dissimilarities. Five different blends of
96 S. Debnath
pineapple leaf fibre and acrylic fibre have been tried, viz., 87:13; 67:33; 50:50;
33:67, and 13:87. From all of these blends, fine yarns of 84 tex were spun in a
wet-spinning process where the rove was passed through a temperature bath (80–
100° C) before spinning. They also spun the same yarns through a dry-spinning
process. Finally, they compared the dry- and wet-spinning process and found that in
wet spinning the breaking stress was reduced but the breaking strain was improved
by 6 times. The optimum blend composition found from their studies is 67:33
pineapple/acrylic blend yarn (Basu and Roy 2008). The wet-spinning performance
is much superior to that of the dry spinning method. Finally, the authors also
concluded that there is ample scope for the development of green fancy apparel
products out of these pineapple/acrylic blended yarns (Dey et al. 2009; Basu et al.
2006). In their papers, Ghosh and Dey (1988), Ghosh and Sinha (1977) showed
different prospects and possibilities of pineapple leaf fibre based textiles for fashion
apparel. Their study also confirms the types of fashion apparel/outerwear applica-
tions and fashion shopping bags, table cloths, etc. That can be made from
PALF-based material.
Dogan et al. (2008) reported that the stem and fibre of stinging nettle are used to
prepare traditional handicrafts in several Balkan countries. This nettle fibrous
material in Bulgaria, locally known as Kopriva, is used for the sustainable devel-
opment of cloth, sack, cord, and net manufacturing applications. In Romania, nettle
is known as Urzica, and it is used as a substitute for cotton in fishing net and paper
making. It is known as Kopriva in Serbia, where nettle fibre is considered to be one
of the major textile fibres used in the spinning industry to produce textile products.
Overall, there is a wide range of possible handicraft products (doormats, flower
vases, wall hangings, door chains, carpets, hand bags, table mats, beach umbrellas,
lamp shades, etc.) that can be made out of nettle either from fibre or yarn, fabric, or
combination of these. All of these products have huge profit margin due to their
high cost-to-benefit ratio. Most of the handicraft products fall under the category of
fashion items. Similarly, Dunsmore (2006), in her findings, explained how different
handicraft products are made out of nettle fibres and hand-spun yarn from Nepal.
This study also elaborates on the sustainable rural livelihood earned through the
cultivation of nettle to handicraft development of nettle products. This
handicraft-making from nettle fibrous material by rural hill people created an
alternative source of income during the lean period of agricultural activities.
Economic development to the nettle-processing community of Nepal has been
created through proper marketing strategy and exporting fashion textiles and
handicraft products to Europe and America (Dunsmore 1998). Bacci et al. (2010)
also reported that for sustainable handicraft products made from nettle, it is essential
to use enzymatic retting to obtain the best quality fibre. Deokota and Chhetri (2009)
reported in their research that handloomed products and handicrafts are sold
side-by-side to promote nettle-based products in Nepal. These include coarse
hand-woven cloths, sacks, bags, fishnets, and namlo (head straps to carry load),
which are sold in the local market or in some cases are bartered for food or other
necessary items in some rural communities. They have also demonstrated various
sustainable fashion products made out of nettle and its blends such as hats, jacket,
room decorations, and various handicraft products. Many of such products are
available in the international market. An internationally known company, Swicofil
(Anonymous 2015e), has used the juice of the nettle stem, and leaves have been
used to produce a permanent green dye, whereas a yellow dye can be obtained form
boiling the roots of nettle plant and used for dyeing fashion clothes. Both of the
colours have been used extensively in Russia for fashion garments. Furthermore, an
Italian fashion company, Savage Designs, introduced an environment friendly
alternative to contemporary textiles and dyes. A light nettle jacket (Fig. 6) made of
70 % hand-spun and -woven wild nettle blended with 30 % organic cotton, unisex
wild nettle pants (Fig. 7a, b), black-colored wild nettle jeans (Fig. 8), and a fashion
ladies dress and shawl (Fig. 9a, b, respectively) are some of the commercial
products made of nettle that are available in the global market.
Similar to nettle, ramie is also another bast fibre extracted from the bark of the
ramie plant. Literature (Anonymous 2015f) reveals that ramie is also known as
China grass, grass linen, rhea, and grass cloth. It is said that ramie fibers are one of
the oldest natural vegetable fibers and have been used for thousands of years for
fabric and clothing including ancient Egyptian mummy wraps and shrouds. The
fiber is white, lustrous, and fine like silk. However, it is somewhat stiff and brittle,
which is great for coarser products such as twine, rope, wallpaper, and nets. Ramie
is often used as a substitute for cotton. When spun wet, it produces a high-luster
softer yarn. Dry spinning results in a harsher, hairier yarn. The versatility of ramie
fiber allows it to be made into fine yarn for all types of garments ranging from
dresses and suits to sportswear and jeans. Fabrics made of 100 % long and fine
ramie fibers are lightweight and silky. The fibers are uneven, which gives ramie
fabric a similar appearance to linen. To produce fabrics with various improved
characteristics, ramie is often blended with other fibers such as cotton. By doing so,
the creation of fabrics from fine linens to coarse canvas gives ramie fibers almost
unlimited potential. By blending with wool, the fabric is lighter, and shrinking is
Fig. 6 Coloured jacket made

out of nettle fibre
98 S. Debnath
Fig. 7 a, b Self-designed fashionable nettle unisex pants
minimized. Cotton blends result in increased strength, color, and luster, whereas
rayon blends result in a higher wet strength. Ramie is also commonly used as a
substitute for flax/linen and can also be blended with silk fibers. Ramie/China grass
fibers are commonly used in blends for sewing threads, fashion sweaters, fancy
clothing, and linens. Due to the fashion industry becoming more and more
eco-conscious, the popularity of ramie will continue to rise. Interest in ramie is
being rekindled, and it is appearing more often in the fiber content of clothing and
textiles. Because of the trend toward natural fibers, expect to see ramie become
even more popular. Ramie fabric is used for apparel including suits, skirts, jackets,
dresses, shirts, blouses, pants, and handkerchiefs. It is also commonly used in
home-fashion articles such as draperies, upholstery, linens, and thread (Anonymous
2015f). Industrial uses of ramie include parachute fabrics, fire hoses, and canvas.
High-quality paper goods, such as bank notes and cigarette papers, are produced
from the short fibers. Research findings show the processing technology of
cotton/ramie blends (Anonymous 2002a, b) on short-staple spinning system (cotton
spinning). Because both of the fibres are of natural plant origin, the final products
are environmental friendly. Different fashion items, such as Lisingphee, fancy
ramie/cotton woven towels, fancy designed fabrics, etc., are some of the novel
fashion products developed form cotton/ramie blended yarns. However, less effort
has been documented in the sustainability of the product. The main problem
associated with ramie fibre is its gum content. Ramie fibre usually contains as high
Fig. 8 Blue-coloured ladies

jeans
as 30 % gum. Two processes are normally used to extract the removal of gum of the
fibre: One is chemical (alkaline treatment), and the other is microbial/enzymatic
process. Although the microbiol process is more sustainable, it is associated with
greater cost and is a time-consuming process. China is popular for the development
of eco-friendly sustainable ramie-based textile products for fashion products.
Different international repute companies (Joanna Hope linen blend trousers) are
marketing ramie/linen Kurti for women’s fashion wear.
Banana fibre is another unexplored natural fibre used in the fashion industry for
sustainable product development. These fibres are extracted from the pseudo-stem
of the banana plant. The fibres are bleached and blended with jute fibre aiming for a
diversified, value-added fashionable product (Debnath and Das 2012). The authors
focused on different fashion products made from banana-based textiles. Sinha
(1974a, b) is pioneer in making the effort to blend banana-based fibre for different
product development. This work elaborates the use of white jute, tossa jute, and
kenaf, which were blended at different proportions for the development of different
sustainable products. Anonymous (2012a) reported conventional hydrogen
100 S. Debnath
Fig. 9 a Women’s fashion gown made from nettle. b Women’s fashion shawl made from nettle
peroxide bleaching, which is used to bleach the fibre, alter which further dyeing is
carried out. Trials have been performed on jute/banana fibre in different blend ratios
(100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100), and the properties of the yarn were
compared. Due to the coarseness and brittleness of the banana fibre, 100 % banana
fibre shows poor results when spun. Furthermore, Anonymous (2012b) disclosed
further that bleached and dyed jute-banana fibre blended yarns can be used to
develop ornamental fibre using a jacquard attachment on a handloom. The deco-
rated fabrics are used for the development of fashion jackets and other garments.
Hence, there is immense potential to design and develop green banana fibre based
textiles (Basu et al. 2006; Basu and Roy 2008). Apart from these, in commercial
market, a banana fibre cardigan by People Tree (Fig. 10), hand-crafted in Nepal
using banana fibres with an open gauge finish, features a deep V neckline,
raglan-style long sleeves, twin pockets at the hips, and a single button fastening at
the front (Anonymous 2015i). In Denmark, pants designed with a logline fit
(Fig. 11) are made from silky banana fibre based material. They are available online
in Denmark from Edwin Milano Baker. Apart from these fashion garments, sarees
(Fig. 12) made from silk/banana fibre blend material are also available in the global
market (Anonymous 2015k). Banana fibre also found importance in the fashion
footwear industry (Fig. 13), wherein every component of the fashion footwear can
be made different parts of the banana plant. Overall, there is an immense scope for
using banana fibre in the fashion industry for sustainable development. This
remuneration is due to extra utilization, and hence income, from the unused part of
Fig. 10 Fashion banana-fibre

cardigan for women
(Anonymous 2015i)
Fig. 11 Logline-fit pants

made from banana fibre
(Anonymous 2015i)
102 S. Debnath
Fig. 12 Banana/silk blend

fashion saree (Anonymous
2015k)
Fig. 13 Banana-fibre fashion

footwear (Anonymous 2015k)
the banana plant after the banana crops are harvested. Nowadays, there exist some
online marketing industries that deal with banana fibre based fashion textiles
globally (Anonymous 2015j, l).
Sisal in one of the unexplored fibres extracted from the leaf of the sisal plant.
Brazil is a pioneer in cultivating this fibre for rope twine, paper, cloth, wall cov-
erings, dartboards, etc., as well as for different fashion applications (Anonymous
2015m). The literature also reveals that different commercial manufacturers
worldwide are involved in producing sisal-based fashion products (Anonymous
2015g, h, m, n). A Thailand manufacturer/exporter/wholesaler of natural handmade
handbags based in Bangkok provides sustainable and trendy sisal ladies’ handbags,
shopping bags, cosmetic bags and cases, gift bags, promotional gifts, shoulder bags,
hats, handmade baskets, etc., and other various products at very attractive prices.
Apart from the green-fashion area of sisal fibres, this fibre is also blended with wool
and nylon for manufacturing fashion carpets and rugs (Anonymous 2015n). One of
the important fashion as well as utility product made from sisal is sisal-based body
scrubber. Basu et al. (2012) highlighted different prospects including fashion
aspects of Indian-variety sisal. Anonymous (2004) developed an innovative pro-
cessing technology of sisal/jute blends for the production of body scrubbers that
have potential to replace the existing shoddy nylon scrubber. Overall, there is huge
potential to develop sustainable fashion product from sisal.
Coconut/coir fibre is extracted from the outer shell of the coconut fruit. White
and brown coconut fibres are the two main types of fibre available. White fibres are
extracted from the green (tender) coconut, and brown fibres are extracted from
mature coconut; the latter takes 3–6 months of retting in brackish water
(Bhattacharya and Basu 2009). There are evidences about the processing of coconut
(coir) fibre (Cocos nucifera) in small-scale jute-spinning systems (Anonymous
2002b). Anonymous (2006a, b) developed different types of lightweight handbags
of fancy designs that go nicely with fashion garments. Further, Anonymous (2012c)
reported that jute (60 % plus 40 % coconut) can be blended further for the
development of value-added jute/coconut fibre blend yarn. The blended yarn is
further used for the development of ornamental woven fabric can be used for
fashionable ladies slippers, decorative handbags, etc. Furthermore, work has been
performed to soften the coir fibre for better flexibility, and attempt have been made
to develop dyed jute/coconut fibre blend yarn. It has also been documented that
ornaments such as fashion necklaces (Fig. 14) have been designed by artists in
Papara, Tahiti, and French Polynesia wherein the hybridization of coconut fiber,
coconut shell, and black pearl is used for the development of fashion items
(Anonymous 2015o). Furthermore, fashion footwear (Fig. 15) also uses sustainable
coconut fibre.
104 S. Debnath
Fig. 14 Fashion necklace

made from the hybridization
of coconut fiber, coconut
shell, and black pearl
Fig. 15 Unisex fashion

footwear made from coconut
fibre
3 Sustainable Fashion Industry—Fashion Fibres, Fibres

for Fashion Products, Product Diversification,
Technology Gap, Economics in Using Known Natural
Fibres in Fashion Industry, Problem Associated
with the Fashion Industry
Apart from cotton, silk, and wool, many other known plant fibres, such as jute,
banana, sisal, flax, ramie, coir, etc., have immense potential in sustainable
fashion-product development. Most of these fibres plants do not need specialized
attention during the production of the fibre (coir, jute, nettle, banana, pineapple,
etc.). Because of this, many of these fibres have been used together for several
centuries before much development was made in science and technology. The main
advantages of these natural fibres are that they come from plant sources and the
process of producing them, from production to fibre extraction, is sustainable
(Debnath 2015a). With advances in fibre technology, many synthetic/artificial fibres
have been developed and used for past 60 decades. However, in the last 15–
20 years, special attention has been given to using lesser quantities of synthetic
fibre, and more emphasis has been placed on the use of natural fibres in different
areas of fibre application. With this, the production of natural fibre obtained special
attention, and application of these fibres in different textile fields, including fashion,
also increased. Due to the scarcity of agricultural land and urbanization in limited
areas, greater amounts of fibre are being produced (for example 85–90 lakh
bales/year of raw jute were produced during 1990–1995, and there was an increase
in he production of 115–120 lakh bales/year during 2010–2013. However, along
with this improved productivity, more importance is being placed on the sustain-
ability of production systems.
In cottage and small-scale industries, fashion products are being produced
directly from raw plant fibres without much use of chemicals and machinery. Some
fancy items are also being produced in decentralized sectors. However, large
industries, including composite plants, are used to producing fashion products in
huge quantities. Many common products can be made from unexplored plant fibres
such as sacks, both for packaging, agricultural applications (Debnath 2014a), etc.
However, there will be huge value addition if we switch to the production of
diversified fashion and lifestyle items from conventional products. Many of the
industries processing natural fibres worldwide are now concentrating on value
addition in product design. For instance, jewelry made from jute fibres/coconut/sisal
fibres require a lower quantity (a few grams) of such fibres, and the value gain in final
fashion products made of such fibre is a few hundred times. Hence, product diver-
sification from conventional products is order of the day for sustainable development
in the fashion industry.
In many cases, these natural plant fibres require tedious processes, including human
drudgery, to extract the fibres from the plant component (Basu and Dutta 2014), and
different chemicals and energy consuming processes (Debnath 2014c) are being used
to convert those fibrous materials into yarn, fabric, and, finally, fashion products.
These processes are compensated by extra profit when marketing those fashion items.
With time, people are becoming aware about environmentally friendly/green chem-
icals and processes. Hence, more effort should be given, and in-depth research should
be performed, to using more environmentally friendly chemical processing (Basu and
Dutta 2014). It is also essential to use energy in an economical mode to form an overall
sustainable process. For instance, in the jute industry, jute-batching oil is used to
process the jute fibre during spinning. This oil is extracted during the
petroleum-refining process and has been found to pose carcinogenic effects to human
health. A substitute hydrocarbon-free oil has been developed, which is from vegetable
origin and can be used to address this problem (Basu et al. 2009). However, this
green-processing oil technology is somewhat less cost-effective and in some cases
leads to technical problems during processing. Because some fashion products come
into direct contact with the skin during their use, the eco-friendliness of the product—
as well as the processes of its development—plays an important role.
Natural plant fibres have various advantages as reported by Anonymous (2015f).
For instance, ramie fibre is highly absorbent, has a natural ability to resist stains, has
a lustrous appearance, is strong and durable, is naturally resistant to bacteria, molds,
and mildew, has low elasticity so it does not shrink easily, can withstand higher
water temperatures, has good dimensional stability, is resistant to light, rot, and
106 S. Debnath
insect attack, dyes easily, and the fiber can be bleached plus it absorbs heat and
releases moisture making it comfortable to wear in warm weather, etc. The clothing
and textile fashion industry recognizes ramie as a premium product because it is one
of the strongest natural fibers. Ramie fibre can be up to 8 times stronger than cotton
and has the quality of being even stronger when it is wet. Ramie is a member of the
nettle family, so it is well suited to growing in tropical climates. This hardy perennial
can be harvested up to six times a year with a useful crop life of 6–20 years, and it
produces premium long vegetable fibers. It is a highly sustainable fiber source,
which makes it a wonderful eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fibers. High yields
of biomass are often produced, but ramie is susceptible to pests and disease. Fiber
extraction is an expensive process, which leads to a higher price for ramie fibers
(Anonymous 2015f). Unlike ramie, jute is also a highly sustainable fibre crop. It
absorbs huge amount of carbon dioxide and makes the environment clean and
pollution free (Bhattacharya 2013). Many of the unexplored fibre crops are also
sustainable due to multiple use of the plant components such as coconut plant apart
from the fruit, coir fibre, pineapple fruit and fibre from its leaf, banana fruit and fibre
from the plant, linseed oil from the plant and fiber from the plant stem, etc. However,
emphasis must be put on the extraction process to get a better economic return due to
difficulties in fibre extraction (Basu and Dutta 2014; Bhattacharya and Basu 2009).
4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
Natural fibres are the ultimate resource for future fashion industries. Due to scarcities
of natural reserve resources, synthetic fibre production will decline in near future.
Optimum use of energy will produce a good amount of natural fibres, which as yet
remain unexplored. Greater application of eco-friendly processing technology and
product diversification will sustain the fashion industry. It can also be concluded from
this chapter that there are many fashion/utility materials based on natural plant fibres
(not explored much) that have immense potential with proper marketing, advertising,
and appropriate technologies to convert those fibres into yarn and, finally, fashion
products. Minimum use of man-made chemicals and maximum use of natural
chemicals (natural dye) will lead to green process and a sustainable fashion industry.
Finally, each and every fibre has unique properties, and thus blending them with
different natural fibres or blending them with a minimum quantity of synthetic fibre
will also provide diversified end uses as far as sustainable fashion is concerned.
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Sustainable Biopolymer
Fibers—Production, Properties
and Applications
Karthik Thangavelu and Krishna Bala Subramani
Abstract The ultimatum for renewable raw materials is growing steadily as the
drive for a green economy and a sustainable future accelerates. Escalating environ-
mental problems and changing attitudes of consumers have made petroleum-based
manufactured products more expensive and less desirable in the present world.
Biopolymers, which are biological or biologically derived polymers, are a
petroleum-free source of fibers for the textile industry and have a significant positive
impact by reducing the dependence on fossil fuels as well as the carbon foot print and
may even offer cost and durability benefits compared with synthetic textiles. This
chapter deals with the less investigated and emerging biopolymer fibers, which will
have huge impact on sustainable luxury fashion in the future. Bio-fibers from animal
protein (spider silk, hag fish slime), regenerated cellulose (seaweed), and regenerated
protein (milk fiber) as well as biopolymers synthesized from bio-derived monomers
(PLA, PTT) are discussed in depth. The raw materials for production/extraction of
fibers and their properties, applications, and ecological impacts are discussed.

Keywords Sustainability Luxury Biopolymer Spider silk Hagfish slime

Seaweed Milk fiber PLA PTT
1 Introduction
The terms “sustainability” and “luxury” were one considered oxymorons, but a
paradigm shift is taking place as luxury brands are embracing sustainability, and
new concept of sustainable luxury and fashion is emerging. During the past decade,
K. Thangavelu (&)
Department of Textile Technology, PSG College of Technology, Peelamedu,
Coimbatore 641004, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
K.B. Subramani
Development Engineer, Orthopedic Soft Goods, BSN Medicals GmbH, Hamburg, Germany

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_5
110 K. Thangavelu and K.B. Subramani
sustainability has been developing in all industries, and luxury textiles and the
fashion industry are no exception.
According to the UN World Commission on Environment and Development,
also known as Brundtland Report, sustainability is defined as “meeting the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs” (Brundtland and Khalid 1987). It is also defined by the UK Forum for
the Future, 2006 as “A dynamic process which enables all people to realize their
potential and improve their quality of life in ways which simultaneously protect and
enhance the Earth’s life support system.” In simple words, sustainability is devel-
opment for environmental, economic, and social well-being for today and tomor-
row. It is based on two concepts: the concept of needs and the idea of limitations on
the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. Sustainable develop-
ment implies the minimization of adverse impacts on the quality of air, water, and
other natural elements so as to sustain the ecosystem’s overall integrity. In contrast
to sustainability, luxury is defined as something that a consumer “wants” rather than
“needs,” and it varies depending on cultural, economic, or regional basis (Joy et al.
2012). Although these concepts of “sustainability” and “luxury” contradict one
another, in recent times customers who have concerns about both environment and
his or her quality of life are looking for luxury textiles with sustainability, i.e.,
“sustainable luxury.”
The clothing/textile industry involves heterogeneous processes covering a wide
range of activities: obtaining raw materials, production of yarn and fabrics, finishing
and processing, and transformation of fabric into garments (Gardetti and Torres
2013a, b). Procurement of raw material is first or critical step for making sustainable
textiles. Raw materials that are used extensively in textiles include plant fibers such
as cotton, animal fibers such as wool and silk, and synthetic fibers such as polyester,
aramid, acrylic, nylon, spandex, and carbon. These raw materials create a signifi-
cant impact on the environment with the excessive use of pesticides and con-
sumption of water in case of plant fibers and with treatments such as scouring in
case of animal fibers as well as due to relying on nonrenewable resources for the
manufacturing of synthetic fibers. Thus, there is a strong need of raw materials that
are sustainable.
The recent idea of “seasonal new collection” in the apparel industry encourages
consumers to purchase more clothes. An increase in buying fashion apparels raises
the rate of textile consumption. Consequently, more textile waste will be created.
The fashion carbon footprint of today dispels that myth as sustainable fashion
designs increase in popularity and fashion styles move in the direction of
eco-friendly apparel. The clothing-manufacturing process involves the design of
garments, making patterns and samples, cutting the fabric and sewing the garments,
and finishing and packaging the garments for distribution. Environmental sustain-
ability issues differ throughout the manufacturing process. For example, smaller
manufacturers might depend on a number of sewers at different locations, often
Sustainable Biopolymer Fibers … 111
home-based workers. This can increase fuel consumption and greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions because products must be transported from one location to another
for each process rather than being processed in a factory. In some cases, the product
might be sent in batches to different sewers who are spread across a large area. Thus,
the apparel industry has sustainability issues throughout the supply chain.
In today’s world, fashion is not limited to the aesthetic look of the garment; the
functional features of the garment also play an important role. Furthermore, due to
an increase in consumers’ expectations, designers and manufacturers are also
focusing on new dimensions of fashion by using unconventional fibres. Specialty
hairs presently have vital spectra in the ever-changing fashion world. Utilization
and application of specialty hair is the emerging trend, and it is growing slowly yet
steadily. It is no secret that the world’s softest garment fibre comes from a docile
and adorable animal called the angora rabbit, and this fibre has huge commercial
value. These fibres possess excellent thermal characteristics and hence provide the
necessary comfort in cold-weather clothing. Textile materials nowadays are used in
various sectors, especially based on the luxury requirement. The home furnishing
sector is one the major markets where luxury textile materials have been used
widely. Some of the natural luxury fiber used to make fabric includes silk, hemp,
wool, horse hair, cashmere, mohair, and camel hair. Unconventional natural fibres,
such as soy protein fibres, pine fibre, and lotus stem fibres, are emerging in the
sustainable fashion market due to their inherent properties.
Rubelli, Ralph Lauren, and Etro textiles are the world’s leading top three luxury
home-textile producers. Most of these products from these companies are still
completely hand-made on traditional looms the way it was done hundreds of years
ago. The next important potential sector is luxury-brand automotives upholsteries.
High-end car manufacturers, such as Mercedes, Lamborghini, Jaguar, and
Rolls-Royce., use textile fiber based upholstery fabric that either meet functional
requirements, such as sound and thermal insulation, or provide decorative aspects.
These limitations in currently available natural and synthetic fibres lead to the
development of biopolymers/biodegradable polymers/green polymers, which are
either (1) polymers occurring in living organisms with a specific biological func-
tion, or (2) plastic materials that are made from renewable resources or polymers
that disintegrate by micro-organisms, or (3) polymers that promote environmental
sustainability during their life cycle. Biopolymers offer a significant positive impact
by reducing the dependence on fossil fuels and reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
Bio-polymers as a raw material present great development scope because they
combine both technical potentialities and sustainability. Biopolymers are polymeric
materials derived from raw materials for biological provenance. Some of these
polymers can be produced directly by biological systems, such as polysaccharides,
protein etc., or by indirectly using biological systems such as polylactic acid, poly
(trimethylene terephthalate) (Averous and Pollet 2012). Biopolymers are different
from biodegradable and green polymers. Biodegradable polymers are ones that
break down into smaller fragments due to the action of bacteria and other
microorganisms. Green polymers, on the other hand, are those produced using
green (or sustainable) chemistry, a term that appeared in the 1990s. According to
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition, green
chemistry relates to the “design of chemical products and processes that reduce or
eliminate the use or generation of substances hazardous to humans, animals, plants,
and the environment.”
This chapter aims to provide detailed insight into emerging biopolymer fibers,
which will have huge impact on sustainable textiles in the future. It elaborates the
classification of biopolymers produced (1) from natural resources such as
polysaccharides, (2) from animal protein, namely, spider silk and hagfish slime,
(3) from regenerated cellulosic and protein fibres, and (3) synthesized from
bio-derived resources, namely, PLA, PTT, etc. The raw materials, the
production/extraction of fibers from the raw material, and the properties of the fibers
are discussed in detail.
2 Environmental Impact of Current Natural/Synthetic

Polymers and Need for Alternative Material
A comprehensive analysis of the impact of important natural and synthetic fibres

and an environmental benchmark of fibres are shown in Table 1.
Cotton, the most used natural fiber when grown by conventional means, requires
enormous amount of pesticides and water and needs large quantities of chemicals
for processing and dyeing. Regenerated cellulosic fibres such as rayon and viscose
are made of cellulose from trees, but they require chemical processing to be useful
as polymers. Other synthetic fibers, such as polyester, nylon, acrylics, etc., rely on
nonrenewable petroleum sources for their production. Thus, there is a major impact
of such polymers on environmental in terms of depletion of fossil fuels, increase in
landfills, dumping of waste in ocean, increased emission of CO2, pollution caused
by toxic emissions, recycling plastic might cause negative balance in ecosystems,
and, more importantly, increased global warming. From an economic point of view,
a dwindling oil supply is likely to boost oil prices, skyrocketing energy costs, etc.
prevails. Thus in recent years, we have been experiencing the need for renewable
polymers, and there has been a major thrust toward the development of bio-based
materials. There is paradigm shift from petro-chemistry to green chemistry. The
concept of green chemistry was developed in the 1960s, and it was implemented in
the 1990s. The green concept focuses on minimizing the environmental impact of
manufacturing processes through the careful management of feedstocks, energy,
waste, and products (Slater et al. 2002; Mulhaupt 2013; Anastas and Warner 2000).
Table 1 Environmental impacts of important natural and synthetic textile fibres

Textile Nonpolluting to Made from Fully Reusable/recyclable?
Fibre obtain, process, and renewable biodegradable?
fabricate? resources?
Cotton No Yes Yes Yes
Fertilizers, Cotton However, it is
herbicides, comes difficult to recycle
pesticides, dyes, and from cotton cotton from
finishing chemicals plants, postconsumer
used can pollute air, which are products
water, and soil renewable
Wool No Yes Yes Yes
Runoff Wool Wool can been
contamination, comes recycled
chemicals used for from
cleaning, dyeing, sheep,
and finishing can which are
cause renewable
pollution
Rayon No No Yes Yes
Harsh chemicals Wood pulp Rayon fibers have
used to process used for not been recycled
wood pulp, as well rayon
as dyes and finishing comes
chemicals, can cause from
pollution mature
forest
Tencel® No Yes Yes Yes
Chemicals used for Trees used Tencel® has not
dyeing and finishing for Tencel® been recycled
can cause pollution are
replanted
Polyester No No No Yes
Chemicals used for Petroleum 100 % polyester has
dyeing and finishing sources are been recycled
can pollute air and not
water renewable
Nylon No No No Yes
Chemicals used for Petroleum 100 % nylon has
dyeing and finishing sources are been recycled
can pollute air and not
water renewable
Source Karthik and Gopalakrishnan (2013)
3 Biopolymers
Bio- based polymers are materials that are derived from renewable resources (Babu
et al. 2013; Mohanty et al. 2002). The first generations of biopolymers are polymers
derived from agricultural feedstocks such as corn, potatoes, and other carbohydrate
sources. However, in recent years the focus is shifted from food-based resources
due to significant breakthroughs in biotechnology. Biopolymers can be produced by
bacterial fermentation processes by synthesizing the building blocks from renew-
able resources including lingo-cellulosic biomass, fatty acids, and organic waste
(Averous and Pollet 2012; Vroman and Tighzert 2009). Biopolymers thus can be
classified according to chemical composition, method of synthesis, method of
processing, etc. (Shen et al. 2009) and can be categorized as follows (Fig. 1):
1. Polymers extracted directly from natural sources such as cellulose, starch, lig-
nins, proteins and lipids.
2. Polymers produced from bio-based monomers obtained by fermentation/
conventional chemistry followed by polymerization. Some of examples
include polylactic acid, polybutylene succinate, and polyethylene.
3. Polymers produced by micro-organisms or genetically transformed by bacteria,
for example, polyhydroxyalkanoates.
The following section deals with the class of each biopolymer and some of the
fibers under each category.
Biopolymers
Polymers from Polymers synthesized from Polymers produced from

natural resources bio-derived monomers micro-organisms or bacteria
Polysaccharides Polylactic acid Polyhydroxyalkanoates
• Starch derivative Other polyesters Polyhydroxybutarate

• Cellulose
derivative
Proteins
• Animal Proteins
• Plant proteins
Fig. 1 Classification of biopolymers

3.1 Biopolymers from Natural Resources: Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are the most abundant macromolecules, and complex carbohy-

drates form the structural elements of plants and animals (Averous and Pollet 2012;
Vroman and Tighzert 2009). Various polysaccharides from which biopolymers can
be synthesized are as follows:
• Starch: extracted from wheat, corn, potatoes
• Chitin and Chitosan: Crystalline microfibrils forming structural components in
exoskeleton of arthropods or in the cell walls of fungi and yeasts.
• Pectin.
3.2 Biopolymers from Natural Source: Animal Protein
Proteins are polypeptide-based polymers formed by condensation polymerization of

amino acids. Collagens, casein, fibroin, and keratin are the important animal pro-
teins. Proteins play a critical role as building blocks of many complex hierarchical
biological material scales. In this section, two promising protein-based
bio-polymers are discussed: spider silk, which has been investigated by research-
ers for a long time, and hagfish slime.
3.2.1 Spider Silk
Spider silk is a natural protein fiber and has better mechanical properties than
silkworm silk. This is mainly due to the fact that silkworm uses the silk for pro-
tection during metamorphosis, where spiders use their silk to catch the prey (Hardy
et al. 2008). Spider silk has been recognized as a fiber with a unique combination of
high strength and rupture elongation. In the 1950s, spider silk, specifically dragline
silk, attracted the focus of material scientists owing to its outstanding mechanical
properties, which can outperform any natural or synthetic fibers.
Of particular interest are silks from spiders that produce orb webs, which are
used to catch aerial prey. The silk in these webs must be capable of capturing and
holding the spider’s flying prey, which requires the interplay of various silks with
different properties. Female orb-weaving spiders can produce up to seven different
silks with a range of properties. The golden orb spider and its spinneret are shown
in Fig. 2. Spider silk proteins are synthesized from specialized abdominal glands
that function as “bio-factories” to produce large quantities of silk fibroins, which are
spun into silk with different properties, compositions, and morphologies.
Fig. 2 Golden orb silk spider species and the spinneret of spider silk (source http://www.chm.
bris.ac.uk)
Types of Spider Silk
The many unique characteristics of spider silk can be attributed to the different
types of spider silk. The variety of the silk comes from the ability of the spider to
produce different qualities of silks for different uses in their biological environment.
The common silks produced in most arachnids include major ampullate silk, cap-
ture spiral silk, tubuliform silk, aciniform silk, and minor ammuplate silk.
Most researched spider silk is dragline silk (major ampullate silk) from Nephila
clavipes. The species has major gland ampulla making the silk and three pairs of
spinnerets called “anterior laterals,” “posterior laterals,” and “posterior medians,”
respectively. Dragline silk has a skin core like structure where the skin is weak and
the core is made of twin filaments that are stuck together and have a circular
cross-section. Silk is made of fibroin proteins (spidorin I and II) that feature a
repeated amino-acid sequence forming stiff crystalline structures in a more elastic
matrix (Heim et al. 2009; Kubik 2002; Singha et al. 2012). However, due to the
extensive time it takes to produce mass amounts of this precious silk, recent science
has developed alternative methods to harvesting artificial spider silk and other
silk-like high-performance materials.
Production of Spider Silk
The spiders have different glands to produce the different types of silk mentioned
previously. Spiders produce silk by a process called “pultrusion.” Unlike extrusion,
in which fibre is squeezed out of a reservoir, the spider pulls the finished thread
directly from the silk-making gland. Large-scale production of spider silk is diffi-
cult, which is hindering the use of spider silk in many applications. Farming spider
silk is very difficult because they do not produce a lot of silk. Also, they are
predatory in nature and will readily resort to cannibalism in the absence of other
prey. Spider webs cannot be reeled as a single fiber like fibroin from the cocoon of
the silkworm. Spider silk production is still in the very early stages, and it may be
decades before it can be used in actual applications (Singha et al. 2012; Heim
2009). However, many research groups are focusing on the development of a
technique for the mass production of spider silk (Heim 2009; Hisa et al. 2011). The
efforts to reproduce spider silk have resulted in many innovative methods and
materials, ranging from genetic modification to recycled silk to stem cells, with
many success and limitations (Kang 2014; Xia et al. 2010).
Traditional Methods
Spiders are highly territorial and aggressive creatures; hence, it is not possible to
raise spiders together in the same environment. In order to collect silk directly from
spiders, they would have to be captured from the wild and housed individually.
Nephila clavipes, a golden orb-weaving spider, has been studied extensively by
numerous groups worldwide because it is a larger spider, which makes routine
operations and handling a little bit easier.
Artificial Biosynthesis
As outlined previously, direct extraction of silk from spiders is not feasible for
commercial production. Researchers have developed methods to artificially produce
the liquid silk precursor using other organisms. Some of these methods are dis-
cussed below.
1. Chimeric Silkworms
Silkworms do not exhibit the territorialism and cannibalism seen with spiders,
and hence they can be cultivated in mass. Normally, postproduction spinning
technologies have to be used, such as extrusion, to convert the liquid monomers
into silk fibers; however, these techniques are not yet reliable or effective. One
requirement of this production method is that silkworms still produce endogenous
silk proteins; thus, the resulting product is actually a combination of both silkworm
and spider silk fibers. On the other hand, the composite fibers have been shown to
be tougher than the parental silkworm fibers and as tough as the native dragline silk
fibers.
2. Transgenic goats
Mammal cells have also been used as a host to produce spider silk monomers.
Research in this field was first performed by Nexia Biotechnologies, who took
genes from spider dragline silk, flanked these with regulatory sequences, and then
inserted them into goat mammary gland cells, which are responsible for milk
production in female goats. As a result, the spider silk proteins are produced only in
the milk of lactating goats.
3. Metabolically engineered Escherichia coli
Using E. coli as an expression system to produce spider silk proteins of similar
molecular weight and mechanical properties as native spider silk has been reported.
The vector used was a plasmid, and it contained regulatory sequences to promote
the transcription of the gene, a His-tag, to aid in the purification of the protein as
Table 2 Developers of synthetic spider silk at various stages of progress

Organization/company Technology Application
AMsilk Recombinant Hydrophilic, biocompatible, and bacterial
spider using spider silk can be key component in a
E. coli variety of medical products including fibers,
implant coatings, functional cosmetics,
wound care, skin barriers, and surgical
products
Araknitek E. coli, transgenic Films—Fabric liners
alfalfa, goat, Sprays—Fabric strengthening and
silkworm protection, sealants, medical coatings
Liquids—gels, cosmetics
Fibers—sports equipments, raw fabric
inputs, ropes
Fabrics—consumer, industrial, military
clothing, tissue replacement, parachutes,
and sails
Korea Advanced E. coli Fiber stronger than Kevlar
Institute of Science &
Technology
Kraig Labs Transgenic Hybrid spider/silkworm fiber for textiles
silkworm
Qmonos® Spiber E. coli Fibers developed, apart from being used in
clothing, can be used in sports, space
exploration, and auto-industry and for a new
line of accessories
well as the spider silk gene sequence. This specific spider silk gene sequence
resulted in proteins, which are high in glycine. Several companies are making
efforts to make artificial spider silk, as illustrated in Table 2, and well as products of
which they are made (Fig. 3) (Scott 2014).
Properties of Spider Silk
Spider silks are considered to be superior to synthetic fibers such as polyamide or

polyester with its combination of mechanical properties of high strength, high
elasticity and low modulus. It is also five times stronger than steel on a
weight-by-weight basis and twice the stretching ability of nylon. Spider silk is finer
than human hair, more resilient than any synthetic fiber, and completely
biodegradable. It has a strength of 1.74 GPa (three times tougher than aramid or
industrial fibers) at a breaking elongation of >26 %. It has good waterproof char-
acteristics and can absorb three times the impact force without breaking. Another
fascinating characteristic of spider silk is its ability to super-contract: It can contract
to <60 % of its original length when wet. In nature, this characteristic property
allows the reorientation of hydrogen bonds between spider silk protein molecules
during the uptake of water, thereby plasticizing the thread and changing its
Fig. 3 Synthetic spider silk

from various research groups:
a Electric blue dress from
Qmonos® Spiber displayed at
the Roopongi Hills complex,
Tokyo, b Biosteel®, AMsilk
and c knitting trials on
Monster Silk®
mechanical properties. Interestingly, the super-contraction of spider silk takes place

at ambient temperatures, whereas induction of the same process in man-made fibers
generally requires elevated temperatures. Furthermore, spider silk also has a tor-
sional shape memory, which allows the spider dragline thread, after being twisted,
to oscillate only slightly and by this means to totally recover its initial form. This
unique property allows spiders to rapidly descend using dragline silk as a lifeline in
case of danger. Table 3 illustrates compares the tensile properties of spider silk with
those of other high-performance fibers (Kubik 2002; Heim et al. 2009; Hisa et al.
2011).
Although dragline spider silk can be thought of as a new “super-substance,” its
behaviors begin to change at different temperatures. At very low temperatures, it
was found that dragline silk had an increase of strength showing that is more energy
absorbent than synthetic polymer fibres. The strength decreased, however, with an
increase of temperature to >60 °C. There are two main temperatures where the
protein begins to breakdown: The first, 198 °C, is attributed to breakdown of the
crystal phase of the protein into a liquid, whereas the second, 309 °C, is attributed
to the partial recrystallization of the silk.
3.2.2 Applications of Spider Silk
If the production of spider silk ever becomes industrially viable, it could replace
Kevlar and can be used in diverse range of applications such as the following:
• Bullet-proof clothing,
• Wear-resistant lightweight clothing,
• Ropes, nets, seat belts, parachutes,
Table 3 Comparison of tensile properties of spider silk with those other high-performance fibers
High-performance Density Tenacity Extensibility Toughness
fibers (g/cm3) (GPa) (%) (MJ/m3)
Nylon 6,6 1.1 0.95 18 80
Kevlar 49 1.4 3.6 3 50
Dragline of 1.3 1.1 27 160
A. diadematus
Wool 1.3 0.2 50 60
PLA 1.24 0.7 22 90
Carbon fiber 1.8 4 1.3 25
High-tensile steel 7.8 1.5 1 6
Source Kubik (2002). With permission
• Rust-free panels on motor vehicles or boats,

• Biodegradable bottles,
• Bandages, surgical threads, and
• Artificial tendons or ligaments, supports for weak blood vessels.
The mechanical properties of spider silk also suggest a potential for many
applications such as thin sutures for eye or nerve surgery, plasters and other wound
covers, textiles for parachutes, protective clothing, etc. Research on better under-
standing spider silk better and applying it for diverse applications is still in progress
(Singha et al. 2012; Gole and Kumar 2012).
3.2.3 Hagfish Slime Fibers
One of the world’s creepiest creatures may be the source of new kinds of
petroleum-free plastics and super-strong fabrics. These are hagfish, ancient
snake-like creatures that live on the bottom of the ocean. Hagfish are known for
their ability to produce large volume of slime as a defensive mechanism when they
are provoked or stressed. They do not have jaws, so they have evolved their own
way to protect themselves from predators such sharks (Fig. 4).
Hagfish produce a mucus-like, viscous substance from their body when startled.
This slime is composed of mucins and seawater held together by long protein
threads. The slime reacts with water and clogs the gills of the predator fish, an
effective and unique defense mechanism. The slime is produced at an astonishing
speed at rate of approximately clogging 20 liters of water in a bucket in minutes
(McKittrick et al. 2012). They have numerous glands located on either side of their
abdomen (Fig. 5a), and these glands contract to expel the crude slime, which
rapidly hydrates to final a polymer concentration of approximately 0.004 %. This
enables the hagfish to leave a large bundle of slime, and it is reinforced with a
thread that starts off as a miniature bundle of slime (Fig. 5b, c) containing one
continuous fiber (15 cm long); these fibers unravel upon expulsion.
Fig. 4 Hagfish and its slime. a Photograph of the tongue of a broadgilled hagfish with keratin
teeth. Photography by Carl Struthers © Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. b Slime
produced by hagfish (http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/lim/research.htm)
Fig. 5 Hag fish abdomen with slime and its structure (Fudge et al. 2003. With permission)
Extraction of Slime
Slime can be extracted either in the presence of water or by electrical stimulation in

the absence of water. Hagfish is stimulated in sea water by agitation or local
pressure. The voluminous slime thus produced contains a loosely tangled mass of
fibers that is several centimeters long. This mass contracts spontaneously, and the
resulting compact mat of fibers contains strands that can be drawn out several feet in
length with variable thickness. The strands are soft and elastic when wet and strong
and flexible when dry. The yield of fiber is approximately 0.25 g from a liter of
slime.
To avoid the presence of water, the secretion was obtained undiluted by stim-
ulating the animals outside of water. The hagfish was anesthetized with ether,
Fig. 6 Formation of fiber/film from hagfish slime: a Transfer of film membrane of regenerated
thread protein off of the aqueous surface onto a metal ring. b Drawing up a fiber by picking up the
films with forceps. Film and fiber were made using 5 % protein dope on 100 mM MgCl2/20 mM
HEPES, pH 7.5 buffer (Negishi et al. 2012. With permission)
suspended vertically, and wiped clean. On local electrical stimulation, the slime
glands discharged white drops of secretion. The latter contained no extended fibers,
but there were fibers in tightly rolled coils of uniform elliptical shape approximately
0.11 mm in length and 0.06 mm in width. Several dozens of these coils were
discharged simultaneously from a single duct as could be observed with a micro-
scope. When the secretion was diluted with either sea water or distilled water and
slightly agitated, the coils unrolled to produce extended fibers (Ferry 1941).
Using solubilized hagfish slime thread proteins, castings of thin, free-standing
films were formed onto aqueous electrolyte buffers, which were subsequently
drawn into fibres. The single-thread intermediate filament protein was extracted and
then purified. Then, before spinning, a protein dope solution was prepared (Negishi
et al. 2012). Fibers were initially spun using a wet-spinning technique as shown in
Fig. 6.
Structure of Hagfish Slime
The slime threads have an α-keratin like intermediate filament (IF) structure, and
thread bundles are aligned, are 1–3 µm in diameter, and are several centimeters
long. The formation of these bundle of fibers is unique, as shown in Fig. 7, and
consists of the following steps: Individual α-helices form coiled-coil dimers (A) that
self-assemble into sub-filaments, which in turn form complete IF (B) 10 nm in
diameter, which align to form one continuous macroscopic fiber (C). This process
occurs entirely within a single gland thread cell (GTC) and does not stop until the
entire cell is completely filled with this newly formed fiber. On ejection out of the
glands, the individual GTCs lose their thin membranous coating (D and E) (Ferry
1941; Negishi et al. 2012; Fudge et al. 2005).
The slime contains tens of thousands of 1- to 3-μm diameter threads composed
of proteins from the “intermediate filaments” family of proteins (IFs). IFs are
ubiquitous 10-nm cytoskeletal elements that are found in most metazoan cells, and
Fig. 7 Helical structure of slime threads (Fudge et al. 2003. With permission)
they also make up the fibrous component in mammalian α-keratins. Hagfish slime
threads that are stretched in water and dried have excellent material properties.
These draw-transformed slime threads resemble dragline spider silks in some
aspects of their super molecular structure; both materials possess β-sheet crystal-
lites, which are believed to be the source of strength in spider silk. IF proteins have
the ability to self-assemble into networks of high aspect ratio filaments (i.e., 10 nm
diameter, >103 nm in length) in aqueous solutions, which raises the possibility that
fibers could be spun from IF gels.
Properties of Slime Threads
Slime threads and constituents intermediate filaments possess a number of attractive

properties that make them promising protein fibers along with spider silk. Threads
that have been stretched in water and dried have excellent material properties.
These threads resemble dragline spider silk in the super molecular structure aspects
(Fudge et al. 2010).
To understand the tensile properties of hagfish slime threads, properties of wool,
which is also a keratin fiber, are used for comparison. Figure 8 shows a comparison
between tensile stress strain curves for wet wool and for hagfish slime thread, and
Table 4 provides a comparison of mechanical properties of hagfish slime with those
of spider silk and wool. The mechanical response of dry slime and wet slime are
different from each other with Young’s Modulus of dry slime being 7.7 Mpa, which
is higher that of wet slime and similar to other keratin fibers. This can be attributed
Fig. 8 Tensile properties of

wool and hagfish fibres
(McKittrick et al. 2012. With
permission)
Table 4 Comparison of mechanical properties of hagfish slime, wool, and spider silk
Material Initial modulus Breaking strength Extensibility Toughness
(Eint) (σmax) (Emax) (MN/m3)
Spider 10 1.2 0.3 160
dragline silk
Wet wool 0.5 0.2 0.5 60
Dry wool 4 0.25 0.3 60
Wet hagfish 0.005 0.2 2.5 130
fibre
Fudge et al. (2003). With permission
to dependence on the degree of hydration. When compared with wet wool, it is

found that the initial slope is a magnitude lower, but the maximum failure strain is
four times higher (McKittrick et al. 2012). From the table and figure, it can be
observed that the very low initial modulus, the impressive increase in the slope of
the curve due to strain hardening, and the amazing extensibility of this fiber give the
fiber a toughness easily comparable with that of spider dragline silk, −130 MJ/m3.
Applications of Hagfish Slime
Many researchers are working on the analysis and production of hagfish slime, and
it will not be long that the fibers will available in useful form. When stretched in
water and dried, hagfish slime resembles silk, and soon it will be released as
synthetic fibers, like nylon and polyester, in many applications. Researchers indi-
cate that hagfish slime threads will be a candidate for the production of
high-performance eco-friendly clothing, and will be a fashion fiber for the future. It
also might be used for stockings or breathable athletic wear or even bullet-proof
vests and other ballistic protection (McKittrick et al. 2012).
3.3 Regenerated Fibers
Regenerated fibers are sometimes known as man-made fibers. These fibers have
been created artificially by using the building blocks provided by nature (e.g.,
proteins or cellulose) as opposed to fibers made entirely by nature. They can be
categorized as fibers regenerated from cellulose and fibers regenerated from pro-
teins. In recent years, bio-fibers from both of these categories—regenerated cellu-
losic and regenerated protein—are gaining importance given the increasing
environmental concerns.
3.3.1 Bio-fibers from Regenerated Cellulosic Fiber
Rayon, the first regenerated cellulosic fiber, became popular owing to a shortage of
natural fibers, large availability of renewable forest resources, and relatively low
prices. However, the development of cheaper synthetic fibers, environmental con-
cerns owing to the use of carbon disulphide in manufacture, and the depletion of
forest resources led to the fall of the first generation of regenerated cellulosic fibers.
However, in recent years, an environmentally friendly lyocell process, based on N-
methylmorpholine-N-oxide monohydrate solvent system, has been developed for
the manufacturing of regenerated cellulosic fiber (Chavan and Patra 2004). Among
the regenerated cellulosic fiber, “seaweed fiber” mainly refers to the number of
fibers that come from the sea such as seaweed, sargassum, kelp, and other algae.
The extract-obtained alginate has been widely considered and researched for raw
materials as a textile fiber material due to its biodegradability, health benefits, etc.
SeaCell® Fiber
SeaCell® fiber is a third-generation regenerated cellulosic fiber. Zimmer AG has

succeeded, after intensive research, in developing SeaCell fiber,® a bio-fiber made
of renewable resources. SeaCell® fiber is produced using an innovative lyocell
technique in which seaweed containing vitamins, minerals, and trace elements is
added to the cellulosic pulp before the spinning process. SeaCell® fibers can be
known as the “wellness fiber with power of the sea” because it brings the power of
nature back to people in an ecological, environmental friendly and contemporary
way (Jackowski et al. 2004; Zikeli 2006; Hipler and Wiegand 2011).
Manufacture of SeaCell® fiber
SeaCell® fiber is manufactured using the environmental friendly lyocell process
with seaweed and cellulose as illustrated in Fig. 9. Seaweed, mainly from the family
of brown, red, green, and blue algae, and particularly the brown algae Ascophyllum
nodosum and/or the red alga Lithothamnium calcareum, is used for the manufacture
of sea cell fibers. Coarse crushed seaweed material is processed to fine seaweed
Cellulose
Seaweed
Pulp Treatment
Grinding
Cellulose Suspension
Seaweed Seaweed treatment
suspension & dosing Conc.
Spinning solution & NMMO
Filtration
NMMO
Spinning Extrusion
Recovery
Washing Water
Silver Activating
After treatment
Fibre
Fig. 9 Manufacturing process of SeaCell® active fibers (Zikeli 2006)
powder by specialized milling technology. The seaweed/algae are added either as a

powder form or as a suspension in one of the processing steps preceding the
spinning of the cellulose solution. In the lyocell process, the cellulose is dissolved
directly without the formation of derivatives because the solvent used is the non-
toxic aqueous solvent N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide. The spinning solution is
processed in a combined dry-/wet-spinning process to form fibers and shaped
cellulosic materials. During the spinning process, the solvent used in the spinning
solution is washed out and is almost completely recovered.
SeaCell® fiber production can be either SeaCell® Pure, which is cellulosic fiber
containing seaweed, or SeaCell® Active, which is cellulosic fiber containing sea-
weed and enriched with silver. One peculiarity with SeaCell® fiber is its capacity to
bind and absorb substances, such as bactericidal metals, e.g., silver, zinc, and
copper. This constitutes an important advantage compared with any other
antibacterial fibers in the market (Zikeli 2006; Hipler and Wiegand 2011).
Properties of SeaCell® fibers
SeaCell® fibers can be produced as both staple fibers and filament. It has high
tenacity and elongation properties (Table 5), which remain unchanged during the
Table 5 Tenacity and elongation properties of SeaCell® fibers (Zikeli 2006)

Properties Lyocell SeaCell® pure SeaCell®
active
Count, dtex 1.3 1.4 1.4
Tenacity, cond, cN/tex 36.5 35.9 34.4
Tenacity, wet, cN/tex 31.4 31.1 2.8
Elongation cond, % 12.1 11.9 9.3
Elongation, wet, % 15.3 13.4 14.2
production of SeaCell® Active fibers. Cellulosic characteristics of fiber make it feel

soft, and textile made with SeaCell® fiber is impressive for imparting such a soft
feel to skin. The skin-care properties of textile made of SeaCell® Active fibers are a
distinguishing factor compared with other cellulosic fibers because SeaCell® fiber
consists of health-promoting nutrients such as magnesium, calcium, potassium,
phosphorus, trace elements (mainly iron and iodine), amino acids, and vitamins B,
A, and E.
SeaCell® Active uses silver as a safe active substance without the need for
organic compounds, thus providing an antibacterial effect without impairing its skin
compatibility. Apart from these properties, it was found that the wear comfort, skin
compatibility, antimicrobial properties, and other physical properties remain
unchanged even after frequent washing.
Applications of SeaCell® fibers
SeaCell® fiber can be used in fabrics and nonwoven material at 100 % content or as
blends and still retain its antimicrobial effects. These properties enable it to be used
in a wide range of applications (Zikeli 2006). Some of the applications include the
following
• Workwear: Gloves
• Sportswear: Socks, Yoga attire
• Underwear and Lingerie
• Home textiles: Furnishings, Bedding, Filters, Blankets
• Non-woven materials and Technical applications: Wipes, filters, and masks
• Household and Hygiene applications: baby clothings, towels, etc.
3.3.2 Bio-fibers from Regenerated Protein Fiber
Regenerated fibers from protein are called “azlons,” and sources of protein include
soy, corn, peanuts, and even milk. Azlon is produced by dissolving proteins such as
casein from milk, soy protein, or zein from corn in dilute alkali and forcing the
solutions through a spinneret into an acid formaldehyde coagulation bath. These
fibers resemble natural protein fibers, but they suffer from low dry and wet strength
and sensitivity to alkalis (Brooks 2009).
Milk Protein Fibers
Milk protein is a new innovative fiber that was developed to compete with wool; it
is a regenerated protein fiber made of casein from milk through bioengineering.
Milk fibers were first introduced in 1930 in Italy and America to compete with wool
fibers and products. Even though milk fibers, otherwise termed “casein fibers,” lack
some desirable properties of wool, it was a means to replace wool fibers at lower
cost. Casien fibers cannot be distinguished from wool fibers by chemical or burning
tests because their chemical composition is very similar, but they can be identified
by a microscope because they lack scales, which are characteristic of wool. Some of
successful brands that developed milk protein fibers are Aralac (America), Lanital
(Belgium, France), Merinova (Italy), and Fibrolane (Britain [www.swicofil.com]).
Production of Milk fibers
The various processes involved in production of milk fibres are shown in Fig. 10
(Kiron 2013; Saluja 2010).
1. Extraction of raw materials—To extract casein protein, milk is first dewatered
and skimmed and casein obtained by the acid treatment of skimmed milk. The
casein coagulates as a curd, which is washed and dried and then ground to a fine
powder. It can be obtained from skim, evaporated, or condensed milk. From 35 l
of skimmed milk, approximately 1 kg of casein protein can be extracted.
2. Polymerization (mixing, filtration, deaeration)—Protein-spinning fluid suitable
for wet-spinning process is manufactured by means of a new bioengineered
technique. Casein is blended to minimize the effects of variation in quality and
then dissolved in sodium hydroxide. The solution is allowed to ripen until it
reaches a suitable viscosity and is then filtered and deaerated.
3. Spinning—Wet-spinning technique is used by extruding the spinning solution
through spinnerets into a coagulation bath consisting of 2 parts sulphuric acid, 5
parts formaldehyde, 20 parts glucose, and 100 parts water. The jet of solution
coagulates into filaments similar to the coagulation of viscose filaments. As the
filaments emerge from the spinnerets, liquid polymer is converted to a rubbery
state, and it further solidifies. The endless filaments formed are stretched to
Milk dewatered and skimmed Polymerize Spinning
Crimping Drying Rinsing Drafting
Cutting Milk protein fiber
Fig. 10 Production of milk protein fiber

some degree during coagulation. The coagulated casein filament is very soft,
weak, and can readily break. Hence, further processing is required so that the
filaments can be successfully used in textile applications.
4. Crimping, cutting to staple fibers—After spinning, long staple filaments are
crimped and cut into staple fibers.
5. Hardening—Water can penetrate in fibers, thus readily pushing apart long
casein molecules and hence softening and swelling the filament. This makes
them of little use as a textile fiber. Many methods of increasing the water
resistance of casein have been developed to enable the long molecules to hold
together in the presence of water. One such process is hardening to minimize the
softening effects of water.
6. Washing, drying, and baling—After hardening, the fibers are washed, dried, and
packed into bales.
Properties of Milk fibers

Milk protein fibers are silk-like, soft, glossy, lustrous, luxurious, and smooth to the
skin. They are hygroscopic in nature adding to their comfortability. They are very
easy to dye and can be dyed under normal temperatures. Because they contain
amino acid, milk proteins have antibacterial and antifungal characteristics. Milk
fibers have a tenacity of 2.8 cN/tex, but when they are dry this falls to 2.4–2.6
cN/tex on wetting with elongation of approximately 60–70 %. Milk protein fibers
generally soften on heating, particularly when wet. Fibers become brittle and yel-
low on prolonged heating. Milk fibers are stable to acids of moderate strength under
normal conditions but sensitive to alkali. Milk protein fibers have excellent prop-
erties such as a silk-like “hand,” soft and elegant luster, wear resistance, stain
resistance, moisture permeability, skin-affinity characteristics, etc.
Applications of milk protein fibers
1. Pure milk protein fibers - The major uses of milk fibers are as follows:
• Intimate garments
• Children’s garments
• T-shirts
• Sweaters
• Women’s garments
• Sportswear
• Uniforms
• Bedding
• Eye masks, etc.
2. Blends with other fibers:
Silk protein fiber can be blended with other fibers such as cashmere, silk, spun
silk, cotton, wool, ramie, and other fibers to make fabrics with features of milk
protein fibers.
• Blends for cool type—Milk fiber blends with silk, bamboo fibers, natural silk,
and cashmere
• Blends for thermal protection—Milk fiber blends with mercerized wool and
cashmere
• Blends for top-grade intimate garments—Milk fiber blends with cotton and
cashmere
• Blends for health care and beauty—Milk fiber blends with cotton
• Blends for home textiles—Milk fiber blends with cotton and silk.
3.4 Biopolymers Synthesized from Bio-derived Monomers
Bio-based polyester is derived from natural resources using biotechnology. It

includes polylactic acid (PLA) and poly (trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT).
3.4.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
Polylactic acid (PLA) is the first melt-processable synthetic fiber produced from
renewable resources, which combines ecological advantages with excellent per-
formance in textiles. It is aliphatic polyester based on lactic acid (C3H6O3) and is
produced from the fermentation of agricultural resources. PLA requires 20–50 %
fewer fossil resources and has the potential to reduce atmospheric CO2 levels. It is
an interesting polymer combining advantages of both natural and synthetic fibers
and has wide range of applications (Avinc and Khoddami 2009; Farrington et al.
2005). Currently, Nature Works LLC USA is a major supplier of PLA fibers under
the brand name Ingeo®, and others PLA fibers include Lactron® (Kanebo Gohsen
Ltd), Ecodear® (Toray Industries), Terramac® (Unitika), Plastarch® (Kuraray), etc.
(Hongu et al. 2005).
Ingeo® PLA Fibers
In 1988, Cargill Incorporated began an investigation into lactic acid and collabo-
rated with The Dow Chemical Company to form Cargill Dow LLC in 1997 to
develop and bring PLA technology and products to full commercialization. The
trade name of PLA polymer is Nature Works® PLA and for PLA fibers is Ingeo®
fibers (Gruber and O’Brien 2005; Vink et al. 2004; Gupta et al. 2007; Avinc and
Khoddami 2009).
Lactic acid is the starting material for the PLA-production process. The mono-
mer lactic acid is hydroxyl carboxylic acid, which can be extracted from corn starch
through converting starch to fermentable sugars (dextrose) by enzymatic hydrolysis
followed by bacterial fermentation. PLA from lactic acid monomer can be produced
by two routes: (1) polycondensation of lactic acid under high vacuum and high
temperature; and (2) ring-opening polymerization of a cyclic dimer of lactic acid

(Avinc and Khoddami 2009; Farrington et al. 2005; Vink et al. 2004; Gruber and
O’Brien 2005). Route 1 involves the removal of water by condensation and the use
of solvent under high vacuum and temperature. In this technique, it is difficult to
obtain high molecular weight PLA due to water formation during the reaction.
Route 2 produces a high molecular weight polymer, which is based on removing
water under milder conditions without solvent to produce cyclic intermediate dimer
referred to as “lactide.”
Cargill Dow LLC developed a patented, low-continuous process for the pro-
duction of lactic acid based polymers. The process starts with a continuous con-
densation reaction of lactic acid to produce low molecular weight PLA
pre-polymer. Pre-polymer is converted into a mixture of lactide stereoisomers
using tin catalysts to enhance the rate of intramolecular cyclization reaction.
Finally, PLA polymer is produced using ring-opening lactide polymerization, thus
eliminating the use of solvents. After the polymerization is complete, any remaining
monomer is removed under vacuum and recycled to be used as a raw material
(Farringto et al. 2005; Vink et al. 2004).
Spinning of PLA fibers
Transformation of PLA into textile structures is complicated and depends on
structural changes in the polymer that occur during processing. Extrusion of
polymer into mono-/multi-filaments can be achieved by melt spinning, dry spin-
ning, wet spinning, or dry jet wet spinning. Distinct features of each of these
processes are reflected in the fiber properties. Due to its thermoplastic nature, melt
spinning is widely used to extrude into fibers. It has many advantages compared
with wet spinning, e.g., it is a solvent-free process and hence there are economic
and ecological advantages. However, melt spinning is not always possible because
the polymer sometimes degrades while melting. In the case of dry spinning, sol-
vents are removed by thermal evaporation, whereas in wet spinning the coagulation
of polymer is carried out in another fluid that is compatible with the spinning
solution (Gupta et al. 2007).
Properties of Ingeo® PLA fibers
As a melt-processable fiber from a vegetable source, PLA has characteristics similar
to many other synthetic fibers. PLA has high mechanical strength, compostability,
and biocompatibility with properties mainly a cross between those of polyamide and
those of PET. Properties of PLA fibers compared with other natural and synthetic
fibers are listed in Table 6 (Vink et al. 2004; Farrington et al. 2005; Durgan 2001).
The tenacity of PLA is similar to that of PET and higher than that of natural
fibers. PLA is highly resistant to degradation by ultraviolet exposure. PLA can
achieve good degree of crimp and good retention level through processing. It has
advantages with respect to smoke generation and flammability because it has both a
higher limiting oxygen index and lower smoke generation than PET. PLA exhibits
good moisture management and comfort properties. The lower contact angle
compared with that of PET leads to improved wicking with water. Unlike other
synthetic fibers, PLA does not absorb light in the visible region of spectrum, and
Table 6 Properties of PLA fibers compared with those of other fibers

Properties PLA fiber (Ingeo®) PET Nylon Cotton
Specific gravity 1.25 1.39 1.14 1.52
Tg (°C) 55–60 70–80 50–90 –
Tm (°C) 130–175 255 215 –
Tenacity (g/d) 2.0–6.0 2.4–7.0 5.5 4
Moisture regain (%) 0.4–0.6 0.2–0.4 4.1 7.5
Elastic recovery 93 65 89 52
(5 % strain)
Heat of combustion (MJ/kg) 19 25-30 3.1 17
Flammability Low smoke High smoke Medium smoke Burns
LOI (%) 26-35 20–22 20–24 16–17
UV resistance Excellent Fair Poor Fair-poor
Refractive Index 1.35–1.45 1.54 1.52 1.53
Contact angle (ϕ) 76 82 70 –
Source Natureworks LLC, Ingeo®
this leads to very low strength loss compared with synthetic fibers on exposure to
UV light. On the contrary, they have some disadvantages too. PLA exhibits higher
sensitivity to alkali and causes strength loss. PLA has a surface cohesion, which
gives the fibers a property known as “scroop,” which influences resilience and
causes problem in applications by resisting recovery after deformation.
Applications of Ingeo® PLA fibers
The ease of melt processing has led to the production of PLA fibers, which are
increasingly being accepted in a wide variety of textiles from dresses to sportswear,
furnishings to drapes. Due to its natural flame retardancy and good moisture
management, PLA fibers are well suited to fabrics from fashion to furnishings.
They can be applied as fiberfill for products such as pillows, duvets, and comforters
due to their superior loft characteristics compared with conventional synthetics. In
term of nonwoven products, they can be used in health and hygiene products.
Lactron®—PLA Fibers
Kanebo, Inc. introduced a PLA fiber under the trade name Lactron® fiber at the
February 1998 Nagano Winter Olympics under the theme of “Fashion for the
Earth.” Kanebo exhibited several garments from PLA or PLA/natural fiber blends
(Hongu et al. 2005; Farrington et al. 2005). Lactron® is made of PLA fibers in turn
made from lactic acid obtained through the fermentation of cornstarch. Lactron®
has the highest melting point of any biodegradable fiber ever developed, so it can be
processed into multifilament, monofilament, staple fibers or spun-bonded fabrics
suitable for any type of textile applications. The characteristics of Lactron® include
the following:
• Fiber strength is as great as that of nylon and polyester making it suitable for
spinning
• Young’s Modulus is between as that of nylon and polyester
• Has a soft touch, good water diffusion, is sweat-absorbable and dries quickly
• Low refractive index and mild gloss
• Dyeable by disperse dyes at 98 °C, ambient pressure
• Melting point is 175 °C, higher than any other biodegradable polymers
• Anti-bacterial, weak acid, and retains humidity.
Lactron® has fiber properties and processbility comparable with those of con-
ventional polyester and nylon. Considering the biodegradability of fibers, which is
important for achieving sustainability, it has been determined that Lactron® fibers
completely degradable. The weight of fibers decreases within a few years in soil
followed by reduction in strength and, ultimately, decomposition of the fibers.
Because Lactron® fibers can be processed in various shapes, such as filament,
staple, monofilament, spun bond, and flat yarn-spinning fiber, they can be devel-
oped in various goods from noncloth applications, such as agricultural textiles,
fishing goods, and construction textiles, to apparel goods. They can be blended with
wool to achieve lightness, form stability, be crease resistant, be fashionable, etc.,
and blended with cotton/rayon to achieve moisture/sweat absorbing characteristics,
quick-drying effects, silky luster, etc. The main merit of using “corn fiber” or “PLA
fiber” in applications is that it can solve the problem of dumping while retaining the
advantages of conventional mixtures of synthetic and natural fibers (Hongu et al.
2005; Farrington et al. 2005).
3.4.2 Poly (Trimethylene Terephthalate)
Polyester and polypropylene terephthalate (PET) are dominant synthetic fibers in

apparel, home furnishings and many other industrial applications. As an engi-
neering thermoplastic, poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) has a very desirable
property set combining the rigidity, strength, and heat resistance of PET and with
good processability of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT). In terms of fiber, they
have the good resiliency and wearability of nylon as well as the dyeability, static
resistance, and chemical resistance of PET (Hongu et al. 2005; Houck et al. 2001).
PTT, which was synthesized in 1941 and has good physical and chemical
properties as well as many potential applications, has not been commercialized due
to the high cost of raw material (1,3-propanediol (PDO)). DuPont pioneered a way
to produce PDO from corn sugar using a patented fermentation process, and PDO
thus produced is termed “Bio-PDO™.” DuPont introduced their PTT, also known
as 3GT, under the trade name Sorona® and targeted its applications to textiles,
carpets, industrial fibers, and engineering plastics. Sorona® is corn-based fiber made
from 1,3-propanediol (PDO) and a petrochemical-based monomer (Kurian 2005;
Wolf et al. 2005).
Production of PTT
The production of PTT consists of two steps: (1) production of Bio-PDO™ and
(2) production of PTT from Bio-PDO™.
Production of Bio-PDO™
In 2004, DuPont formed a joint venture with Tate & Lyle, a major producer of corn-
products with expertise in fermentation processes, to produce Bio-PDO.™ The
fermentation process consists of two steps: (1) yeast ferments glucose to glycerol
and (2) microbes ferment glycerol to PDO. DuPont developed a patented process in
collaboration with Genencor that consists of the metabolisation of glucose derived
from wet-milled corn by genetically engineered microorganism E. coli (Fig. 11).
After the organism ingests glucose, it produces PDO, which is separated by fil-
tration and concentrated by evaporation followed with purification by distillation.
Production of PTT from Bio-PDO™
PTT can be produced either by transesterification of dimethyl terephthalate
(DMT) with PDO or by esterification route starting with purified terephthalic acid
(PTA) and PDO as shown in Fig. 12. Polymerization is continuous process similar
to that of PET, and in the first stage of polymerization, low molecular weight
polyester is produced in the presence of an excess of PDO with water or methanol
removed. This is followed by polycondensation, and chain growth occurs by the
removal of PDO and the remaining water/methanol. Both monomers should be pure
because chain termination can occur at any time. In the final step, the highly viscous
molten polymer is blended with additives in a static mixer and then palletized.
Fig. 11 Production of Bio-PDO™ by the fermentation route (source Kurian 2005)

Fig. 12 Formation of PTT from Bio-PDO™ (source Kurian 2005)
Properties of PTT Fibers
PTT combines several advantages of other fibers such as the strength, stiffness,
toughness and heat resistance of PET; the processing parameters, such as low melt
and mould temperatures, rapid crystallization, and faster cycle time, of PBT; and
the good resilience and wearability of nylon. The tenacity of Sorona® (PTT) fibre is
as high as that of nylon, but it is softer and 2–3 times stretchier than nylon. The
unique tensile properties of fibers are derived from a semi-crystalline molecular
structure featuring a “kink.” When the molecule undergoes stress, strain deforma-
tion occurs first in its crystalline regions; as the stress is released, the crystalline
structure locks in, thus allowing complete recovery to its initial shape. Due to
moderate glass-transition temperature, PTT fibers are dyeable with common dis-
perse dyes without a dye carrier, thus saving energy compared with dyeing PET
fibers. It also exhibits uniform dye uptake and with selected dyes, its color-fastness
is comparable with that of nylon. It has excellent UV resistance, chlorine resistance,
and low static-charge generation (Kurian 2005; Wolf et al. 2005; Shen 2009).
Applications of PTT Fibers
Sorona® fibers can be used for various applications such as apparel, outdoor/sport
goods, floor coverings, and carpet fibers. Significant advantages of Sorona® fibers
for apparel are softness and natural hand, printability, and easy dyeability. In
addition, resistance to chlorine and UV add value in outdoor/sport markets. The
fibers can be blended with other natural fibers such as cotton, wool, etc., or syn-
thetic fibers such as PET, acrylics, etc., for enhanced softness, stretch recovery, and
other functional attributes. These fibers can be made in a variety of colors and
styles, with good dye uniformity, and can be better candidate for floor coverings. It
also offers superior bulk, resilience, texture retention, stain resistance, easy
dryability and softer feel. These fibers are also capable of recycling like polyester
fibers (Kurian 2005).
3.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polyhydroxyalkanoates represent family of intracellular biopolymers synthesized

by bacteria as intracellular carbon- and energy-storage granules. They are mainly
produced from renewable resources by fermentation. A wide variety of prokaryotic
organisms accumulate PHA from 30 to 80 % of their cellular dry weight.
Depending on the carbon substrates and the metabolism of the microorganisms,
different monomers, and thus copolymers, could be obtained. They are suitable for
various applications such as short-term packaging, are biocompatible in contact
with living tissues, and can be used for biomedical applications. Worldwide, >24
companies are engaged in the production and applications of polyhydroxyalka-
noates; however, compared with PLA its production is lower.
PHA polymers are synthesized in the bodies of bacteria fed glucose in a fer-
mentation plant. In the late 1980s, ICI Zeneca commercialized PHAs under the
trade name Biopol. However, their high cost, small difference between their melting
and thermal degradation temperatures, and low impact resistance prevented large
commercial applications. However, in recent years many companies have been
producing PHA polymers, and their development looks promising (Volova 2004;
Wolf et al. 2005).
4 Conclusions and Recommendations for Going Forward
The term “luxury” is a buzzword in the high-end fashion industry. Luxury comes
from a textile material, not from of a designer or a brand. The term comes from the
quality of the material as well as the sustainable/eco-friendly manufacturing pro-
cess. Hence, the products often have a high price range. In order to fulfill the
requirements of the ever-changing market, designers always look for new colours,
fabrics, styles, etc., to offer designs to the market. In today’s world, fashion is not
limited to the aesthetic look of a garment; it is also related to its functional features.
Furthermore, due to a increase in customers’ expectations, designers as well as
manufacturers are also focusing on this new dimensions of fashion by using
unconventional fibres. Environmental and social impacts of the fashion industry are
growing, but there are many ways that we can reduce negative environmental
impact as well as increase positive environmental and social benefits through the
informed choices of materials and intelligent design. The search continues for the
ideal natural fibre (where the entire process all begins), i.e., a fiber that is organi-
cally cultivated with zero or minimal artificial assistance, ethically manufactured,
sustainable, processed without chemical aid, has reusable by-products, and is

completely biodegradable.
Hence, companies are more focused on these kinds of sustainable fibers. This
ultimately reduces the carbon foot print and improves the sustainable nature of the
product. The designers and fabric manufacturers who focus on this sector have huge
potential to use conventional and unconventional fibers. This chapter provides
insight to the available details of various luxury fibers. The impending scope of
application for these fibers are also heartening researchers and manufactures alike in
the era of co-compatible sustainability and luxury.
Synthetic fibers have shown tremendous growth since the 1950s, and they are
the raw materials for most fashion clothing. However, in recent years increasing oil
prices, depletion of oil feedstocks, growing concerns over the environment,
increasing greenhouse gases, and global warming have led to the development of
materials from natural renewable resources. Three principal ways by which these
biopolymers are synthesized are using biomass (polysaccharides, proteins, etc.),
using bio-based monomers (polylactic acid), and generated by microorganisms or
modified bacteria (polyhydroxyalkanoates). This chapter highlighted some of the
polymers in each category such as spider silk, hagfish slime threads (synthesized
from animal protein), sea cell fibers (regenerated cellulosic fibers), milk fibers
(regenerated protein fibers), and PLA and PTT fibers (from corn).
Biobased polymers offer significant a positive impact on the environment by
reducing dependence of fossil fuels, reduced carbon dioxide emissions etc. Also,
biobased polymers have increased attention from customers due to increased
awareness about the environment. A large number of companies are involved in
producing these biopolymers. In addition, R&D works focusing on the develop-
ment of technologies to make biopolymers are contributing to their growth.
However, there are many challenges that must be addressed for the commercial-
ization of these biopolymers such as relatively high cost of production, relevant
technologies to produce biopolymers, lower performance of biobased materials, and
management of raw materials. It can be concluded that it will not be long that these
biopolymers will overcome these challenges and will be substituted for synthetic
fibers for various applications from commodity to high-tech markets. Still building
large-scale plants can be difficult due to the lack of experience in new technologies
and the estimation of supply/demand balance.
To make these technologies economically viable, it is essential to develop
logistics for biomass feed-stocks, novel production routes with high yields, new
microbial enzymes, and effective downstream-processing techniques for the
recovery of biobased products. The current biobased industry is focusing on the
production of biopolymers from existing monomers and polymers.
Of late, several research works have been carried out toward the manufacturing
of biobased polymers that have higher performance and value. For example, Nature
Works LLC has introduced new grades of PLA with higher thermal and mechanical
properties. New PLA-tri block copolymers have been reported to behave like
thermoplastic elastomer. Many developments are currently underway to develop
various polyamides, polyesters, polyhydroxyaloknates, etc., with high
differentiation in their final properties for use in automotive, electronics, and

biomedical applications.
For biobased polymers such as PLA and PHA, additives have been developed to
enhance their performance by blending them with other polymers. However, the
additive market for biobased polymers is still very small, which makes it difficult to
justify major development efforts according to some key additive supplier com-
panies. Various nano-reinforcements currently being developed include carbon
nanotubes, graphene, nanoclays, 2-D layered materials, and cellulose nanowhiskers.
Combining these nanofillers with biobased polymers could enhance a large number
of physical properties—including barrier properties, flame resistance, thermal sta-
bility, solvent uptake, and rate of biodegradability—relative to unmodified polymer
resin.
Even though new biobased polymers are produced on an industrial scale, there
are still several factors that must be determined for their long-term viability. It is
expected that there will be feedstock competition as the global demand for food and
energy increases over time. Currently, renewable feedstocks used for manufacturing
biobased monomers and polymers often compete with requirements for food-based
products. The expansion of first-generation biobased fuel production will place
unsustainable demands on biomass resources and this is as much a threat to the
sustainability of biochemical and biopolymer production as it is to food production.
Several initiatives are underway to use cellulose-based feedstocks for the produc-
tion of usable sugars for biofuels, biochemicals, and biopolymers.
Biobased polymers could replace conventional polymers in the near future.
Currently, biobased polymers are usually found in several applications from goods
to hi-tech applications due to developments in biotechnologies and public aware-
ness. Nevertheless, regardless of these developments, there are still some drawbacks
that prevent the wider commercialization of biobased polymers in many applica-
tions. This is mainly due to performance and price when compared with their
conventional counterparts, which remains a significant challenge for biobased
polymers.
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Case Study of Renewable Bacteria
Cellulose Fiber and Biopolymer
Composites in Sustainable Design
Practices
Y.A. Lee
Abstract This case study challenged researchers and practitioners to rethink what
constitutes sustainable consumer products in a world of increasingly stressed nat-
ural resources by exploring innovative ways to develop renewable biocomposite
materials, e.g., leather-like nonwoven fabrics, that can be used for apparel and
footwear products. Scientific research was conducted to identify cultivation and
treatment methods that produce cellulose fiber mats, formed by bacteria and yeast in
fermenting tea, with sufficient strength for use in apparel. Wearable products made
of the green-tea based cellulose fiber mats can be an alternate future in which we
move to a cradle-to-cradle (C2C) system instead of relying on materials derived
from unsustainable sources. The outcome of this innovative and sustainable design
effort is presented by creating aesthetically pleasing, biodegradable apparel proto-
types and providing a promising future for this nonwoven material as an alternate
future suitable for the apparel and footwear industries. A consumer survey was
conducted of users’ perceptions and acceptance of using apparel products made of
this material, and the results of the survey are discussed.
Keywords Apparel Bacteria cellulose fiber Biodegradable Renewable

Sustainable
1 Introduction: Key Issues on Sustainable Design

Practices
Historically, the textile and apparel industries have been major contributors to
environmental pollution through contaminated wastewater used in production
processes, especially with chemically intensive processes including dyeing, fin-
Y.A. Lee (&)

Department of Apparel, Events, and Hospitality Management, College of Human Sciences,
Iowa State University, 1073 LeBaron Hall, Ames, IA 50011-1121, USA

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_6
142 Y.A. Lee
ishing, slashing, and other operations. Textile waste from apparel production is a
major contributor to landfills. Scraps of textile waste (after cutting garments) often
do not degrade (compost) if placed in landfills because of their synthetic contents
(US Environmental Protection Agency 1996, 2015, n.d.). Other sources of envi-
ronmental contamination result from the large quantities of pesticides, herbicides,
defoliants, and fertilizers used to produce fiber crops such as cotton. Marquardt
(2001) stated that an estimated 81 million pounds of pesticide were applied
annually to upland cotton in the US. In the apparel industry, the many stages of
production, from raw materials to finished products, are often handled as separate
processes and include disconnected operations with little consideration to the total
product waste. Additionally, producers along the production pipeline have given
little attention to postconsumer product disposal.
Gam et al. (2009) studied a comprehensive model to evaluate the environmental
impact of apparel at all stages, which was built on the cradle-to-cradle (C2C) model
for sustainable design developed by McDonough and Braungart (2002). Contrary to
the traditional linear model, whereby products, even if recycled, eventually become
part of a landfill, the C2C model proposes that materials for products should be
incorporated into a continuous cycle of reuse or regeneration. Thus, a circular
model, rather than a linear model, is used. With this model, all aspects of a product
(materials and processes) are evaluated in relation to being sustainable.
C2C is a design framework that incorporates several ideas to help with sus-
tainable product design including safe material use, continuous recovery and reuse
of materials, clean water, renewable energy, and social equity (MBDC LLC 2012;
McDonough et al. 2003). According to the C2C framework, the idea of “waste” is
eliminated, and thus products are designed so that they become either biological or
technical nutrients for something new at the end of their lifecycle “To eliminate the
concept of waste means to design things—products, packaging, and systems—from
the very beginning on the understanding that waste does not exist” (McDonough
and Braungart 2002, p. 104). McDonough and Braungart (2002) suggest that
products can be composed of either biodegradable materials, which will become
food for biological cycles, or of technical materials, which will continue to circulate
as valuable industrial nutrients. Instead of the traditional linear “cradle-to-grave”
product design and development models, C2C offers a closed-loop cycle of flow of
materials, products, and processes (Gam et al. 2009). Biological nutrients are
biodegradable materials or products that are consumed by microorganisms on
entering the biological cycles, thereby enriching and supporting the ecosystem
(McDonough and Braungart 2002). Technical nutrients are materials or products
designed to return to the industrial technical cycles, thereby eliminating useless and
hazardous waste, saving money and resources, and eradicating need for extracting
new raw materials (McDonough and Braungart 2002). The C2C model fits well
with the purpose of the case study that will be introduced in this chapter: Evaluate
bacterial cellulose as a potential environmentally friendly biodegradable material
for apparel production.
Case Study of Renewable Bacteria Cellulose Fiber … 143
2 Bacteria Cellulose Fiber and Its Effectiveness
Sustainable apparel can be seen as a contradictory concept because the apparel

industry, which heavily reliant on the concept of fashion, is guided by constant
change and replacement of old styles with new ones (Farley and Hill 2015).
Although this presents unique challenges to apparel designers and product devel-
opers, it has not stopped the industry from making considerable efforts toward
sustainable apparel and environmentally responsible practices. For example,
Patagonia has introduced innovative approaches in an attempt to make production
and consumption processes sustainable. Other companies, such as Nike and
Timberland, have taken steps toward sustainability. However, there have not been
many efforts in introducing novel sustainable fiber and materials to apparel pro-
duction beyond organic or natural fibers.
Natural fibers (i.e., fiber produced by plants and animals), such as hemp and
cotton, are generally associated with being environmentally friendly; however, in
many cases this is a wrong assumption. Chen and Burns (2006) state “Fiber content
alone may not be an accurate indicator of the full environmental cost of producing
textile product” (p. 149). Although natural fibers are produced from naturally
occurring sources and are not dependent on nonrenewable sources, the cultivation
of these crops is laden with heavy environmental impact (e.g., heavy pesticide and
herbicide use). Although organic fibers are cultivated pesticide-free, the amount of
water used for irrigation and resources used for processing these fibers account for
high environmental damage. Maintenance of garments made of natural fibers is also
associated with high environmental cost.
An alternative natural fiber source that has received some attention in the apparel
industry is bacterial cellulose (BC), also referred to as “bacterial nanocellulose” or
“microbial cellulose” in the scientific literature. Bacterial cellulose (BC), an
emerging nanomaterial, is a natural, nontoxic, biocompatible, and stable hydrogel
with unique properties produced by several species of bacteria (Gama et al. 2013).
Compared with wood- and plant-based cellulose, cellulose produced by bacteria
“form a three-dimensional network that provides unique mechanical properties” and
is pure and free from “plant components such as hemicelluloses and lignin” (Gama
et al. 2013, p. ix).
Among various BC forms synthesized by different species of bacteria, a unique
BC variety can be “easily and effectively synthesized from kombucha” (Zhu et al.
2014), a popular health drink. Kombucha is a lightly acidic beverage that is derived
through the fermentation of sweetened tea using a symbiotic colony of bacteria and
yeast (SCOBY). Simultaneous to the fermentation process, a translucent and
gel-like cellulose membrane is produced at the air/liquid interface of the fermenting
tea (Zhu et al. 2014). This flat cellulose membrane, when removed and dried,
resembles a leather-like material that could be used as a sustainable material for
apparel applications. Although BC has been studied for multiple applications, from
biomedical tissue engineering through wound dressing to foods and cosmetics
144 Y.A. Lee
(Gama et al. 2013), research on its use for apparel applications has received little
attention so far.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a biopolymer that can be produced by several species
of bacteria, the most important of which is Gluconacetobacter xylinus (G. xylinus),
which was identified in 1886 (Gama et al. 2013). Cellulose produced by bacteria
has a molecular formula and morphology similar to that of plant cellulose; however,
BC is pure and does not require additional processing to get rid of impurities such
as lignin, pectin, and hemicellulose (Lin et al. 2013; Gama et al. 2013). G. xylinus
can be found in nature on places such as rotting fruits or other places that have fixed
sources or carbon such as sugars or alcohol, and it is able to make use of various
sugars and other compounds for synthesizing cellulose (Saxena and Brown 2013).
Being strictly an aerobe, it is usually found on the air medium interface, and its
presence can be easily recognized if it produces a cellulose film (Saxena and Brown
2013).
Bacterial cellulose (BC) can be produced through static (stationary) or agitated
(shaking) culture-cultivation methods. In agitated cultivation, small BC particles or
pellets are produced that have lower degree of polymerization, crystallinity, and
mechanical strength compared with the mat-like cellulose produced in static fer-
mentation (Shah et al. 2013; Saxena and Brown 2013). In static cultivation, the
cellulose is formed on the surface (i.e., the air liquid interface) of the culture
medium in a stationary container. In this case, a cellulose membrane or pellicle is
produced on the entire culture medium surface conforming to the form of the
container (Shah et al. 2013). During the static-cultivation process, “the glucose
chains produced inside the bacterial body extrude out through tiny pores present on
their cell envelope,” which then combine and form microfibrils, which in turn
aggregate to form cellulose ribbons (Shah et al. 2013). This nanofiber ribbons later
forms a highly porous web network structure referred to as a pellicle, membrane,
sheet, mat, film, etc.
In static cultivation, as the fermentation time increases as does the thickness of
the nanofiber membrane also increases, which grows downward until “the cells
entrapped in the membrane become inactive or die due to oxygen deficit” (Shah
et al. 2013, p. 1587). Bacterial cellulose can be shaped into three-dimensional
structures during cellulose synthesis using various molds and porogens that allow
producing cellulose with desirable geometries (Gatenholm et al. 2013).
Various bacterial-cellulose (BC) composites have been synthesized by incor-
porating a variety of materials, ranging from organic polymers to inorganic
nanoparticles, where the BC served as a support matrix or a reinforcing material
(Shah et al. 2013). The BC-composite synthesis is mainly done via the in situ
addition of reinforcement material into the BC culture media or the ex situ addition
of reinforcement materials into the fiber BC structure (Shah et al. 2013).
Composites allow modification and enhancement of BC properties to be used in
various applications such as in biomedical fields (e.g., wound dressing, burn
treatments, tissue engineering), electrical devices, conductive material, sensors,
foods, packaging, and cosmetics. Research on BC has recently also focused on
increasing the hydrophobicity of the material for improving its barrier properties
while maintaining its mechanical properties and stability (Silva et al. 2013).
A major direction in bacterial cellulose (BC) research has been the improvement
of cellulose production (Shah et al. 2013). Another direction is the identification of
alternative and more economical raw sources for BC production, which include
low-cost agricultural products and industrial or agricultural wastes such as waste
from beer fermentation broth, various fruit juices, molasses, rice bark, wheat straw,
and cotton textile waste (Hong et al. 2012; Shah et al. 2013).
The bacterial cellulose (BC)–production process could be a sustainable process
because the growth medium can be reused to grow new cellulose fiber mats.
Moreover, a sustainable C2C closed-loop production could be set up where the
cellulose would be used for apparel production, and the liquid media could be
bottled and sold as the kombucha health drink. Produced with common natural
ingredients, BC and the apparel made with it could be a biological nutrient as
described by McDonough and Braungart (2002). When not needed anymore, they
can be composted by users or may become fertilizers for farmers, thus re-entering
the biological cycle instead of going to the “grave.” As McDonough and Braungart
(2002) state, after customers are finished using a product that is designed to be
biological nutrient, they can “throw it onto the soil or compost heap without feeling
bad—even, perhaps, with a kind of relish” (p. 109).
It is important to further investigate BC as a potential environmentally friendly,
sustainable material, specifically, assess its performance, durability, and other
characteristics that are relevant to wearing apparel. Using biobased
environmentally-friendly materials can help reduce the apparel industry’s depen-
dence on nonrenewable sources and solve environmental problems associated with
apparel production and consumption (Cao et al. 2014). It is equally important to
investigate consumer evaluation and acceptance of apparel made of this bacteria
cellulose material. Research has shown that consumers are progressively aware and
concerned about the global environmental and social sustainability problems (Gam
and Banning 2011; Gleim et al. 2013). However, purchasing sustainable products
has not been growing according to expectations due to lack of acceptance and
popularization of sustainable products (Gleim et al. 2013; Moon et al. 2013).
3 Case Study on Developing Renewable Bacteria Cellulose

Fiber and Biopolymer Composites for Sustainable
Design Practices
This case study takes a step toward sustainability in the apparel industry by
investigating a potential biomaterial for apparel use. Bacteria cellulose (BC) has
been studied and utilized in many other fields as a valuable material, however,
studies are lacking in the apparel field. New environmentally friendly renewable
materials, such as BC, could help reduce the industry’s dependence on
146 Y.A. Lee
nonrenewable material sources and alleviate its tremendous contribution to envi-

ronmental degradation. It is important to examine the suitability of BC as a novel
environmentally friendly material for apparel products.
In recent years, the textiles and apparel industries have made progress in the
reduction of toxic wastes due to environmental regulations. However, innovative
methods that look beyond traditional textile natural fibers, such as cotton, flax, silk,
wool, and other animal hair fibers, have largely been ignored. One option explored
by Lee (2011), as reported in the popular press (Llanos 2012), is the use of cellulose
fibers grown by bacteria and yeast in fermented tea. The cellulose fibers form a
mat-like layer that floats on top of the fermenting tea. Lee found that the cellulose
fiber mat could be removed and used as a nonwoven textile after the moisture
evaporated. The resulting nonwoven had an appearance and texture similar to those
of leather.
However, one major problem was reported, the cellulose mat easily regained
moisture from the atmosphere or the human body, which resulted in a softening of
the mat and loss of tensile strength. The reduction in tensile strength could be
sufficient as to allow a garment to fall off the wearer. Lee’s work has focused on
using the cellulose fiber mat for one-of-a-kind fashion apparel that can be produced
by sewing and/or molding into shape. Little scientific research has been conducted
to identify a cultivation method or treatment methods that yield a cellulose fiber mat
formed by bacteria and yeast in fermenting tea that has reduced moisture absorption
and increased tensile strength.
The cultivation process used to produce the cellulose fiber mat formed by
bacteria and yeast in fermenting tea is an option that has the potential to yield a
cellulose textile that could have little or no waste and that could be produced
without fertilizers, irrigation, or farm equipment needed for the production of other
cellulose fibers such as cotton. The tea medium can be reused after a layer of the
fiber mat is harvested, and if disposed of as waste, it is nontoxic to the environment.
As a cellulose fiber, the mat is biodegradable and compostable. It will not contribute
to landfill issues.
As previously stated, the cellulose fiber mat readily absorbs moisture and looses
tensile strength. To be a viable fiber source, a method of modifying the cellulose
mat to reduce moisture absorption and increase tensile strength must be found. This
is a challenge because of the limitations of chemical compatibility with the cellu-
lose molecule and the necessity to have all aspects of the product and processes be
sustainable. Historically, a textile with weak tensile strength would be bonded to
another substance with glue, which would render the textile incapable of being
either biodegradable or recyclable. Recent developments with sustainable
biopolymers have the potential to be combined with the cellulose fibers to produce
composite textiles with the cellulose fiber mats. To meet the technical challenge of
combining the cellulose fibers grown in mats with sustainable biopolymers, inno-
vative and inventive research was employed.
The aim of this study was to identify a method of growing and combining
cellulose fibers grown from bacteria and yeast in fermented tea with sustainable
biopolymers obtained from agricultural plant products, such as corn or soy, to
reduce moisture regain and to increase the strength of the cellulose fiber. New
products developed from the composites would have good tensile strength and
relatively low moisture regain, which are the key parameters for regular daily wear.
Figure 1, developed by the author, illustrates the flow chart of the proposed
approach for the study. Emphasis was given to materials and processes that would
be consistent with the benefits of people, prosperity, and the planet, which include a
cleaner community environment, reduction in energy use, reduction of
fiber-processing and fabric-production costs, reduction of material waste, and
development of a textile that has potential for a large-scale production beyond an
experimental prototype.
The first stage of the study involved various experiments to identify the optimal
protocol for consistent growth of cellulose fiber mats. Such a protocol was achieved
using the following combination of ingredients in a 16 × 12 × 8-in. plastic container
at a room temperature of 27–30 °C, 3760 ml distilled water, 9 organic green tea
bags, 540 g granulated cane sugar, and 632 ml white vinegar. Approximately 100 g
of commercial organic SCOBY were added to the tea mixture to start the growing
process of the cellulose fiber mats (see Table 1).
Cellulose fiber mats started visibly forming on the surface of mixture within
1 week and were harvested after 4 weeks of growth. The mats then went through
the purification process, by washing and boiling in deionized water, to get rid of
sugar and other impurities. The mats were air-dried at room temperature on a
fiberglass screen wire on a flat surface. Several cellulose fiber mats were air-dried
without the purification process to allow comparison with the purified samples. The
comparison results prove that the purification process significantly improves the
material’s hand and properties. Both unpurified and purified samples had a
leather-like appearance and texture; however, the purified mats were flexible, dry,
and pleasant to touch, whereas the unpurified mats were flexible but very sticky to
touch. The properties of these mats were tested in the various stages in terms of
reducing moisture regain and increasing tensile strength.
The next step of this study involved the development of cellulose/biopolymer
composites (stage 2 in Fig. 1). The goal of this stage was to identify biopolymers
compatible with the cellulose mats grown and to successfully develop composite
mats with enhanced properties. Uncoated and biopolymer coated samples,
unpurified cellulose film mat subjected to dip-coating by polylactic acid, PLA
(solution of PLA in chloroform), and an aqueous caster oil based polyurethane
dispersions (PUDs) with approximately 30-nm particle size were examined using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for imaging the surface and the
cross-sectional microstructure. Sample imaging was performed using a Quanta
250 Field Emission instrument. Samples were examined under high-vacuum as
well as variable-pressure mode depending on the sample moisture content as
required. All samples were mounted on 1″ stubs and coated with a 5-nm layer of
iridium to increase conductivity and prevent any charging during the imaging
process. Figure 2a–f summarizes the morphological study for raw, unpurified
cellulose film mat subjected to dip-coating by polylactic acid (PLA) and an
aqueous caster oil based PUD. Images were captured at 10 kV for different
148 Y.A. Lee
Fig. 1 Development process of sustainable vest using renewable bacteria cellulose fiber mats.
Source Flow chart developed by the author, Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
Table 1 Standard formula and procedure to grow consistent cellulose-fiber mats

Standard formula Standard procedures
• Distilled water: 3760 ml 1. Set room temperature at 27–30 °C
• Organic green tea: 9 tea bags 2. Immerse tea bags in about 300 ml boiled hot distilled
• Granulated cane sugar: water so they are covered. Let stand for 10 min to brew.
540 g Discard the tea bags
• White vinegar (5 % acidity): 3. Add the tea brew, the rest of the water, and the other
632 ml ingredients in the desired container (it is easier to dissolve the
• Organic starter SCOBY: sugar in the hot tea first)
approximately 100 g 4. Add the SCOBY
5. Cover the top of the container with a clean paper towel or
muslin, and secure with clips
6. Let stand under static conditions for approximately
4 weeks at room temperature
Source Table developed by the author, Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
Fig. 2 SEM images of unwashed cellulose sample. a Surface. b–c Cross-section. d Cross-section
of PU-coated sample. e PLA-coated cellulose. f PU-coated cellulose. Source Image by the author,
Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
magnifications. A considerable level of charging and sample “burning” was

observed. As can be seen from images (a–c), the presence of a dense network of
fibers, as might be expected [ref: Book Chapter-Bacterial cellulose by Bielecki
et al. (2005)], was not observed.
Fibrous bundles on the surface were seen at higher magnifications, and multiple
layers were observed in the samples mounted for cross-sectional imaging. A large
amount of clumps and bundled networks can be distinguished. Our understanding
150 Y.A. Lee
at this stage estimates that such a morphology is due to the presence of unused or
excess sugars from growth processing.
As can be seen in Fig. 2e, the PLA coating is observed as a smooth, nonporous
covering, whereas the PU coating in Fig. 2f shows a similar smooth coat with no
pores. Because the objective of coating the cellulose fibers with biopolymers is to
make them water-resistant but allow for a ventilated surface at the same time, the
dip-coating method was probably not the best method to make our cellulose films as
required.
The next approach was to subject the SCOBY-grown cellulose fiber mats to
multiple washing, boiling, and rinsing with deionized water by using a basic
medium (pH 8–10) and allow for air drying after neutralization (pH 5–7). SEM
images were collected for these samples subject to similar conditions of sample
coating with iridium and examination at 10 kV, and they are summarized in
Fig. 3a–f. The purified samples without any polymer coating were air dried on a
wire mesh and have an embedded pattern as seen in Fig. 3a–c. Magnified images of
the surface in Fig. 3b, c, however, do not conclusively show the presence of a dense
fibrous network as would have been expected. This can be an issue due to the
drying process, which may cause coagulation in some form and result in a
nonobservable fibrous network. However, the cross-section of the purified samples
provides a very interesting viewpoint. As can be seen in Fig. 3d–f, the cellulose film
comprises multiple layers approximately 1-μm thick with a network of fibers on the
surface of each layer as anticipated. This was a very encouraging result, and it is
attributed to the thorough purification of the samples, which extracts any excess
Fig. 3 SEM images for bicarbonate purified cellulose samples. a–c Sample surface at low
magnification and in Se and BSE modes. d Low-magnification image of cross-sectional mounted
sample. e Cross-section showing multiple layers. f Fibrous network on surface layer of washed
cellulose sample. Source Image by the author, Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
sugar or bacterial depositions on the cellulose. The fibers are approximately 100–
150 nm in width, and they are present in each layer of the film.
Electrospinning was considered as a more controlled way of depositing the
biopolymer coating on cellulose films. Samples were coated with aqueous caster
oil-based PUD because the PLA did not provide a sufficiently adherent layer on the
cellulose. SEM imaging for the surface and cross-sectional morphology of
electro-spinning PU-coated samples can be seen in Fig. 4a–d. As observed in
Fig. 4c, the PU-coated samples showed an almost uniform spread of nanospheres
with diameters between 50 and 100 nm. A few very large PU spheres were also
observed (see Fig. 4b), and could be due to the anomalous deposition of PU
droplets onto the surface during the initial steps of the electro-spinning process.
Tensile testing was also performed to examine the properties of the composites
developed from the cellulose fiber mats and biopolymers. Tensile properties of the
cellulose fiber mats were determined using load cells of varying magnitudes (10 N,
100 N) on an Instron universal testing machine (model 4502). Tensile test results
discussed here are based on the test conditions using a 100-N load cell and a strain
rate of 3 mm/min. All samples were tested at least five times to obtain reliable data.
Testing results included here are the summary of average values that were deter-
mined experimentally. Uncoated and nonpurified samples at the early stages of this
study showed some strength compared with the PU or PLA dip-coated samples (see
Figs. 5 and 6).
In an effort to estimate the strength with more accuracy, tensile tests on the
purified samples for uncoated and PU-coated samples were performed using a
Fig. 4 SEM Images for PU-coated cellulose by electro-spinning method. a Low magnification
showing a fine layer of PU coating on multilayered cellulose film. b–d Various magnifications of
PU coating on the cellulose. Source Image by the author, Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
152 Y.A. Lee
Fig. 5 Preliminary samples for uncoated a PU-dip coated, b PLA-dip coated, and c cellulose fiber
mats. Source Image by the author, Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
Fig. 6 Tensile test results on the purified samples for uncoated and PU-coated samples. Source
Figure developed by the author, Young-A Lee, March 16, 2014
100-N load cell and an extension rate of 3.00 mm/min. A summary of the results is
shown in the graphs below (see Fig. 6).
Tensile test results lead to the following conclusions: (1) The average tensile
strength of unpurified, noncoated samples is higher than the purified samples,
which could be attributed to the fact that the presence of excess sugars in the layers
provide a reinforcement effect to the cellulose matrix that would be able to with-
stand a higher applied stress; and (2) the average tensile strength of the PU-coated
samples is comparably higher than that of the uncoated, purified fiber mats. This
indicates that the PU-coating provides some additional strength. The difference not
being very high could be an indication of (a) the nonuniformity of the PU coating;
and (b) the necessity of improving the nature of the coating (fibrous networks as
opposed to fine nanospheres layer). The trend in the tensile stress at maximum or
peak load shows that the PU-coated cellulose fiber mat is much stronger than the
unpurified, noncoated version. This result proves that the processing of the fiber
mat after its growth plays a very important role in dictating the resulting
mechanical properties. The purified and PU-coated samples were found to have a
maximum extension of approximately 1 mm and an average extension of 0.2 mm
from the stress-strain data.
To test water regains of the cellulose fiber mats, a simple version of Hu et al.’s
(2005) fabric moisture-management test was implemented with the following three
samples: unpurified, purified thin, and purified thick. No significant difference was
found among all three samples regarding the diameters of the water drop before and
after the test. This may be due to our samples having a great ability to absorb the
water, which results in the solidification of the water drop. In addition, the film-like,
nonwoven surface of the sample may also restrict the spread of the water because of
the surface tension of the water drop. Further testing is needed to reduce the water
absorbency of this material.
In short, the case study includes characterization of the developed composites
(e.g., morphology, strength, moisture regain) as well as sustainable prototype
development and its evaluation. This case study provided proof of concept that
products developed using cellulose-based biocomposite materials can provide
significant environmental and economic benefits. Successive experiments in part of
this study revealed the broad capabilities of biopolymer composite materials to be
used to develop various types of products by considering different end users. The
cultivation process used to produce the cellulose fiber mat formed by bacteria and
yeast in fermenting tea is an option that has the potential to yield a cellulose textile
that could have little or no waste and is produced without fertilizers, irrigation, or
farm equipment needed for the production of other cellulose fibers such as cotton.
The tea medium can be reused after a layer of the fiber mat is harvested, and if
disposed of as waste, it is nontoxic to the environment. As a cellulose fiber, the mat
is biodegradable and compostable. It will not contribute to landfill issues. The study
also provided an initial start to make connections among the source of raw mate-
rials, the processing needed to transform the fibers into a new textile composite
suitable for apparel, the impact of products and processes on the environment, and
the potential for the process and the product being adapted to larger-scale
production.
From this study, the following matters were raised and discussed, which lead to
the recommendations for future study. Standardization of the growing process of
cellulose fiber mats is needed through controlling liquid temperature, liquid flow,
and pH level. The growth process of cellulose fiber mats could include nonheated
gentle-pressure compression for making samples with uniform thickness. This step
will help in obtaining dependable, replicate tensile testing and dynamic mechanical
analysis (DMA) testing results. The purified samples are assured to be capable of
withstanding >100-N applied load because they did not always break as was
expected in this test. It is estimated that the use of a load cell of higher value (2–
5 kN) should provide more accurate estimates of the mechanical strength of the
material. The PU coating on the cellulose fiber mats was observed as large depo-
sition of approximately 100-nm spheres on its surface for a layer having thickness
of the same order. It is estimated that concentrating the PU solution used in the
154 Y.A. Lee
coating to a more viscous form will provide a mesh-like coating that can sub-
stantially increase the strength of the material.
Because alkaline washing causes the material to turn a rich, deep brown color,
we expect that there is also scope for adding dyes as suitable coloring to this
material for appropriate uses. In the case of using the material as a water-repellant
vest, suitable chemical dyes that interact well (hydrogen bonding) with PU coating
on the surface may help in making the product more commercially marketable. The
mats are highly dependent on temperature. Under cold-weather conditions (e.g.,
−10 °C), the mats were easily broken. It is recommended to improve the smell and
the tensile strength in cold conditions. For this study, all cellulose-based mat
samples (unpurified, purified, PU coated, PLA coated) were air dried. It is rec-
ommended to try the freeze-drying method for further exploration. During the
prototype-development process, the purified mats broke when stitching two pieces
together; on the other hand, the unpurified ones were a bit sticky. Further explo-
ration is needed for the best way to assemble pieces together (e.g., sewing, bonding,
melting) for large-scale production in future.
4 Case Study of User Acceptance of Apparel Products

Made of BC Material
Research has identified several barriers that prevent the acceptance of sustainable
goods and apparel by consumers including lack of expertise about the effects of
sustainable products on the environment, difficulty in finding sustainable products,
high prices, and negative perceptions of sustainable apparel as being nonfashion-
able and unattractive (Moon et al. 2013; Gleim et al. 2013). It is essential to assess
consumers’ acceptance and evaluation of sustainable products in the product-design
and -development stage to ensure that consumer preferences and needs are being
considered so that the product is successful when introduced to the market.
Although bacterial cellulose (BC) has been proposed as a potential eco-friendly
material for apparel production, there is no research exploring consumer acceptance
and evaluation of this material when used in apparel. Therefore, the aim of this
study was to explore consumers’ perceptions and expectation toward the use of this
newly developed, cellulose-based sustainable nonwoven fabric in apparel or other
product development. Specific research objectives were to (1) examine consumers’
level of understanding on the general terms, sustainable or green fabric/material;
(2) explore study participants’ thoughts on the newly developed sustainable fabric
and their general attitudes toward environmental issues; and (3) investigate study
participants’ expectations and perceptions toward the use of sustainable fabrics in
apparel design as well as the use of sustainable apparel made of the newly
developed BC material.
An online survey methodology, including both open- and closed-ended ques-
tions, was used to collect consumer data. A convenience sample of undergraduate
and graduate students age ≥18 years was obtained from US Midwestern universities
and used for data analysis. Prospective student participants received an invitation
email including the study description, consent elements, and a link to a short
Web-based questionnaire that would take approximately 20–25 min to complete.
Participants were asked questions to (1) evaluate their level of understanding
about sustainable fabric/material, (2) obtain their thoughts on the newly developed
sustainable fabric/material by way of visual inspection (see Figs. 7 and 8),
(3) collect their general attitudes toward environmental issues as well as their
expectations and perception toward the use of this sustainable nonwoven
fabric/material as well as apparel made of this sustainable fabric, and (4) obtain
their demographic information. The closed-ended questions, except for the demo-
graphic information items, were measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale.
Before initiating data collection, the pretest of this online survey was completed to
check the clarity of the question wordings. After completing the data collection, the
quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS 21 software to perform basic
descriptive statistics, correlations among variables, and others. The qualitative data
from open-ended questions were analyzed using content analysis approach.
A total of 97 responses were received from the college students, and among
those 86 usable data were obtained and used for data analyses. The sample con-
sisted of 71 female students and 15 male students. Participants’ ages ranged from
19 to 42 years with a mean of 20 years. The majority of respondents ranged from
age 19 to 22 years. Most were white/European-American (62 %) followed by Asian
(22 %), Latino or Hispanic American (11 %), and other ethnicities (5 %). The
college status of respondents was 47 % seniors followed by 27 % juniors, 17 %
graduate students, 6 % sophomores, and 3 % other. Most study respondents were
affiliated with the College of Human Sciences (80 %) followed by Engineering
(8 %), Liberal Arts and Sciences (6 %), Business (3 %), Agriculture and Life
Sciences (2 %), and Design (1 %).
Participants were asked to write down the materials or fabrics that first come to
mind when visually examining the images shown in Fig. 7. The majority of par-
ticipants thought the vest was made of leather, rawhide, paper, or plastic. They
commented that the texture of the vest was “stiff, like leather.” They were also
Fig. 7 Visual images of new bacteria cellulose nonwoven material and vest prototype. Source
Image by the author, Young-A Lee, April 15, 2015
156 Y.A. Lee
Fig. 8 Process of developing new bacteria cellulose nonwoven material and vest prototype.
Source Image by the author, Young-A Lee, April 15, 2015
asked to indicate their response to each adjective (e.g., soft vs. hard) that best
describes their thoughts about the texture of the material (see Table 2).
The participants viewed the texture of the BC material as likely thin (M = 5.09),
stiff (M = 4.64), hard (M = 4.55), slick (M = 4.48), and harsh (M = 4.29).
Participants were also asked to respond on the material’s color intensity, uniformity
of color, uniformity of surface, transparency, gloss, and purity. As shown in
Table 3, the participants viewed the surface of the BC material toward smooth
surface (M = 4.43), pure (M = 4.12), shiny (M = 3.85), even-colored (M = 3.84), and
slightly opaque (M = 3.69).
The results indicate that by visual inspection, the participants determined the
material to be thin and lightweight, the texture hard and stiff, the surface smooth,
and the color light and even. According to open-ended questions, most participants
were concerned about the color and the texture of the BC material. They suggested
having more color variations and a solution of discomfort because of hard and stiff
texture. The results lead to future research on the sensory test of this newly
developed BC material so users could inspect the material physically (e.g., visual,
odor, tactile). The participants generally thought that using this material is an
interesting idea and that it is good to use it because it is sustainable; however, they
expressed their concern about this BC material in terms of its visual appeal, color
variation, wearer comfort, durability, and care.
After participants evaluated the BC material by visual inspection, their percep-
tion and attitude toward the BC material, and whether they would purchase
Table 2 Visual inspection of Texture characteristics Mean SD

the texture of bacteria
cellulose material Soft to hard 4.55 1.81
Silky to harsh 4.29 1.61
Firm to stretchy 3.07 1.74
Floppy to stiff 4.63 1.74
Crisp to limp 3.12 1.74
Rough to smooth 4.60 1.69
Thick to thin 5.09 1.70
Scratchy to slick 4.48 1.63
Tight to loose 4.18 1.62
Light to heavy 2.82 1.64
Dead to springy 3.22 1.43
Cool to warm 3.46 1.68
Note Items were measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale
ranging from “adjective located on left (1)” to “adjective located
on right (7)”
Source Table developed by the author, Young-A Lee, April 15,
2015
Table 3 Visual inspection of Surface characteristics Mean SD

the surface characteristics of
bacteria cellulose material Light to dark 3.03 1.81
Uneven to even 3.84 1.61
Bumpy to smooth 4.43 1.74
Sheer to opaque 3.69 1.74
Dull to shiny 3.85 1.74
Blurry to pure 4.12 1.69
ranging from “adjective located on left (1)” to “adjective located
on right (7)”
2015
products made of this material when it is available, were measured. Overall, study
participants had a positive attitude toward the BC material (M = 4.46) based on the
rating scale from poor (1) to excellent (7); however, their response to the anticipated
acceptance of this material to general consumers were just slightly over medium
(M = 3.89) using the rating scale from not at all (1) to extremely acceptable (7).
Participants had a positive perception toward the BC material developed for the
study, especially considering the material as very unique (M = 6.25) and interesting
(M = 6.14). They also thought that this material is usable, durable, and desirable
(see Table 4), but their willingness to purchase the products made of this BC
material was in the medium range (M = 3.63).
In general, participants had positive perception and attitude toward the BC
material. Specifically, participants thought the material is unique and that the idea to
158 Y.A. Lee
Table 4 Consumer Perceptions of material Mean SD

perception on bacteria
cellulose material Usable 4.78 1.46
Durable 4.35 1.47
Unique 6.25 0.92
Interesting 6.14 0.97
Desirable 4.11 1.70
Comfortable 3.94 1.66
ranging from “strongly disagree (1)” to “strongly agree (7)”
2015
use this renewable sustainable material for apparel products is interesting. According
to the theory of planned behavior, a positive perception leads to positive attitude,
which then leads to a behavioral intention. However, this study shows a medium
acceptance rate for the BC material developed. The possible reason could be that
without physical inspection, participants have doubts about the actual texture of the
material. In the open-ended questions, they expressed their concern about the
durability and comfort of the material. This suggests future study that involves
physical inspection. In addition, the improvement of the BC material in terms of
durability, comfort, and care should be taken into account for further research.
This study also investigated participants’ general perceptions about sustainable
materials and products made of those materials as a means of understanding the
current sustainable product market. Most participants perceived “sustainable” as
eco/environmentally friendly and “sustainable products” as green products that are
environmentally friendly and made of organic and reusable materials. In specific to
the apparel industry, participants thought that sustainable apparel products are
usually made of organic, natural, or recycled materials. The study also examined
participants’ expectations (a consumer’s mental impression of a stimulus object)
and perceptions (a form of consumer hypothesis) about (1) currently available
sustainable materials and products made of them; and (2) products made of the
newly developed biodegradable BC material.
Participants had high expectations and perceptions toward products made of
sustainable materials in general. There was a significant gap between their per-
ceptions and expectations. Their perception did not match with their expectation,
indicating that the current products made of sustainable materials need further
improvement. On the other hand, there was no significant gap between their per-
ception and expectation on the products made of the BC material indicating that the
products made of the BC material meet participants’ expectation of such material.
Participants’ expectations and perceptions were significantly higher for the products
made of sustainable materials currently available in the market than for the products
made of the BC materials developed for the study, indicating as a newly developed
material, the participants do not anticipate that this BC material could function in
market available sustainable products yet.
The results indicate that as a newly developed material, and only visually, not
manually, inspected by the participants in this study, the BC material was perceived
to be good as a sustainable material that slightly but not significantly exceeded
participants’ expectation. The result indicates that the BC material has the potential
to gain consumers in the future. Although participants did not perceive the BC
material as good as currently available other sustainable materials, they showed
great interest in this BC material, thus providing potential use of the material in
shoes, packaging bags, or curtains. Further study should be done to explore more of
the potential of this BC material for the variety of products beyond apparel.
Among the study participants, 39.7 % considered switching from their favorite
brands or stores to other brands that sell environmentally friendly products, and
11.1 % of them would not switch the choice of their brands. Approximately a half of
them (49.2 %) were not sure about this matter, indicating that consumers’ acceptance
of environmentally friendly products is still immature; thus, the market for the
products made of these materials still needs growth. Approximately 30 % of the
participants were willing to pay a 5 % price premium to buy green products, and 27 %
would be willing to pay more than a 10 % price premium of the products indicating
that more than half of the consumers would be willing to pay more for green products
because of their sustainability practices. This result encourages researchers to
developing new sustainable materials to gain the market and save the planet. Novel,
sustainable materials, such as bacterial cellulose, could be the ones to expanding the
market, but consumer awareness of this type of material should come first.
Participants also shared their ideas on other alternate products that would be
good to make from this BC material. Most participants thought it is a good idea to
use this material as packaging material such as a grocery bag. Some also thought it
is a good material to make other apparel products like shoes or hats as well as home
decorations like curtains. Figure 9 presents a few alternate shoe products made of
Fig. 9 Shoe prototypes made of renewable bacteria cellulose nonwoven material. a Baby shoes.
b Women’s shoes. c Men’s shoes. Source Image by the author, Young-A Lee, August 19, 2015
160 Y.A. Lee
this BC material as a leather replacement. These prototypes were designed and

developed by this case study research team and are currently in the product
property evaluation stage.
5 Summary and Future Trends
How do we design, develop, produce, and consume materials and products in

sustainable ways and still participate with fashion? We must embrace the wide
range of complexities of sustainability that fashion can address. The materials and
processes will be consistent with the benefits of people, prosperity, and the planet
including a cleaner community environment, reduction of energy use, reduction of
fiber processing and fabric production costs, reduction of material waste, and
development of a textile that has potential for larger-scale production beyond an
experimental prototype. In our current society, it is crucial to continuously note how
fashion professionals, and we as consumers, can integrate and sustain environ-
mental protection, economic prosperity, and social benefits in rural communities as
well as the apparel and textiles industries. Through demonstrated benefits to people,
prosperity, and the planet, the case study presented in this chapter will be expanded
in future years across scales in larger regions.
In summary, the following addresses how the case study in this chapter relates to
different dimensions of sustainability (i.e., people, prosperity, and the planet). As a
global industry, the development of a sustainable textile and apparel production
process has a huge potential for improving the living conditions for individuals and
factory workers. The potential exist for a new and sustainable textile production
system to provide jobs in a sector where none exist at the present time. Safer
materials, as well as the sustainable production of apparel and its related products,
will benefit many people on many different levels. With the proposed textiles (e.g.,
bacteria cellulose biocomposite material), apparel and its related products are
sustainable and are created from fibers that have a history of consumer acceptance.
The potential for a new and sustainable textile production system to provide jobs
in a sector where none exist at present will result in improved economics for
workers. The reduction in waste will result in the use of fewer resources related to
postproduction waste and the reduction of economic strain on communities. By
developing a textile that will not require the additional steps of making fiber into
yarn and yarn into fabric, fewer resources will be used. This will provide the
potential for increased profits for the manufacturer and reduced costs for the con-
sumer. This will result in improved economic circumstances for manufacturers and
consumers. A detailed cost-benefit analysis will be useful for future study.
Reduced use of resources, such as water, and the reduction of effluents resulting
from traditional processing will improve community environments. Postproduction
wastes will be compostable, thereby reducing landfill waste. Postconsumer waste of
apparel and its related products created with this bacteria cellulose fabric will be
compostable given the design within the context of a C2C model.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

[grant number SU835524 and SU83573301]. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the
grantee and do not necessarily represent the official views of the US EPA. The author thanks Drs.
Cheryl Farr, Samy Madboudy, Zhiyou Wen, Chunhui Xiang—as well as graduate assistants
Armine Ghalachyan, Rui Li, Changhyun Nam, and Gauri Ramasubrmanian—for assistance in
moving forward this project.
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Environmental Footprints and Eco-design

of Products and Processes

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

ISSN 2345-7651 ISSN 2345-766X (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016930270

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by SpringerNature

Luxury Hair Fibers for Fashion Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The concept of sustainability is widely used in every industrial sector including

Ammayappan Lakshmanan, Seiko Jose and Sujay Chakraborty

Keywords Animal hair Luxury hair Fashion clothing Fineness Yield

A. Lakshmanan (&) S. Jose S. Chakraborty

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 1

2 Luxury Hair Fibers

Luxury Hair Fibers

Hair fibers Fur fibers

Rabbit Bovine family

1. Angora goat-Mohair hairt Camel Camelids 1. Hare hair 1. Yak hair

Fig. 1 Classiﬁcation of luxury hair ﬁbers based on their source

2.1 Goat Family

2.1.1 Mohair Hair

Fig. 2 Mohair goat and luxury products made from mohair

2.1.2 Cashmere Hair

Adult cashmere goat 100% Cashmere stole of Silk/ Nylon/ Cashmere

Fig. 3 Mohair goat and luxury products from mohair hair

2.1.3 Pashmina Hair

Pashmina bearing Changthangi goat Hand crafted 100% Kashmiri Pashmina

Fig. 4 Pashmina goat and pashmina shawl

Hand-spinning of Pashmina hair in Charkha Handloom weaving of Pashmina shawl

Block Printing of shawl for design Hand Embroidery on Pashmina shawl

Fig. 5 Production of a pashmina Shawl by traditional process (Ammayappan et al. 2011)

2.1.4 Pygora Hair

Pygora goat Silk:Pygora blended scarf Pygora Scarf with beads of

2.1.5 Cashgora Hair

Cashgora fleece is obtained by shearing from the Cashgora goat, which is a

In Tajikistan, the hair is harvested manually by the comber, sorted according to

2.1.6 Common Goat Hair

Tibetan Chiru antelope 100% Shahtoosh A Kashmiri shawl weaver weaves a

Fig. 8 Tibetan chiru antelope and shahtoosh products

2.1.7 Shahtoosh Hair

2.2 Orenburg Hair

Orenburg Goat Hand-woven Orenburg Orenburg (100%) wedding-

Fig. 9 Orenburg hair

2.3 Camel Family

2.3.1 Camel Hair

Single hump adult camel Double hump adult camel

Fig. 11 Camel hair based luxury products

2.4 Camelid Family

cooperatives to European and American markets. This sustainable supply chain

2.4.1 Llama Hair

Fig. 12 Different breeds of llama camelids

Fig. 13 Llama hair based luxury products

2.4.2 Alpaca Hair

Fig. 14 Alpaca camelid

Alpaca Suri Alpaca Huacayo

Acrylic/alpaca Baby alpaca (100%) Alpaca/merino wool Crewneck made from

Fig. 15 Alpaca hair based luxury products

2.4.3 Vicuna Hair