YOVEL, Yirmiyahu - Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2
YOVEL, Yirmiyahu - Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2
YOVEL, Yirmiyahu - Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2
T H E A D V E N T U R E S OF I M M A N E N C E
Spinoza
and
Other Heretics
THE A DVENTURES
OF I M M A N E N C E
**
Y I R M I Y A H U Y O V E L
A l l R ig h ts R e se rv e d
L ib r a r y o f C o n g r e s s C a ta lo g in g - in - P u b lic a tio n D a ta
Y o v e l, Y ir m ia h u .
S p in o z a an d o th e r h e retics.
Includes bibliographies and indexes.
C o n t e n t s : v. 1. T h e M a rra n o o f rea so n — v. 2 T h e a d v e n tu re s o f im m a n e n c e ,
i . S p in o z a , B e n e d ic tu s d e, 1 6 3 2 -1 6 7 7 . 2. M a rra n o s . 3. I m m a n e n c e ( P h ilo s o p h y ) —
H is t o r y — 17th cen tu ry.
I. T it le .
B 3 9 9 8 .Y 6 7 1988 19 9 '.4 9 2 88-28931
I S B N 0 -6 9 1-0 7 3 4 4 -9 (v. 1 : alk. pap er)
I S B N 0 -6 9 1-0 7 3 4 6 -5 (v. 2 : alk . paper)
P u b lic a tio n o f th is b o o k has been aid ed b y a g ra n t fro m the
W h it n e y D a r r o w F u n d o f P rin c c to n U n iv e r s it y P ress
T h e J e w ’s translucent hands
Shape the crystals in the tw ilig h t.
A n d the d y in g even ing is all fear and chill.
(In the even ings, even in gs are the same).
H is hands and the h yacin th ’s space
P alin g at the p u rv ie w o f the gh etto
A re alm ost inexistent fo r the quiet m an
D re a m in g a clear labyrinth.
Fam e does n o t p erturb h im , that reflection
O f dream s in another kin d o f dream ,
N o r the g ir ls ’ fearful love.
Free o f m etaphor, free o f m yth
H e shapes a rigid crystal: the infinite
M a p o f the O n e that is A ll Its stars.
— -Jorge Luis B o rg e s
translated by Y ir m iy a h u Y o v e l
Contents
PREFACE IX
NOTE ON SO U RCES XV
ch a p te r 2. S p in o za and H e g e l: T h e Im m a n e n t G o d —
S u b sta n c e o r S p irit? 27
c h a p te r 3. S p in o za in H e in e , H ess, F euerbach : T h e
N a tu r a liz a tio n o f M a n 51
n o te s 187
IN D E X 219
(vii)
Preface
(it)
PREFACE
(*)
PREFACE
(xi)
PREFACE
th e p re c e d in g m ap to d ra w a d istin c tio n b e tw e e n a d o g m a t ic a n d a
critic a l p h ilo s o p h y o fim m a n e n c e , a r g u in g th at th e la tter m u s t a ls o b e
a p h ilo s o p h y o f finitude. W h ile m y co n c lu s io n is fr e q u e n tly c r itic a l o f
S p in o za , I h o p e it w ill s h o w th at he can still be read as a v ita l an d
re le v a n t in tellec tu a l c h a lle n g e tod ay, ju s t as th e p re c e d in g ch a p te rs
s h o w th a t his p resen ce in m o d e rn th o u g h t is far m o r e p e rv a s iv e th an
m o s t p e o p le su spect.
S e le ctio n s are a lw a y s s o m e w h a t arb itrary, an d m in e is n o e x c e p tio n .
I in c lu d e H e in e b ecau se he is s im p ly irre sistib le , an d p re fe r H e g e l to
F ich te and S c h e llin g , and N ie tz s c h e to S c h o p e n h a u e r, b e c a u s e th e ir
im p a c t o n c o n te m p o r a ry th o u g h t is g re a te r and th e ir m o d e ls o f im
m an e n ce are m o r e s tr o n g ly d e fin ed . B u t I re a d ily a d m it th a t th e list
can be e x p a n d e d (and w ill o n ly w e lc o m e su ch attem p ts).
A fin al w o r d a b o u t m y ch o ic e o f term s. I th in k th e c o n c e p t o f a
p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e is m o re fu n d a m en ta l, an d th e re fo re m o r e
ap t to c o n v e y S p in o z a ’s basic idea, than th e m o r e c u rre n t te r m s
“ p a n th e is m ” o r even “ n a tu ra lism .” P a n th eism is b u t a s p e c ific v a r ie ty
o f the p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n ce . ( O f the cases w e sh all d is cu s s , o n ly
H e g e l an d S p in o za s h o w p an th e istic lea n in gs, w h e re a s all th e o th e r s —
n o ta b ly M a r x , N ie tz s c h e and F reu d — reject th e d e ific a tio n o f im m a
n e n t b e in g as an illu sio n ). A s fo r “ n a tu ra lis m ,” this te r m as c u r r e n tly
u sed w i ll h a rd ly c o n v e y th e c o m p le x v ie w S p in o za has o f n a tu re as a
m e n ta l an d lo g ic a l e n tity n o less th an a p h y s ic a l o n e . M o r e im p o r t a n t,
“ n a tu ra lis m ” is b o th to o b ro a d an d to o restrictive ; it m a y w e ll in c lu d e
th e d e is t’s b e lie f in a tran scen d en t G o d w h o h ad created n a tu re an d
th e n let it ru n b y its n atu ral la w s alon e— a p r o fo u n d ly u n - S p in o z is tic
v ie w ; o n th e o th e r h an d , it w ill e x c lu d e su ch u n m is ta k a b le S p in o z is tic
d iscip le s as H e g e l an d M a rx : H e g e l b ecau se he v ie w s im m a n e n t r e a lity
n o t as n atu re m e re ly b u t as its Aujhebung b y h is to r y and S p irit, an d
M a r x b e c a u se his co n c re te re a lity is hum anized n a tu re (h is to r y ag ain )
an d n o t n atu re in a “ r a w ” o r p h y s ic a lis tic sense.
U s in g th e c o n c e p t o f a p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e w ill a v o id s u c h
p a ra d o x e s an d w ill be b e tte r su ited , I th in k , to ca p tu re th e fundam ental
S p in o z is tic id ea th at o th e r p h ilo so p h e rs h av e ad a p te d o r re in te rp re te d .
A s fo r th e w o r d “ h e re tic s ,” it s h o u ld be taken w ith a g ra in o f ir o n ic
salt. I u se it to d e sig n a te th in k e rs w h o , w h e n p r o p e r ly u n d e r s to o d ,
m u s t b e d e em ed h e re tica l in term s o f th eir own o r th o d o x tr a d itio n .
A lm o s t e v e r y o r t h o d o x y d e n o u n c e s h e re tics, w h ic h d o es n o t m e a n it
has tr u th o n its sid e. D e n y in g s u p e rstitio n o r false au th o ritie s is also
o fte n ca lled h e re sy. T h e M a rra n o s w e re co n sid e re d h eretics b y th e In
q u is itio n , an d th e P ro testa n ts w e r e co n sid e re d h eretics b y th e P o p e .
(xii)
PREFACE
(xiii)
N ote on Sources
(xv)
Spinoza and Other Heretics
TH E AD VEN TU RES OF I M M A N E N C E
C H A P T E R I
B ib il ic a l In t e r p r e t a t io n as P r e p a r a t io n f o r P h il o s o p h y
(3 )
CHAPTER 1
(4)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(5)
CHAPTER I
K an t and H u m a n is t ic Im m anence
In this c o n te x t, th e n am e o f K a n t c o m e s to m in d as a c o m p a n io n an d
c o u n te rp a rt to S p in o za . D e s p ite th eir o th e r w is e g re a t d iffe re n c e s , h ere
th e y m e e t o n c o m m o n g ro u n d . B o t h u se th e c ritiq u e o f r e lig io n to
p u r ify th e m in d o f false im a g e s and to elim in a te th e s o cia l an d in s titu
tio n a l o b sta cles b u ilt u p o n th e m . M o r e o v e r , b o th use b ib lic a l h e r m e
n e u tics to d iv e rt th eir a u d ie n c e ’s tran sce n d en t d is p o s itio n s to w a r d an
im m a n e n t re lig io n o f reaso n .
K a n t, h o w e v e r, in spite o f his ra d ica l critiq u e o f r e lig io n , c a n n o t b e
ca lle d a p h ilo so p h e r o fim m a n e n c e w ith o u t q u a lific a tio n . In re s p e c t to
k n o w le d g e K a n t takes th e p o s itio n o f critical im m a n e n c e , an d in e th ics
h e en d s u p in a tran scen d en t p o s itio n th at o p p o s e s an I s / O u g h t d u a l
is m to S p in o z a ’s n a tu ra lism . Y e t K a n t re m ain s a tta ch ed to th e p rin c ip le
o f im m a n e n c e in w h a t co u n ts m o st; fo r in e s ta b lis h in g th e foundations
o f th e n atu ral and th e m o r a l w o r ld h e a llo w s n o ap p eal to a p o w e r o r
( 6)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(7)
CHAPTER 1
( 8)
SPINOZA AND KANT
B ib l ic a l H e r m e n e u t ic s as th e P h il o s o p h e r ’s M ode of A c t io n
( 9)
CHAPTER I
(i o)
SPINOZA AND KANT
* I use this term in the sense o f “ rational pu rification" o r secular reform , not o f an c.v
post facto ju s tific a tio n .
(¡0
CHAPTER I
(12)
SPINOZA AND KANT
( 13)
CHAPTER I
T h e b e s t th in g , th en , th at w e can d o , so lo n g as w e d o n o t h a v e
p e rfe c t k n o w le d g e o f o u r a ffe cts , is to c o n c e iv e a c o r r e c t p r in c ip le
o f liv in g , o r su re m a x im s o f life , to commit them to m em ory, an d to
a p p ly th e m c o n s ta n tly to th e p a rticu la r cases fr e q u e n t ly e n c o u n
te re d in life. In this way our imagination w ill be exten sively affected by
them, an d w e sh all a lw a y s h ave th e m re a d y [e m p h a sis a d d e d ] .14
( ¡ 4)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(1 5 )
CHAPTER I
T he M ethods of B ib l ic a l In t e r p r e t a t i o n
(16)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(*7)
CHAPTER I
(18)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(19)
CHAPTER I
(20)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(21)
CHAPTER I
(22)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(23)
CHAPTER 1
( 24)
SPINOZA AND KANT
(2 5 )
CHAPTER I
(26)
C H A P T E R 2
(27)
CHAPTER 2
A P a r a d ig m o f D i a l e c t i c a l C r it iq u e
(28)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
(29)
CHAPTER 2
(30)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
O v e r v ie w of H e g e l ’s C r it ic is m
(30
C HAPTER 2
(32)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
(3 3)
CHAPTER 2
g e l— fr o m th e v ie w p o in t o f trad itio n a l th e o lo g y — an e v e n g re a te r
c r o w n o f th o rn s than th e o n e p laced o n S p in o z a ’s h ead . Y e t H e g e l al
re a d y w r o te in a d iffe re n t Zeitgeist— and th at m ak es a d iffe re n c e .
<3 4)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
(35)
CHAPTER 2
(36)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
(37)
CHAPTER 2
in w h ic h case, as in P a rm e n id e s, even P la to , an d (H e g e l th in k s) c e r
ta in ly S p in o za , th e M a n y c o u ld n o t b e d o n e ju s tic e ; o r e lse th e M a n y
w e r e p r e d o m in a n t, in w h ic h case th e O n e w a s s a c rific e d an d a fo r m o f
n o m in a lis m o r e m p ir ic is m e n su ed . D u a lis m , to o , w a s n o t th e an
s w e r— at lea st n o t fo r an a v o w e d m o n is t lik e S p in o za . T h e o n ly c o h e r
e n t c o n s tr u a l o f th e to ta lity , H e g e l a rg u e s, is b y w a y o f d ia le c tic a l lo g ic ;
a n y o th e r c o n s tru a l b rea k s d o w n in to a n e w d u a lis m , o r s a c rific e s o n e
o f th e sid es fo r th e sak e o f the o th er. T h e v e r y c o n c e p t o f to t a lity im
p lies a c o n tra d ic tio n : a s y s te m th a t is at o n c e O n e an d M a n y , U n iv e r s a l
an d P a rtic u la r, B e in g and B e c o m in g . In d eed , in th e d ia le c tic a l c o n
stru a l o f th e c o n c e p t o f to ta lity , all th e o ld P la to n ic o p p o s ite s are c o n
sid e re d as m e d ia tin g e ach o th e r in a sin g le p ro c e s s . T h e u n iv e rs a l b e
c o m e s su ch o n ly b y w a y o f its s e lf-p a rtic u la riz a tio n , fr o m w h ic h it is
re c o n s titu te d as a “ c o n c r e te ” u n iv e rsa l. T h e O n e b e c o m e s w h a t it is
o n ly b y w a y o f th e M a n y w h ic h e v o lv e fro m it an d , in th eir re g a in e d
u n ity , c o n s titu te the O n e . T h e id e n tity o f th e s y s te m is c o n s titu te d b y
a p ro c e s s o f s e lf-d iffe re n tia tio n an d as a m o v e m e n t o f “ re tu rn to s e l f ”
fr o m th is d iffe re n tia tio n . Id e n tity is n o t im m e d ia t e ly an d s im p ly
g iv e n , b u t is th e re su lt o f a p ro cess o f reidentification. A d ia le c tic a l c o n
stru a l o f th e to ta lity w o u ld req u ire , first, u n d e rs ta n d in g th e a b s o lu te
as in v o lv in g n e g a tio n in its in n er co n s titu tio n , an d c o n s e q u e n tly as
b e in g th e re su lt o f a p ro c e ss o f s e lf-p a rtic u la riz a tio n , b y w h ic h it re
g a in s (o r c o n stitu te s) its d ia le ctica l u n ity an d its v e r y statu s as a b s o lu te .
F o r th is re a so n , th e m a jo r fla w th at H e g e l fin d s in S p in o z a ’s t h e o r y o f
su b s ta n c e is th a t th e m o d e s d ep en d u p o n th e s u b s ta n ce u n ila te ra lly ; th e
s u b s ta n c e is first causa sui, in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e m o d e s , an d th e n it is
als o s u p p o s e d to b e th e ca u se o f th e m o d e s as a d is tin c t an d s e c o n d a r y
act.
M o s t o f H e g e l’s a tte m p t in th e ch a p te r o n th e a b s o lu te in th e L og ic is
to re fu te th is v ie w an d p rese n t his firs t d ia lectica l c o r r e c tio n to S p in o
z a ’s o u t lo o k — a c o rr e c tio n , w e h av e seen , th at ta k e s p la c e still o n th e
le v e l o f su b s ta n ce an d “ O b je c tiv e L o g ic .” In H e g e l’s c o rr e c te d v e rs io n ,
th e a b s o lu te is th e re su lt o f its o w n p ro c e ss o f s e lf- c o n s titu tio n , a p r o
ce ss th a t ta k e s p la c e b y th e m e d ia tio n o f th e fin ite m o d e s . C e r t a in ly ,
th e su b s ta n c e is th e cause o f it s e lf— b u t w h a t is th is “ i t s e l f ” o f w h ic h it
is th e ca u se? Is it a ta u to lo g ic a l id e n tity , o r is it its o w n “ s e l f ” in th e
fo r m o f an “ o th e r ” ? O n l y th e la tte r w o u ld s a tis fy th e d ia le c tic a l c o n
c e p t o f to ta lity , as w e ll as th e co h e re n c e co n d itio n s fo r m a in ta in in g s u c h
a c o n c e p t. T h e su b sta n ce is ca u se o f it s e lf in th a t it is th e ca u se o f th e
in f in it y o f m o d e s w h ic h is n o th in g b u t it s e lf in th e fo r m o f its o p p o s ite ;
(3 8)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
or, the in fin ite , etern al, U nitarian asp ect o f the universe is cause o f itse lf
in th at it is th e cause o f th e fin ite, tem p oral, p luralistic aspect o f the
u n iverse— b o th b e in g o p p o s ite m om en ts o f the sam e system , o f the
sam e d ia le ctica l u n ity. T h e w o r ld as natura naturans and the w o rld as
natura naturata are o n e, S p in o za says; let h im then construe th em in
su ch a w a y th a t natura naturans w ill be causa sui not d irectly and in itself,
b u t in th at it is th e cause o f th e natura naturata— w h ic h is n o th in g but
its e lf in th e fo r m o f “ o th e rn e s s .” In a w o rd , the co n ce p t o f causa sui is
realized in th a t th e o n e su b sta n ce particularizes itse lf in to the m odes
and b e c o m e s ca u se o f it s e lf through being the cause o f the modes. O n ly
as th e re su lt o f th is m e d ia tio n , can the ab solu te to tality em erge and be
co n stitu te d as su ch .
(39)
CHAPTER 2
S u bjec t a n d S p ir it : T he R ole of H is t o r y
(40)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
(41)
CHAPTER 2
(42)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
( 43)
CHAPTER 2
in o rd e r to b e c o m e tr u ly G o d . T h is is n o t s o m e th in g G o d d o e s in ad
d itio n to b e in g a b so lu te , b u t is a co n d itio n fo r his b e c o m in g s u ch ; and
n o act o f gra ce, lo v e , o r c o m p a s s io n is in v o lv e d in G o d ’s b e c o m in g
m an — o n ly d ia lectica l necessity.
H erein lies a true and p ro fo u n d d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n H e g e l an d S p i
n o za , w h ic h ev en a d e ep -stru ctu re an a lysis can n o lo n g e r r e m o v e . D i
ale ctica l lo g ic and th e d o ctrin e o f th e b e c o m in g G o d are e sse n tia l to
H e g e l’s s y ste m ; b o th in terp re t his d em a n d to v ie w th e a b s o lu te as
sp irit— and b o th m u st n ecessa rily b e rejected b y S p in o za .
S p in o za ca n n o t a d m it a d ialectical lo g ic b e cau se it in frin g e s o n th e
la w o f co n tra d ic tio n , fo r h im th e co rn e rs to n e o f r a tio n a lity , an d b e
cau se o f its la ten t th e o lo g ic a l n a tu re.'·1 S p in o za p refers in ste a d his o w n
lo g ic o f th e c o m p le m e n ta ry aspects o f th e sam e, w h ic h he b e lie v e s can
d o th e n e cessa ry j o b w ith o u t b re a ch in g the fr a m e w o r k o f (ca u sa l-ty p e )
ra tio n a lity. A s fo r th e n o tio n o f th e (h isto ric a lly ) “ b e c o m in g ” G o d ,
S p in o za m u st reject it b ecau se it im p lies te le o lo g y , a n t h r o p o m o r
p h ism , an d a ta cit p ro v id e n c e o r “ sacred h is to r y ” g u id in g th e w o r ld .
A ll th ree are m e ta p h y s ic a l fic tio n s w h o s e re m o v a l is a fu n d a m e n ta l
s y s te m a tic p rin cip le on w h ic h S p in o z a ’s p h ilo s o p h y rests.
S p in o za th us has su ffic ie n t s y s te m a tic reaso n s to reje c t H e g e l’s d e
m an d to v ie w G o d as spirit. B u t are th ese rea so n s e x h a u s tiv e ? A r e w e
n o t e n title d , in a S p in o zis tic m an n er, to lo o k fo r a c o m p le m e n t a r y c o n
te x t o f e x p la n a tio n , ex tern a l to th e s y s te m y e t tr a n s fo rm e d in to its lo g
ical te x tu r e b y th e sam e k in d o f in tellectu a l a lc h e m y th at, in a d iffe re n t
(esth etic) c o n te x t, w e have a lread y e n co u n te re d in F e rn a n d o d e R o
ja s ? *
(44)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
u n b rid g e d g a p b e tw e e n the fin ite and the in fin ite as the o rig in o f the
te r r ify in g fear an d tr e m b lin g w h ic h the Jew ish G o d inspires in his su b
je c ts , a lie n a tin g and re d u c in g m an to n u llity .17
T h e s e fa m ilia r a n ti-J ew ish ton es m ay ech o in H e g e l’s co m m en ts on
S p in o z a ;"4 b u t H e g e l, p erh ap s u n w ittin g ly , m ay have m ade a pertin en t
re m a rk . It m a y w e ll b e the J e w , o r fo rm er M arra n o , in Sp in o za w h o
v ie w s th e C h r is tia n id ea o f a m e d iatin g “ son o f G o d ” as an even greater
superstitio th an th e m y th s o f th e O ld T e s ta m e n t.19 It m ay also be the
fo rm e r M a rra n o in S p in o za w h o , step p in g o u tsid e all revealed reli
gio n s an d e n g a g e d in a m o m e n to u s co m b a t to secularize h isto ry alto
geth er, m u s t b e o p p o s e d to th e su b tle w a y in w h ic h H eg el reinstates a
n e w v e rs io n o f p r o v id e n c e and sacred h isto ry under a p h ilo so p h ica l
and a lle g e d ly ra tio n a l gu ise. M o re o v e r , in q u estio n in g the ration al le
g itim a c y o f th is m o v e (its u n d e rly in g d ialectical lo gic) it m ay again be
the fo rm e r J e w S p in o za w h o refuses to a c k n o w le d g e such trinitarian
lo g ic w ith its a v o w e d d en ial o f th e la w o f co n trad ictio n — ju s t as Spi
n o z a ’s fo re fa th e rs , the m e d ie v a l rabbis in d ispute w ith C h ristia n the
o lo g y , re fu se d to a d m it trin ity and in carnation and clu n g to the la w o f
c o n tra d ic tio n in th eir a tte m p t to s h o w that these ideas, and th erefore
the w h o le basis o f th e C h ris tia n te a ch in g, w e re illo g ica l and in co h e r
ent.
It is a g ain th e s trict ra tio n alist S p in o za, the J e w and disciple o f M a i-
m o n id e s, w h o rejects all fo rm s o f a n th ro p o m o rp h ism , in clu d in g te
le o lo g y an d , a b o v e all, th e C h ris tia n arch etyp e o f a n th ro p o m o rp h ic
th in k in g , th e m y th o f th e G o d -m a n . H e g e l dem an d s to v ie w G o d in
h u m an te rm s , as sp irit— th at is, as p erson , and as h isto rically e m b o d
ied— fo r o th e r w is e w e c o u ld n o t “ be at h o m e ” in h im . T h is fam iliarity
S p in o za fin d s false. W e d o n o t ap p roa ch G o d by red u cin g him to hu
m an d im e n s io n s , b u t rath er b y elev atin g o urselves to the “ third d egree
o f k n o w le d g e ,” w h e r e all h u m a n lik e features disappear fro m G o d and
w e id e n tify w i t h th e a b s o lu te o n its o w n in fin ite and eternal term s. I f
H e g e l c o m p la in s th a t in su ch a lo fty and th in g lik e ab solute w e “ are not
at h o m e ,” S p in o za w ill re to rt that this, precisely, was intended; for
o n ly th us can w e attain G o d and n o t an im ag in a ry p ro jectio n o f o u r
o w n self. S p in o z a ’s w a y is ce rta in ly m o re d iffic u lt p sy c h o lo g ica lly , in
ten d ed fo r th o se o f rare ca p acities— ju s t as N ie tzs c h e ’s later version o f
it w ill be. W h e n S p in o za co n c lu d es his Ethics w ith the rem ark that
“ e v e ry e x c e lle n t th in g is as d iffic u lt as it is rare,” he m ig h t have ad
dressed it to H e g e l as w e ll.
T h e d iv e r g e n c e b e tw e e n H e g e l and Sp in o za m ay thus be construed
also, th o u g h n o t e x c lu s iv e ly , as a cleavage betw een a Protestan t heter
o d o x p h ilo s o p h e r and a e x -M a rr a n o J ew ish heretic. H egel rem ains
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( 4 *)
SPINOZA AND HEGEL
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SPINOZA AND HEGEL
analysis has lessen e d th e d ifferen ces b etw een Sp in o za and H egel, it has
also h a rd en ed th e ir co re .
T h is d o c s n o t m ean , o f co u rse, that S p in o za is righ t. O n the co n
trary, H e g e l is fu lly ju s tifie d in his m ajo r co m p lain t against Sp inoza—
that is, i f w e ta k e it as cr itic is m and n o t as in terpretation. T h ere is
indeed a b re a k b e tw e e n th e fin ite and the in fin ite aspects o f the uni
verse— a ra th er a d v e rs e re su lt fro m th e stan d po in t o f S p in o za’s in
ten d ed m o n is m .24 G iv e n S p in o z a ’s v ie w o f n e g a tio n ,25 he cannot, in
fact, su stain th e m u tu a l im p lic a tio n he seeks to establish betw een the
p articu lars and th e to ta lity , an d th e tw o facets o f the universe m ust,
again st his w is h , re m a in u n b rid g e d . M o reo ve r, H eg el m ay w ell be
righ t in c la im in g th a t o n ly a d ia lectica l co n stru al o f to tality can render
this c o n c e p t c o h e r e n t an d th a t d ialectics, in general, co u ld rem e d y the
flaws an d im p a sse s o f d u a lis m as w e k n o w it since the Pre-S ocratics.
Y e t H e g e l’s w a y is im p o s s ib le fo r S p in o za because o f the reasons w e
have ju s t m e n tio n e d . H e g e lia n d ialectics go e s hand in hand w ith te
le o lo g y , and w ith v a rio u s illu s o r y im p lica tio n s o f the absolute as spirit.
I f H e g e l w a s r ig h t in d ia g n o s in g S p in o z a ’s lo g ic a l troubles, he offered
an alte rn a tiv e th a t o n ly w o rs e n e d th e situ ation , for it depended upon
m an -m ad e fic tio n s w h ic h th e w h o le th ru st o f S p in o za ’s p h ilo so p h y set
o u t to a b o lis h . In th e fin a l a n a lysis, H e g e l w as n o t a dark enlightener
but ra th er an in d ire c t m e ta p h y s ic a l s o o th e r.26
Is th ere a v a ila b le, th e n , a n o th e r altern a tive, that w ill avoid the teleo
lo g ical fa lla c y an d illu s io n (in c lu d in g its appearance as d isguised P ro v
idence) an d y e t re m a in a s tric t p h ilo s o p h y o f im m an en ce? T h is chal
lenge w ill p r o v id e o u r g u id in g q u e stio n as w e lo o k past H egel at other
m ajor a tte m p ts to c o n s tr u e a p h ilo s o p h y o fim m a n e n c e , lin ked to Spi
noza b y a ff in ity a n d riv a lry . W h a t th e y had to g iv e up w as, first o f all,
the d iv in e n a tu re o f th e u n iv e rs e , and even (as did N ietzsch e) the very
idea o f ra tio n a l to ta lity .
W h y s h o u ld a w o r ld o f p u re im m a n e n ce be co n ceived as a rational
and o rg a n iz e d to ta lity ? T h is is h o w w e can reph rase N ie tzs c h e ’s o bjec
tion. Is th is n o t still a n o th e r, m o r e d eep -sea ted fo rm o f an th ro p o m o r
p hism , w h ic h S p in o z a j u s t l y sh u n n ed ? A m ore co n sequen tial Sp in o
zism , so th e a r g u m e n t w i ll g o , m u st strip the universe even o f the
ca u sa l-m ec h a n ic a l re la tio n s in w h ic h S p in o za saw its d ivin ity, but
w h ich N ie t z s c h e id e n tifie s as v e stig e s o f th e sam e m etaph ysical illusion
w h ich S p in o z a r e c o g n iz e d in te le o lo g y . T h e u n iverse is thereby de
p rived o f a n y ra tio n a l an d , n eed less to say, d iv in e attributes and is seen
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as p u re fo rm le s s im m a n e n c e , an e tern al “ w ill to p o w e r ” in w h ic h n o
ra tio n a l m e a n in g in h eres. Y e t p re c is e ly th is strip p e d an d d e h u m a n iz e d
u n iv e rs e is to b e th e o b je c t o f a j o y f u l an d c e le b ra tin g sta n c e , e v e n o f a
k in d o f p a ra d o x ic a l lo v e, an amor fa d as rare and as d iffic u lt as S p in o z a ’s
amor dei and re q u ir in g the sam e, o r s im ila r, m e n ta l s tr e n g th .
A n o t h e r altern a tiv e to H e g e l’s in h e re n t te le o lo g y w a s o ffe r e d by
M a r x . W h ile ra w n atu re, as su ch , has n o in h e re n t g o a ls , th e p u r p o s iv e
f o r m is im p a rte d to n a tu re b y h u m a n w o r k , a b o v e all b y g o a l-o r ie n t e d
m a te ria l p r o d u c tio n , w h ic h ta k es in M a r x th e r o le th a t th e “ p u re s u b
j e c t ” h ad in G e rm a n id e a lis m in d e te r m in in g th e w o r ld an d th e fa te o f
th e h u m a n race itse lf. M a r x th e re b y retain s th e g e n e ra l p a tte rn o f the
C o p e r n ic a n r e v o lu tio n sta rte d b y K a n t an d e x p a n d e d b y H e g e l, b u t
ch a n g e s its su b stra te an d b rin g s it d o w n to e a rth an d b a c k to n a tu re —
th a t is, b a c k in S p in o z a ’s d ire c tio n .
M o r e o v e r , M a r x sh ared w it h H e g e l th e v ie w o f h is t o r y as th e v e h i
cle o f p ro g re s s, ev e n o f th a t w h ic h re lig io u s m e ta p h o r la b e le d “ sa lv a
t io n ” ; b u t, lik e S p in o za , he o b je c te d to H e g e l’s v ie w o f h is to r y as a
d iv in e S p irit s u p e r se d in g in e rt n a tu re. H e s a w h is to r y , in S p in o z is tic
fa s h io n , as c o m p le te ly se cu la rize d , an in te g r a l p art o f n a tu re itse lf,
e v o lv in g b y th e im m a n e n t la w s o f natu re— w h o s e c o n c e p t w a s th e re b y
d ia le c tic a lly en ric h e d .
M a r x an d N ie tz s c h e th u s re p re se n t t w o g re a t n in e te e n t h -c e n tu r y al
te rn a tiv e s to a S p in o z is m th a t re fu se H e g e l’s id e a lis tic c o r r e c tio n , and
fig h t, lik e S p in o za , ag a in st c u ltu ra l id e o lo g ie s an d s e lf- d e c e p t io n s . Y e t
M a r x , lik e th e le ft-H e g e lia n s p re c e d in g h im , still v ie w s th e im m a n e n t
r e a lity as in te llig ib le and ev e n as le a d in g , b y its o w n d y n a m ic s , to a
fo r m o f h u m a n s a lv a tio n o th e r th an th e o n e w h ic h h is to r ic a l r e lig io n
h ad p ro m is e d . N ie tz s c h e , o n th e o th e r h an d , b e lo n g s to (an d clim a x e s )
th e tre n d o f irra tio n a lis t S p in o z is m ( o f w h ic h S c h o p e n h a u e r b e fo r e
h im an d B e r g s o n after h im are o th e r re p re s e n ta tiv e s ). It is in F re u d th at
th e N ie tz s c h e a n k in d o f S p in o z is m m a k e s its p e a c e a g a in w i t h s c ie n
tific re a so n , s a c rific in g th e “ d iv in e ” fea tu re s w h ic h re a so n h ad in S p i
n o z a b u t n o t its e m a n c ip a tin g p o w e r s . T h is m a y o ffe r a s y s te m a t ic an
g le fo r c o n s id e rin g th e h is to r y o f la te r S p in o z is tic in flu e n c e s an d th e
a d v e n tu re s o f th e id ea o fim m a n e n c e .
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C H A P T E R 3
* T h e aim o f this ch ap ter and the n ex t is not, how ever, to lay out the com plete pan
oram a b u t to trace the co n to u rs o f a post-H egelian philosoph y o f im m anence free o f
id e o lo g y and o f H e g e l's im p lic it th e o lo g y — o r at least seeking to renounce them— w hile
retaining the em p h asis H e g e l pu t o n the hum an subject and on history. T his is the main
perspective fro m w h ic h H e in e , H ess, Feuerbach, and especially M arx w ill be consid
ered.
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H e in e
* M a r x ’s n ative to w n .
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“ s w im m in g u n p r o v e d in his o w n b lo o d .” 5 E ls e w h e r e H e in e d e s crib e s
th e an cien t G o d Jehow a p re p a rin g to d ie as th e c h u r c h b e lls to ll h is last
s a c ra m e n t.6 T h e J e w is h G o d , as it tu rn s o u t, has b e e n b a p tiz e d , lik e
H e in e h im s e lf, and dies a C h ris tia n .
T h e d eath o f G o d leaves m an n o t an o rp h a n , b u t h is o w n p o te n tia l
m aste r— a m in i- G o d , cr e a to r o f all v a lu es an d o f h is o w n u n iv e rs e .
H o w e v e r , m an is still su b d u e d an d e x p lo ite d b y h im s e lf, th a t is, b y
o th e r m en ; h e n ce th e n eed fo r a so cia l and p o litic a l r e v o lu tio n to c o m
p le te th e re lig io u s o n e . H e re H e in e ’s s o c ia lis m an d c o m m it m e n t to
p o litic s ta k e o v e r and in c o rp o ra te h is p r o t o - N ie tz s c h e a n sta n ce . T h a t
b o th th ese s e e m in g ly o p p o s e d tre n d s s h o u ld re sid e in th e s a m e p e r
so n — an d b ra n ch o ff, as I th in k th e y d o , fr o m th e s a m e s te m : h is S p i
n o z is tic e x p e rie n c e o f life as p u re im m a n e n c e — w i ll s u rp ris e o n ly th o s e
a c c u s to m e d to th in k in rig id , e x p o s t fa c to c a te g o r ie s . M a r x , in a n y
case, th r o u g h his frien d H ein e, c o u ld h av e b e c o m e a c q u a in te d w ith
s o m e th in g lik e the N ie tz s c h e a n u n iv e rs e , an d p e rh a p s id e n t ify in it
m o r e a ffin ities to h im s e lf an d to h is o w n b a c k g r o u n d th a n la te r o ffic ia l
M a r x is m c o u ld ev e r d are a d m it.
A s in N ie tz s c h e , life re ig n s s u p r e m e in H e in e — p u re , s e n s u a l, th is-
w o r ld ly life , o f w h ic h “ e v e r y in sta n t is to m e an e te r n ity .” 7 E a r t h ly life
as su ch , says H e in e , s h o u ld re g a in th e s p iritu a lity w h ic h th e J e w s and,
e v e n m o r e so , th e C h ris tia n s h ad d e n ie d it fo r c e n tu rie s , b u t w h ic h
S p in o za ( w h o w a s, lik e H e in e h im s e lf, n e ith e r J e w n o r C h r is tia n ) fi
n a lly re sto red . L ife , E a r th ly life , is th e b e -a ll an d e n d - a ll, a n d is p as
s io n a te ly a ffirm e d b y H e in e , as b y N ie t z s c h e , b o th in its e x u b e r a n t
v ig o r an d in th e face o f tr a g e d y an d s u ffe r in g (an d H e in e k n e w th e m
b o th ). “ I need n o p riest to p ro m is e m e a s e c o n d life , fo r I ca n liv e
e n o u g h in th is life ,” H e in e d eclares in his y o u t h fu l R eisebilder (ib id .).
“ R e d life p u lses in m y v ein s, earth y ie ld s b e n e a th m y fe e t, in th e g lo w
o f lo v e I e m b ra c e trees an d statu es, and th e y liv e in m y e m b r a c e .”
T h e s e are th e w o r d s o f an O l y m p ic m a n , e x p e r ie n c in g c o s m ic lib
e ra tio n . H e e n jo y s life, first, as th e v e r y act o f liv in g — p u re , im m a n e n t
life as su ch — an d th us e n jo y s p a rticu la r p le asu res an d fu lfillm e n ts , e x
h a u s tin g e v e r y in sta n t to its d e p th , e x tr a c tin g th e s p ir itu a lity e m b e d
d ed in th e rea lm o f th e sen su al, an d sh a p in g p le a su re in to a lib e r a tin g
h u m a n e x p e rie n c e . H is e n jo y m e n t is b o th se n su al an d m e ta p h y s ic a l,
m a te ria l and s p iritu a l in th e sam e a ct. A n d th is, to o , is S p in o z is m to
H e in e , th e “ p a n th e is t” m e s sa g e he p ro fe s s e s in his H istory o f R eligion
and Philosophy in Germ any an d sin g s p o e t ic a lly in Germ any: A W inter’s
Tale.
Winter’s Ta le b e g in s w ith H e in e ’s trip to G e r m a n y a fte r a th ir te e n -
y e a r a b sen ce. H e m eets his o ld w o r ld in th e fo r m o f a little g ir l s in g in g
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H ein e g o e s o n in a fa m o u s co u p let:
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* H ere and e lse w h e re H e in e u ses the w o rd deism but means w hat w e usually call
"th eism ,” n am ely, b e lie f in the ex isten ce o f a transcendent G od , separate from the world
he had created.
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w a s “ e x p ressed m o s t u n m is ta k e a b ly ” b y n o n e o th e r th an G o e th e ; his
Werther, Faust, and a b o v e all, th e Ballads, m o v e d H e in e to sa y th a t “ the
e a r ly p h ilo s o p h y o f S p in o za has sh ed its m a th e m a tic a l sh e ll an d n o w
flu tters a b o u t in G o e th e ’s p o e tr y .” 20 “ G o e th e ,” says H e in e , “ w a s the
S p in o za o f p o e tr y ,” 21 an a v o w e d p an th eist w h o o c c u p ie d h im s e lf w ith
S p in o z a ’s p h ilo s o p h y his en tire life.
W ith H e g e l, “ o u r re v o lu tio n is te r m in a te d ” an d th e c irc le is c o m
p le te .22 H e in e , c u rio u s ly b u t c h a ra c te ristic a lly , secs H e g e l’s s y s te m as
a k in d o f Naturphilosophie (p h ilo s o p h y o f n atu re), an o d d la b e l fo r on e
w h ic h had p u t sp irit o v e r and a b o v e n atu re an d s a w th e la tte r as in ert
s u b sta n ce, a m e re s e lf-“ e x te rn a liz a tio n ” o f G o d . H e in e read s (or
rather, m isread s) H e g e l w ith th e sam e gla sses “ th a t S p in o z a h ad p o l
is h e d ” ; he tries to p e rfo r m a sy n th e sis b e tw e e n th e m th a t te n d s b a c k in
S p in o z a ’s d irec tio n , and so his H e g e l, to o , s e e m s to g iv e e q u a l statu s
to n atu re an d sp irit as tw o asp ects o f th e sa m e im m a n e n t to ta lity , and
to v ie w the h u m an m in d as a s e lf-re fle c tio n o f n a tu re th a t re m a in s an
in te g ra l p art o f it. T h is is a d e fin ite d e p a rtu re fr o m th e real H e g e l to
w a r d S p in o za.
B e sid e s b e in g in te r w o v e n in to th e rest o f th e s to ry , S p in o z a also o c
cu p ies a ch a p ter fo r h im s e lf in H e in e ’s a c c o u n t o f Germ an p h ilo s o p h y .23
H e in e , lik e H e g e l, takes tim e to re c o u n t S p in o z a ’s life an d b a c k
g ro u n d — an e x c e p tio n in b o th th ese w r ite rs . S p in o z a is e x to lle d in rare
la n g u a g e . R e a d in g h im , “ o n e in h ales th e air o f th e fu tu r e ” ; th e re is an
“ in e x p lica b le b re a th ” in h im , “ a grandezza o f t h o u g h t ” w h ic h m u st
c o m e fro m his d irect an cesto rs, th e H is p a n o -J e w is h m a rty rs ; m o r e
o ve r, “ th e sp irit o f th e a n cien t H e b r e w p ro p h e ts s e e m s to h o v e r o v e r
this d ista n t o ffs p rin g o f th e irs ” w h o , in p e rs o n a l p u r ity an d in th e
c r o w n o f th o rn s he w o r e o n his h ead , also r e s e m b le d a n o th e r d iv in e
p aren t o f h is, Jesus C h r is t .24 It is n o w o n d e r th at H e in e ’s c u s t o m a r y
s c o ffin g an d m o c k e ry , w h ic h spared n e ith e r h im s e lf n o r m o s t o f th o se
h e a d m ire d o r ag re ed w ith , to ta lly ev a p o ra te s at S p in o z a ’s d o o r s te p .
L ik e H e g e l, H e in e also m a k e s m u c h o f S p in o z a ’s j e w i s h o r ig in s , b u t
in an a b s o lu te ly d ifferen t m o o d and in clo se e x is te n tia l in tim a c y . H e in e
cle a rly feels S p in o za to b e his b ro th e r in n o n -Jesu s, in n o n - M o s e s , in
so m e th in g n e w tra n scen d in g b o th . H e in e p ric k s at S p in o z a ’s e x c o m
m u n ica to rs w ith th eir b o m b a s tic b lo w in g o f th e s h o fa r, th e an cie n t
s y m b o l o f re lig io u s a w e w h ic h H ein e, in c o o l, p r o fa n e v e n g e a n c e ,
strips d o w n to th e p ro sa ic p iece o f ra m h o rn it a c tu a lly is. T h e ra b b is,
H e in e says, d eclared S p in o za “ u n d e s e rv in g to c a rry th e n a m e o f j e w , ”
y e t “ his en em ies w e re m a g n a n im o u s e n o u g h to le a v e th is n a m e to
h im .” 25 H e in e k n o w s th is e x p e rie n c e all to o w e ll. S p in o z a h e ra ld s fo r
h im th e lo t o f th e m o d e rn J e w w h o , p ro je c te d b e y o n d J u d a is m and
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S p in o z a and H ess
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Spiritual Materialism
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C H A P T E R 4
A t th e ag e o f tw e n ty -th r e e — a lm o s t th e a g e S p in o z a w a s w h e n he was
ba n n ed — a n o th e r so n o f J e w is h p aren ts, t w o ce n tu rie s la ter, p lu n g e d
in to th e s tu d y o f S p in o z a ’s Theologico-Political Treatise an d Correspon
dence. H e c o p ie d e x te n s iv e ly fr o m S p in o z a ’s o r ig in a l L a tin an d fro m
an e x ta n t G e rm a n tran sla tio n , a rra n g e d th e e x c e r p ts in a s lig h t ly pe
cu liar o rd er, and p e n n ed th e fo llo w in g title to th e m a n u s c r ip t:
S p in o z a ’s
T h e o lo g ic a l- P o litic a l T re a tis e
by
K a rl H e in ric h M a r x , B e r lin 1841
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co m p leted ;2 its fla w , in H e g e lia n term s, w as that its one-sided role has
been fu lfille d . M a r x w a s lo o k in g p ast th e p u rely p hilosophical analysis
o f co n scio u sn ess, an d w a s s e a rc h in g fo r th e fundamental causes o f the
self-alienated m in d , in w h ic h F e u e rb a ch had ro o ted the religious illu
sion. T h e s e ca u ses M a r x fo u n d in th e e c o n o m ic forces o f production
and the n e tw o r k o f s o c ia l re la tio n s th e y in v o lve d . H ere was the true
reality u n d e r ly in g all h u m a n a ffairs, in c lu d in g m an ’s dialectical rela
tions w ith n a tu re , h im s e lf, an d o th e r hum an s.
T h is e c o n o m ic s u b s tr a te M a r x m a d e in to the arche, the first princi
ple, the fo u n d a tio n o f th e w h o le rea lm o f im m an en ce. V iew ed in on
tological te r m s , it w a s fo r h im w h a t w a te r w as fo r Thales, fire for
H eraclitus, G e ist f o r H e g e l, and deus sive natura fo r Spinoza. It was
neither p h y s ic a l m a tte r n o r p u re sp irit, b u t a p ractical* synthesis o f the
tw o p ro d u c e d b y h u m a n la b o r an d p ro d u c in g m an h im self in turn.
R eligion , la w , p o litic s , art, an d all the m etap h ysical Weltanschauungiw
were d iffe re n t c o n fig u r a tio n s in w h ic h this practico-m aterial sub
stance— a k in d o f S p in o z is tic causa sui— w a s reflected in cultural im ages
and in stitu tio n s.
In m a k in g th is m o v e , M a r x retu rn s fro m H e g e l’s absolute spirit to
a S p in o zism o f h is o w n , e n ta ilin g a n e w version o f nature. It is no
longer S p in o z a ’s u n ifo r m n a tu re , in w h ic h m an is a sim ple m em ber
am ong o th e rs, o n a p a r w i t h sn ak es and ra in b o w s. N ature has been
h um an ized in M a r x b u t, u n lik e H e g e l, w ith o u t spiritualizing it and
w ith o u t in v o l v in g an in h e re n t te le o lo g y . T h r o u g h hum an labor and
m aterial (and m e n ta l) p r o d u c tio n , m an and nature constitute a dialec
tical u n ity, in w h ic h e v e r y t h in g else inheres. It is their separation that
becom es an a b s tra c tio n — a false reflectio n o f reality that is, however,
in evitable u n d e r th e e c o n o m ic alien atio n in w h ic h w e live and thus
must affe ct an d p r e ju d ic e o u r m in d s , beliefs, and cu ltu re.3
M a r x ’s n e w p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e , th o u g h stro n gly influenced
by H e g e l an d h is m ilie u , g o e s b a c k to S p in o za in m ore w ays than one.
Indeed, S p in o z a is a lm o s t a lw a y s p resen t in M a r x ’s th ough t. But, w e
may add, th e a c tu a l p re s e n c e o f S p in o z a in M a rx far surpasses his direct
m ention b y n a m e.·1 In w h a t fo llo w s I shall tr y to reconstruct this pres
ence in th ree m a jo r areas o f M a r x ’s th o u gh t: (i) in the preparatory
critique o f r e lig io n , w h ic h M a r x — lik e S p in o za, but under m ore re
strictive c o n d it io n s — ta k e s to be a real p o w e r o f change; (2) in the way
M arx co n stru e s th e p ra c tic a l re la tio n b e tw e e n m an and nature as a new
* I use “ p ractica l” as a d e riv a tiv e o f p raxis in its philosophical sense (follow ing Aris
totle, Kant, and M a r x h im s e lf) , m ea n in g ro u g h ly, deliberate or reasoned human action
afFecting so m e m atter.
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im m a n e n t to ta lity , and m ak es r o o m fo r a m a n - m a d e t e le o lo g y as an
o b je c tiv e feature o f rea lity ; and (3) in th e a lle g e d s c ie n tific fo r m that
th e Ca pital, as a “ scien ce o f s a lv a tio n ,” g iv e s to M a r x ’s e a r ly ethical
v is io n . T h e Capital spells o u t th e d y n a m ic b y w h ic h th e g o a l o f h um an
em a n c ip a tio n can b e attain ed “ S p in o z is tic a lly ,” b y th e in n e r la w s o f
re a lity its e lf— th e sam e p ra c tic o -m a te ria l (o r e c o n o m ic ) re a lity w h ic h
M a r x fr o m e a r ly o n h ad c o m e to see as th e n e w im m a n e n t su b sta n ce.
T he C r it iq u e o f R e l ig io n a n d th e R ole of th e M u l t it u d e
Ju st as th e y o u n g M a r x w a s p lo u g h in g his w a y th r o u g h S p in o z a ’s
Theologico-Political Treatise and a ffix in g his o w n n a m e to th e ex ce rp ts
he d ilig e n tly co p ie d fr o m it, F e u e rb a ch ’s Essence o f C hristianity (1841)
w a s b rin g in g S p in o z a ’s critiq u e o f re lig io n u p -to -d a te . T h e lin k be
tw e e n th e tw o b o o k s w a s to o tim e ly an d a p p a re n t fo r M a r x to o ve r
lo o k . F e u e rb a ch ’s atta ck o n re lig io n tran sla ted S p in o z a in te r m s o f H e
g e l’s co n c e p t o f alien atio n and, m o r e im p o r t a n tly , u p d a te d him
h is to ric a lly in term s o f th e m o d e rn G e r m a n s itu a tio n . T h e r e b y , as
M a r x sa w it, F eu erb a ch c o m p le te d th e w o r k o f th e le ft-H e g e lia n s ,
w h ic h w as n o t m e re ly th e o re tica l b u t also a fo r m o f a c tio n , a k in d o f
so cial p raxis: it cleared th e w a y fo r a still d e e p e r an d m o r e ra d ica l fu
sio n o f critic ism and p ra c tic e w h ic h M a r x c a m e to sec as his task to
u n leash.
In S p in o z a ’s Theologico-Political Treatise M a r x c o u ld h a v e fo u n d , i f
n o t th e first s u g g e s tio n , th e n at least s tr o n g s u p p o r t fo r h is id ea that
th e o ry it s e lf can serv e as p ractical fo rc e and le v e r o f c h a n g e , o n c e it is
m ad e to suit th e m in d s and real in terests o f th e m u lt it u d e .5 A s ch ap ter
1 has s h o w n , S p in o za w r o t e th e Theologico-Political Treatise w it h p re
cise ly this aim in m in d — to g e t in v o lv e d as p h ilo s o p h e r in th e subtle
m e ch a n ism o f so cia l and cu ltu ra l e v o lu tio n . B u t th e Theologico-Political
Treatise is m o re th an a o n e -tim e act o f e n g a g e m e n t; it also co n ta in s a
g e n e ra lize d m etatheory, d e m o n s tr a tin g h o w t h e o r y can b e c o m e a p rac
tical fo rc e and o ffe rin g s p e c ific to o ls and s tra te g ie s fo r a c h ie v in g this
en d . A m o n g o th e r th in g s, as w e h ave seen, S p in o z a d e v is e s a certain
use o f la n g u a g e , o f m y th , and o f h e rm e n e u tic s as a p e r m a n e n t in sti
tu tio n su ited to th e le v e l o f co n scio u sn e ss o f th e m u ltitu d e an d s e rv in g
to sh ap e th eir m in d s in a s o c ia lly b en eficia l w ay.
B u t h ere M a r x takes issu e w ith S p in o za o n t w o m a jo r c o u n ts . First,
M a r x rejects S p in o z a ’s co n c e p tio n o f th e m u ltitu d e as a lo w e r g ro u p ,
in cap ab le o f tru e s alva tio n and re q u ir in g s o m e s o rt o f r e lig io u s illusion
an d an in fe rio r state o f k n o w le d g e . In M a r x it is th e m u ltitu d e itself,
tra n sfo rm ed in to the p ro leta ria t, th a t is to b r in g a b o u t r e d e m p tio n for
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* B y “ h isto ric ize d " o r “ h isto ric ist,” 1d o not mean “ relativized" but only the property
o f being u n d ersto o d t h r o u g h h isto ry , and b e in g subject to its dynam ics.
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Im m an en ce an d M an -M ade T eleology
T h e N e w C a u s a Sui
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th ro u g h w h ic h his o w n e n v ir o n m e n t— an d th e re b y he h im s e lf— is
m o ld e d an d p ro d u c e d .
Y e t m an in h erits th ese fo r m e r ly d iv in e ro les as a fin ite b e in g . It is
n o t m an as s e lf-s u ffic ie n t, b u t as a crca tu re o f w a n ts , p la c e d in d ia lec
tical relatio n to his n atu ral e n v ir o n m e n t, th a t b e c o m e s th e o v e ra ll p rin
cip le. B e c a u se o f his fin itu d e, m an d o e s n o t h av e h is b e in g all in h im
self; he is n o t self-s u ffic ie n t n o r can he su stain his e x is te n c e b y his o w n
re so u rce s. H e is in co n sta n t n eed o f s o m e th in g th a t c o m e s fr o m the
o u tsid e , fr o m a n atu re th a t in it s e lf is alien to m an an d co n ta in s an
e le m e n t o f th e “ o th e r.” Y e t th is o th e rn e ss is n o t a b s o lu te , s in ce n atu re
is c o n s ta n tly ch a n g e d and resh ap ed b y th e h u m a n ra ce an d acqu ires
fo rm s and m e a n in g s— p r im a r ily u s a g e - m e a n in g s (la ter tr a n s fo rm e d
an d alien ated in to o th e r s o c ia lly d e te r m in e d c o n fig u r a tio n s ) — w h ic h
are co n fe rre d u p o n n atu re b y h u m a n w o r k an d p ra x is .
T h e fin itu d e o f m an n eed s o b je c tiv e n a tu re as a c o m p le m e n t , and
to g e th e r, in th eir d ia le ctica l re la tio n , th e y c o n s titu te th e n e w im m a
n en t to ta lity , re p la cin g S p in o z a ’s G o d o r s u b s ta n c e w h ile esta b lis h in g
its d iv in e co n n o ta tio n s. M a r x th e re b y fo llo w s H e g e l in g iv in g m an , as
su b je ct, a special co n s titu tiv e ro le in b e in g , w h e r e b y b e in g is n o t o n ly
an o b je c t, a m ere su b sta n ce, b u t is su b je c t. Y e t th is is d o n e b y h u m an
w o r k and p ro d u c tio n , n o t b y k n o w le d g e ; th e ro le o f m a n in b e in g is
to sh ap e an d h u m a n ize it th r o u g h p ra x is , n o t to raise it, as in H e g e l,
to sp e c u la tiv e se lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s . M o r e o v e r , th e h u m a n sp e c ie s fu lfills
this ro le as a n atu ral en tity, and n o t as s u p e r io r G e ist th a t su rp asse s or
aujhebt n ature.
In this w a y, th e p riv ile g e d p o s itio n M a r x g iv e s m a n as s u b je c t does
n o t p lace h im in H e g e l’s ca m p , b ec a u se m a n p e r fo r m s h is w o r ld -s h a p -
in g ro le fro m w ith in n atu re and in th e p ra c tic a l m o d e o f w o r k . T h is ,
as w e shall see in th e fo llo w in g se ctio n , is a p r a c tic a l an d m a te ria l C o -
p e m ic a n re v o lu tio n , a n e w fo r m o f m e d ia tio n b e t w e e n S p in o z a and
H e g e l w h ic h p e rfo r m s a n atu ralist “ s u b je c tiv a t io n ” o f b e in g (as re
qu ire d b y M a r x ’s first T h e s is o n F e u e r b a c h )."
A m e th o d o lo g ic a l re m a rk is in o rd e r at th is p o in t. M a r x ’s o n to l
o g y — fo r this is w h a t in terests us h ere— is n o t e a s ily d e te r m in e d . M a r x
ra re ly d iscu sses it as a s u b je c t in itse lf, b u t his v ie w s are e m b e d d e d in
his a n t h r o p o lo g y and in th e s o c io e c o n o m ic d o c t r in e h e la te r o ffe re d
instead o f p u re p h ilo so p h y . M o r e o v e r , a lth o u g h n o m a jo r g u l f d iv id e s,
in m y o p in io n , th e ea rly fr o m th e later M a r x o n th is is s u e , d u a litie s do
e x is t in each p e rio d . M a r x ’s v ie w s o n o n t o lo g y d id n o t s o m u ch
c h a n g e w ith tim e as th e y h ad th eir a m b ig u itie s at a n y g iv e n tim e .
T h is leaves us w ith th e u n e a s y ta sk o f r e c o n s t r u c t in g M a r x ’ s u n d e r
ly in g o n t o lo g y fro m c o n te x ts th a t s e ld o m re fe r to it e x p li c i t ly .12 A k e y
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In the act o f t h in k in g , M a r x says in cssence, I assert m y ow n exis
tence as a firs t u n s h a k c a b le d a tu m . B u t I d o n o t d o so in a Cartesian
manner— as a b o d y le s s , w o rld le s s e g o — but rather as being in the
w orld and with th e w o r ld . H e re M a r x , perhaps un w ittin g ly, espouses
Kant’s p a ra d ig m a r g u m e n t in the tran scend en tal deduction, according
to w h ich th e e g o ’s s e lf- c o n s c io u s th in k in g is p ossible on ly i f the ego
con fron ts an o b je c t iv e w o r ld d is tin c t fro m itself. In other w ords, I can
be co n scio u s o f m y o w n th in k in g s e lf o n ly i f there is also a w orld other
than m y s e lf to w h ic h I re la te (K a n t says: constitu tively) and o f which
I am e q u a lly c o n s c io u s .
T o the in h e re n t lin k e s ta b lis h e d b y K a n t betw een the “ I think” and
the w o rld , H e g e l a d d e d a practical lin k b etw een the “ I th in k” and other
persons as an a d d itio n a l s tru c tu r e th a t m akes self-consciousness pos
sible. A ll th ese lin k s — b e t w e e n th e self, the w o rld , and other persons—
are co n sid ered p r im o r d ia l, th a t is, th e y are precon dition s to the very
first d atu m o f s e lf- c o n s c io u s th in k in g .
M a rx , e v en w i t h o u t s p e llin g it o u t, accepts this prim ordiality and
reinstates it w ith in a S p in o z is tic c o n te x t. M an -in -n ature is the prim or
dial d atu m , in e x o r a b ly im p lie d in self-co n scio u s thinking; and this
co m plex d a tu m w it h a ll its in g re d ie n ts (the in dividual, nature, and
other h u m a n s — o r th e sp ecies) n o w e n jo y s in M a rx the status o f causa
sui, o r s e lf-s u s ta in in g b e in g ; it can n o lo n g e r be open to doubt or sub
jected to a s e a rc h fo r its tr a n s ce n d e n t o rigin s, because— here the for
mer S p in o z is tic tra in o f t h o u g h t takes o ve r again— in doin g so w e im
ply that th e n e w im m a n e n t to ta lity , m an -in -n ature, can be conceived
as n o n e x isten t.
T h u s, in a s o m e w h a t r o u n d a b o u t w ay, th e sem i-Cartesian begin
ning is re v e rs e d t h r o u g h K a n t an d H e g e l and is planted in Spinozistic
terrain again .
A w o r d o f c a u tio n is in o r d e r h ere. T h e n e w causa sui w hich I attrib
ute to M a r x is, o f c o u r s e , m e a n t to be taken w ith a grain o fsalt. M a rx ’s
overall p rin c ip le o f im m a n e n c e is n eith er a d iv in e n or a necessary being
in the s e m ith e o lo g ic a l se n s e o f S p in o za . M a rx avoids the high-flow n
religious c o n n o ta tio n s th a t S p in o z a d elib e rately em phasized as pertain
ing to his n a t u r e - G o d an d e x p lo ite d in his th eo ry o f salvation. Th e
sign ifican ce o f M a r x ’s n e w causa sui is m o re prosaic: it is the underlying
principle o f all n a tu ra l e n titie s w h ic h , as such, are necessarily finite and
dependent. " A b e in g w h ic h d o e s n o t have its nature outside o f itself is
not a n atu ral b e in g ,” 18 M a r x says in a statem en t that, i f taken strictly,
w ould a b o lis h th e id ea o f a s in g u la r and in fin ite nature-G od — an entity
w hich, in d e e d , is a b s e n t in M a r x .
M a rx , in o th e r w o r d s (and u s in g S p in o za ’s o w n terms), abolishes
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M a r x ’s a n t h r o p o lo g y o f p r o d u c tio n also p r o v id e s th e s o u r c e o f h is e th
ics o f w o r k as s e lf-e x p re s s io n an d s e lf- a c tu a liz a t io n .22 T h r o u g h his
p r o d u c tiv e w o r k , m an e n g ra v e s h is im a g e o n in o r g a n ic n a tu re , re p ro
d u c in g h im s e lf in th e o b je c t an d th e re b y c o m in g b a c k in to h is o w n as
a c tu a lly h u m an :
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T eleology , A l ie n n e s s , and A l ie n a t io n
K a n t and Teleology
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A lienation Reconsidered
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S p in o z a a n d t h e C a p it a l : T h e S c i e n c e o f R e d e m p tio n
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Th is scie n tific , re a lis tic a ttitu d e is even m ore constant than M arx’s
econom ic m a te ria lis m . P h ilo s o p h y , says the y o u n g M arx, must dis
cover the in n er la w s o f s o c ie ty , ta ken as natural law s, no less than the
laws o f p h y s ic s . T h e m a tu re M a r x e x te n d s this approach from politics
to e co n o m ic t h e o r y an d c o n c e iv e s o f the “ la w s ” in question as dialec
tical and n o lo n g e r in a s s o c ia tio n w ith p h ysics or m athem atics;34 but
he m aintains th is b a s ic S p in o z is tic ap p roa ch and am plifies it in the
Capital in to a fu ll- fle d g e d n e w scien ce.
M a rx ’s a p p ro a c h is S p in o z is tic o n tw o counts: not o n ly because he
views s o c ie ty as s c ie n t ific a lly d e te rm in e d by its natural processes (this,
as M a rx r e c o g n iz e s , w a s s u g g e s te d b y M a ch ia velli and H obbes before
Spinoza), b u t b e c a u s e h e c o m b in e s th is v ie w w ith a perspective o f sec
ular salva tio n w h ic h th e s cie n c e in q u estio n is to serve and help ap
proach. T h is c o m b in a tio n is w h a t d istin g u ish es Spinoza and M arx—
and also w h a t c o n s titu te s fo r each o f th e m a m ajor p roblem . Rejecting
utopia and v o lu n ta r is m , d e n y in g a ro le in the affairs o f history (or o f
one’s p erson a l e v o lu tio n ) n o t o n ly to G o d b u t also to the alleged moral
will, M a rx and S p in o z a , e a c h in te rm s o f his o w n system , must expli
cate rea lity in s u c h a w a y th a t its o w n e v o lu tio n w ill serve as a vehicle
o f red em p tio n .
In S p in o za th is p r o b le m ta k e s o n th e fo rm o f a paradox: liberation
seems to b e th e p r o d u c t o f c o e r c io n . M eta p h y sica l freedom , w here it
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CHAPTEH 4
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C H A P T E R 5
G o e th e c o n c e iv e d a h u m a n b e in g w h o w o u ld b e s tr o n g , h ig h ly
e d u ca te d , s k illfu l in all b o d ily m a tte rs, s e lf- c o n t r o lle d . . . w h o
m ig h t d are to a ffo rd the w h o le ra n g e an d w e a lth o f b e in g n atu ral,
b e in g s tro n g e n o u g h fo r su ch fre e d o m ; th e m a n o f to le r a n c e , n o t
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ta n ce o f im m a n e n t e x is te n c e in N i c t z s c h c ’s amor fa t i m u s t ta k e th e d e
fia n t a n d s e lf- o v e r c o m in g fo r m o f a “ n e v e r th e le s s .” A m o r fa t i is ba sed
u p o n a fu n d a m e n ta l d is s o n a n c e b e t w e e n th e in d iv id u a l an d th e w o r ld ,
as a g a in s t th e ir c o n s o n a n t a g r e e m e n t an d s e m im y s t ic a l id e n tific a tio n
in S p in o z a ’s amor dei intellectua/is.
T h e s tr ik in g p e rs o n a l k in s h ip o f N ie t z s c h e a n d S p in o z a c a n n o t pass
w i t h o u t c o m m e n t . W h e n N ie t z s c h e s p e a k s a b o u t th e ir “ d u a lit u d e ,” he
th r o w s in to r e lie f th e p ic tu re o f t w o in d e p e n d e n t an d s o lit a r y th in k e rs ,
each liv in g in re la tiv e is o la tio n , th e ir liv e s a lm o s t c o n s u m e d b y th eir
p h ilo s o p h ic a l w o r k , an d b o th m a k in g u n s e tt lin g d is c o v e r ie s th a t alie n
ated th e m fr o m m o s t o f th eir c o n t e m p o r a r ie s ( w h o s a w th e m as c u l
tu ra l v illa in s ) an d fr o m th e m a jo r b u lk o f tr a d it io n . ( N ie t z s c h e , h o w
e v e r, h ad S p in o z a to lean u p o n — and c o m p e t e w i t h — in b u ild in g a n e w
c o u n te r tr a d itio n .) T h e o b je c ts o f s h o c k an d h o r r o r , th e y w e r e d e n i
g ra te d as “ a th e is tic ” o r “ n ih ilis t ic ” (d e p e n d in g o n th e a b u s iv e id io m o f
th e ag e) an d sh u n n ed as s o c ia lly s u b v e r s iv e a n d g r o s s ly a n tim o r a l.
H o w e v e r , b o th N ie t z s c h e an d S p in o z a , t h o u g h t h e y r e je c te d th e c o n
ce p ts o f g o o d and e v il, w e r e p r o fo u n d m o r a l p h ilo s o p h e r s , n o t in th e
sen se o f p re s c rib in g d u tie s o r g r o u n d in g m o r a l o b lig a t io n s , b u t in set
tin g a p e rs p e c tiv e o f h u m a n a s c e n d a n ce an d p e r fe c t ib ilit y a n d t r y in g to
s e d u ce th e ir a u d ie n c e to w a rd it.
T h e h ig h ly e s o te ric n a tu re o f th e ir id e a l re fle cts b o th m e n ’ s e x is te n
tial is o la tio n an d a r is to c ra tic fr a m e of m in d . S p in o z a , u n lik e
N ie tz s c h e , w a s p a rtly e q u ip p e d to d eal w i t h th e p r o b le m o fe s o t e r ic is m ,
sin ce h e h ad w o r k e d o u t a d is tin c t m o r a l p e r s p e c tiv e fo r th e m u ltitu d e ,
an d d is tin g u is h e d it c a te g o r ic a lly fr o m th a t o f th e h a p p y f e w (see v o l.
i , ch a p . 5). N o t so N ie tz s c h e , w h o s o m e tim e s s e e m s to s u g g e s t that
his a rtis to c ra tic p s y c h o lo g y s h o u ld a p p ly to e v e r y o n e w i t h in th e n e w
cu ltu re . T h is is b o th in c o h e re n t and d a n g e r o u s , a p o te n tia l fo r in e v i
ta b le ab u se.
L in k e d to th e ir is o la tio n and r e v o lu tio n a r y m e s s a g e — a n d a ls o , in
N ie tz s c h e , to his sense o f d ep th and a r is to c r a c y — is b o th m e n ’s taste
1 fo r m a s k an d e q u iv o c a tio n . “ W h a te v e r is p r o fo u n d lo v e s m a s k s ” says
N ie tz s c h e , w h o a b u n d a n tly illu stra tes th is b e l ie f in h is w o r k . H is c o m
p le x , a p h o ris tic u ttera n ce s, in te n tio n a lly e q u iv o c a l, lo a d e d w i t h a llu
sio n s and ir o n ic tw is ts , e x a g g e r a tin g , p r e te n d in g , o v e r - an d u n d e rs ta t
in g , le a v in g cru cia l p o in ts h a lf-sa id w h ile lin g e r in g u p o n o th e rs o f
lesser im p o rta n c e , p ro v id e th e re a d er w ith a w e a lth o f in s ig h ts as w e ll
as p itfa lls. T h is w ay o f w r itin g n o t o n ly re fle cts th e n a tu re o f
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m o n g r o u n d th at N ie tz s c h e see m s to h av e d is c o v e re d b e tw e e n S p in o za
and h im self.
N ie tz s c h e m ak es in n u m e ra b le d ire c t re fe re n c e s to S p in o z a . S o m e o f
his re m a rk s are im p o rta n t, o th ers are m a rg in a l, an d all are b ia sed in
s ty le an d co n te n t b y N ie t z s c h e ’s cu rre n t p h ilo s o p h ic a l em p h a sis.
H e n ce it w i ll n o t serv e o u r p u rp o s e to fo llo w th e lin e o f “ N ie t z s c h e as
read er o f S p in o z a .” 7 In stead , I sh all tr y to re c o n s tr u c t th e ir resp ective
p o s itio n s a ro u n d ce rtain k e y p h ilo s o p h ic a l issu es, e s p e c ia lly th e nature
o fim m a n e n c e and th e p ro p e r h u m a n re sp o n se to it.
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T h e w is h to p r e s e r v e o n e s e l f is th e s y m p to m o f a condition o f
distress, o f a lim it a t io n o f th e re a lly fu n d am en tal instinct o f life
w h ich aim s at th e e x p a n s io n o f p o w e r and, w ish in g for that, fre
qu en tly ris k s an d e v e n s a c rific e s s e lf-p re s e rv a tio n .10
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N ie tz s c h e ad d s th at co n s c io u s k n o w le d g e is o n ly th e tip o f th e ic e b e rg
u n d e r w h ic h a s tr u g g le o f in stin c ts is ra g in g . B u t h e s e e m s to fo rg e t
th at ra tio n al u n d e rs ta n d in g in S p in o z a o n ly s u s p e n d s th e e m o t io n s bu t
d o e s n o t k ill th em ; e v e n tu a lly , it is s u p p o s e d to e n h a n c e th e p o w e r o f
e m o tio n w h ile re c h a n n e llin g its d ir e c tio n an d tu r n in g its q u a lit y fro m
“ p a s s iv e ” (or serv ile ) in to “ a c tiv e ” (o r free). H e re in lie s th e e th ic a l and
a ffe c tiv e g o a l w h ic h p h ilo s o p h y has in S p in o z a . (S p in o z a m a k e s this
g o a l a b u n d a n tly clear, fr o m th e p r o g r a m m a tic o p e n in g o f h is essay on
th e in te lle c t to th e Ethics.) S c ie n ce w it h all its a p p a ra tu s , in c lu d in g the
g e o m e tr ic a l m e th o d , is b u t a p re p a ra tio n fo r a t ta in in g fr e e d o m , jo y ,
a c tiv e p o w e r, an d th e tr a n s fo rm a tio n o f o n e ’s life in to s o m e t h in g re
s e m b lin g secu lar sa lva tio n .
O f co u rse , to fu lfill this g o a l, k n o w le d g e m u s t b e “ p u r e ,” n o t in the
sen se th a t it has n o b e a rin g o n e x is te n tia l n eed s a n d d r iv e s , b u t in the
sen se th at, in o rd e r to p r o p e r ly s e rv e th ese d r iv e s , k n o w l e d g e m u s t be
fre e o f bias an d fo llo w its o w n lo g ic and th e c o n s tr a in ts o f its s u b je c t
m atte r. O t h e r w is e , a m o n g o th e r ills, it w i ll fa ll p r e y to illu s io n s and
m y s tific a tio n s fr o m w h ic h N ie t z s c h e , to o , w is h e s to lib e ra te th e p h i
lo s o p h e r.
T h u s S p in o za is n o t th e re p re s s iv e o r c o ld r a tio n a lis t w h o alienates
life fr o m p h ilo s o p h y , as N ie t z s c h e s o m e t im e s p o le m ic a lly p ictu re s
h im . A n d y e t th eir d iffe re n c e s re m a in v a st. S p in o z a d id n o t b e lie v e in
an o b je c tiv e w o r ld and in tru e k n o w le d g e th a t can c a p tu r e it (in the
id io m o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y p h ilo so p h e r, k n o w le d g e is a k in d o f “ m irro r
o f n a tu re ,” th o u g h th e m ir r o r in th is case is p a rt o f n a tu re i t s e l f ) .17
S p in o za d e d u c e d th e c o n c e p ts an d p o s tu la te s o f m o d e r n s c ie n c e as i f
th e y w e r e etern al tru th . M o r e o v e r , h e w is h e d to e x p e r ie n c e th e u n i
v e rs e n o t o n ly as a s c ie n tific o b je c t b u t as a t h e o lo g ic a l o n e as w e ll— as
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T h e O rigins o f Logic
H o w d id lo g ic c o m e in to e x is te n c e in m a n ’s h ead ? C e r t a in ly o u t
o f illo g ic , w h o s e re a lm o r ig in a lly m u s t h av e b e e n im m e n s e . In
n u m e ra b le b e in g s w h o m a d e in fe re n c e s in a w a y d iffe r e n t fr o m
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M a n b e lie v e d o r ig in a lly th a t w h e r e v e r h e s a w s o m e t h in g h a p p e n ,
a w ill had to b e at w o r k in th e b a c k g r o u n d as a c a u se , an d a p e r
so n a l, w illin g b e in g . . . . T h e fa ith in ca u se and e ffe c t b e c a m e fo r
h im th e b a sic faith th a t he a p p lies w h e r e v e r a n y t h in g h a p p e n s —
an d this is w h a t he still d o e s in s tin c tiv e ly ; it is an a ta v is m o f th e
m o s t a n cie n t o r ig in .25
th e lo g ic a l-m e ta p h y s ic a l p o s tu la te s , th e b e l ie f in s u b s ta n c e , a c c i
d en t, attrib u te , e tc ., d e riv e th eir c o n v in c in g fo r c e fr o m o u r h a b it
o f r e g a rd in g all o u r d eed s as c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o u r w i l l — s o th a t th e
e g o , as su b sta n ce , d o es n o t v a n ish in th e m u lt ip lic it y o f c h a n g e .—
B u t th ere is n o such th in g as w i l l . 27
S e e n in th is lig h t, th e S p in o z a - H e g e l c o n t r o v e r s y w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e
fic titio u s , sin ce H e g e l d o e s n o t re a lly tr a n s c e n d S p in o z a , an d S p in o z a
d o es n o t re a lly o p p o s e H e g e l b u t ra th er in c lu d e s H e g e l’s id e a o f th e
u n iv e rs e as s u b je c t in his o w n c o n c e p t o f su b s ta n c e .
W e n e e d n o t g o in to all th e “ s h a d o w s o f G o d ” w h ic h N ie t z s c h e seeks
to e x o rc is e in o rd e r to ca p tu re h is k in d o f w o r ld - p ic tu r e an d e x p e r ie n c e
o f i m m a n e n c e .28 B u t b e fo re lo o k in g at th e p o s it iv e w o r l d - i m a g e th at
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A n d d o y o u k n o w w h a t “ th e w o r l d ” is to m e ? . . . T h is w orld: a
m on ster o f e n e r g y , w i t h o u t b e g in n in g , w ith o u t end; a firm iron
m a g n itu d e o f f o r c e th a t d o e s n o t g r o w b ig g e r o r sm aller, that does
not e x p a n d i t s e l f b u t o n ly tr a n s fo r m s itself; . . . at the sam e tim e
one an d m a n y , in c r e a s in g h e re an d at th e sam e tim e decreasing
there; a sea o f fo r c e s f lo w in g and ru s h in g togeth er, eternally
ch a n g in g , e t e r n a ll y f lo o d in g b a c k w ith trem en d o u s years o f re
cu rren ce, w i t h an e b b a n d a flo o d o f its fo rm s, o u t o f the sim plest
fo rm s s t r i v in g t o w a r d th e m o s t c o m p le x . . . and then again re
tu rn in g h o m e to th e s im p le o u t o f th is ab u n d an ce, o ut o f the play
o f c o n tr a d ic tio n s . . . a b e c o m in g th a t k n o w s n o satiety, no dis
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W h a t i f o n e d ay o r n ig h t a d e m o n w e r e to s n e a k a fte r y o u in to
y o u r lo n e lie s t lo n elin e ss and say to y o u , “ T h is life as y o u n o w liv e
it an d h av e liv e d it, y o u w ill h av e to liv e o n c e m o r e an d in n u m e r
ab le tim e s m o re; and th e re w ill b e n o th in g n e w in it, b u t e v e r y
p ain an d e v e r y j o y and e v e r y th o u g h t and s ig h an d e v e r y th in g
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L e t us re m o v e s u p r e m e g o o d n e s s fr o m th e c o n c c p t o f G o d ; it is
u n w o r t h y o f a g o d . L e t us a ls o r e m o v e s u p r e m e w i s d o m ; . . .
G o d th e supreme pow er— th a t su ffic e s! E v e r y t h i n g f o llo w s fr o m it,
“ th e w o r ld ” fo llo w s fr o m it!
A n d in a d iffe re n t m o o d :
Is it n e cessa ry to e la b o ra te th a t a G o d p re fe rs to s ta y b e y o n d
e v e r y th in g b o u r g e o is an d ra tio n a l? A n d , b e t w e e n o u r s e lv e s , also
b e y o n d g o o d an d e v il? 41
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P o litica l Normativeness
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Freud an d P h il o s o p h y
T h is re m a rk , w h ic h th r o u g h his im a g in a r y a u d ie n c e F re u d seem s to
be ad d re ssin g to h im s e lf, a p p lies also to h is a ttitu d e tow ard
N ie tzs c h e — and to S p in o z a .4
F reud’s References to Sp in o za
F reu d h a rd ly ev er m en tio n s S p in o za b y n a m e ; b u t w h e n h e d o e s, it is
a lw a y s to a c k n o w le d g e th e ir c lo se a ffin ity . H e r e a g a in is a p h ilo so p h e r
w h o s e p r o x im ity to h im s e lf F reu d m u s t trea t w i t h ca u tio n . In the
F reu d ia n co rp u s th ere ap p ear to b e o n ly th re e d ir e c t r e fe re n c e s to Sp i
n o za , w r itte n at d iffe re n t tim e s y e t s h o w in g r e m a r k a b le co n sisten cy.
T h e y all reiterate the sam e idea: F re u d an d S p in o z a sh a re a sim ilar
“ m o d e o f th in k in g ” and a c o m m o n “ a t m o s p h e r e ” in th e ir b ack
g ro u n d s .
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T he C l im a t e o f Id e a s
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T he C r it iq u e o f R e l ig io n
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L ib id o verses C o n atu s : T h e H u m a n B e in g a s D e s ir e
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S e l i^ K now ledge
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e m a n c ip a tio n ; it is th e c o r n e r s to n e o f S p in o z a 's e th ic s an d o f F re u d ’s
th e ra p y . B u t th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e te r m s cthics a n d therapy alread y
in d icate s th e g a p th at sep a ra tes th e m .
S e lf- k n o w le d g e fo r S p in o z a m u s t p ass t h r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f the
w o r ld . 1 d o n o t u n d e rsta n d m y s e lf in d ire c t a w a r e n e s s , o r b y s im p ly
c o n c e n tra tin g o n m y o w n p e rs o n a l h is to r y , as s is te d (as in F reu d ) b y a
lim ite d in v e n to r y o f g e n e ra l h e r m e n e u tic a l c o d e s . T h e ro a d to self-
k n o w le d g e is m u c h lo n g e r an d in d ire c t. I d o n o t s ta rt w i t h m y s e lf bu t
w it h th e u n iv e rs e at la rg e , w h ic h fr o m th e o u ts e t I h a v e to g ra s p as a
s in g le to ta lity id en tica l w i t h G o d . T h e n , e q u ip p e d w i t h th e gen e ra l
k n o w le d g e o f th e la w s an d ca u sal p a tte rn s g o v e r n i n g th e u n iv e rs e , I
h av e to lo c a te m y o w n p a rtic u la r p lace an d m o d e o f a c t i v it y w ith in the
to ta lity . T h is p re s u p p o s e s th e s e c o n d k in d o f k n o w l e d g e in w h ic h I
e n g a g e in d iv e rs ifie d s c ie n tific s tu d y , b o th o f p h y s ic s a n d p h y s io lo g y
an d o f p s y c h o lo g y and s o c io lo g y . I m u s t u n d e r s ta n d w h a t p a rticu la r
th in g s are; h o w th e b o d y is related to th e m in d ; h o w b o d ie s w o r k and
h o w affects arise; w h a t th e g e n e s is o f s o c ia l c o n t e x t s is; an d h o w m y
o w n b o d y , a ffects, and s o c ia l lin k s are d e te r m in e d b y th e ca u s a l e n v i
ro n m e n t. T h u s I p ro c e e d to d e c ip h e r m y o w n b e in g fr o m w ith o u t,
th at is, fr o m th e g e n e ra l p a ttern s an d la w s g o v e r n i n g th e u n iv e rse .
H o w e v e r , in th e th ird k in d o f k n o w le d g e , all th is e x t e r n a lly d e riv e d
in fo r m a tio n fits to g e th e r an d c o a le s c e s in to th e s p e c ific “ e s s e n c e ,” or
in tern al e x p lic a tio n o f th e s in g u la r e n tit y I a m . A t th is (ra th er rare)
p o in t, h a v in g a c q u ire d a s te p - b y - s te p s c ie n tific k n o w l e d g e o f m y s e lf
fr o m d iffe re n t causal p o in ts o f v ie w , I n o w p e r fo r m an in tu itiv e leap
w h ic h , S p in o za b e lie v e s , a llo w s m e to ta k e a s y n o p t i c v i e w o f m y sin
g u la r e x is te n ce as it in h eres in G o d an d f o llo w s in te r n a lly fr o m his
e te rn al essen ce. T h e m e d ia tin g ca u sal lin k s h a v e b e e n in te r n a liz e d and
s y n th e s ize d in to a s in g u la r essen ce th e y are said to c o n s titu te an d are
e q u iv a le n t to . T h e r e is n o a d d itio n a l in fo r m a t io n h e re , o n ly a n e w u n
d e rs ta n d in g and o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e s a m e c o g n it iv e in g r e d ie n t s .27
T h is is also th e h ig h e s t d e g re e o f s e lf- k n o w le d g e , w i t h its a c c o m
p a n y in g in te lle c tu a l lo v e o f G o d w h ic h lib e ra te s an d r e d e e m s . A t first,
m y d ire c t aw areness o f m y s e lf has b e e n m e r e ly c o n fu s e d k n o w le d g e ,
imaginatio. T o p ro g re s s, I h ad to re p la ce it w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f th e sec
o n d k in d , the s c ie n tific k n o w le d g e b y w h ic h I a p p r o a c h m y b e in g
fro m w ith o u t. B u t k n o w le d g e o f th is k in d la c k s th e a ffe c tiv e p o w e r
re q u ire d to tr a n s fo rm an d lib e ra te m e . In o r d e r fo r it to p r o d u c e such
e ffe c ts , s c ie n tific k n o w le d g e m u s t fu lfill t w o c o n d it io n s . F irs t, it m u st
fr o m th e sta rt b e c o n c e iv e d an d fe lt as e x p lic a tin g a b a s ic m e ta p h y s ic a l
tru th , n a m e ly , th e id e n tity o f n a tu re w it h G o d a n d o f th e in d iv id u a l’s
e sse n ce w ith th e n a tu r e -G o d . U lt im a te ly g r o u n d e d in in te lle c tu a l in
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In o rd e r to re s o lv e th e s y m p t o m s , w e m u s t g o b a c k as far as th eir
o rig in , w e m u s t r e n e w th e c o n flic t fr o m w h ic h th e y a ro s e , an d ,
w it h th e h elp o f m o t iv e fo rc e s w h ic h w e r e n o t at th e p a tie n t’s
d is p o s a l in th e p ast, w e m u s t g u id e it to a d iffe r e n t o u t c o m e .34
In o rd e r to r e n e w th e c o n flic t it is n e c e s s a ry to b r in g its c a u se s b a ck
to co n s cio u s n e s s , w h ile o v e r c o m in g th e re s is ta n ce s w h ic h cre a te d the
re p re ssio n an d e lim in a tin g th e la tter. T h is is p e r fo r m e d w i t h th e help
o f s e lf-in te rp re ta tio n , w h ic h rep la ces th e m e th o d o f s u g g e s t io n w ith
th e m e th o d p ro p e r to p s y c h o a n a ly s is , b a s e d u p o n th e e x te n s io n o f
co n scio u sn e ss.
T h e c o n c e p t o f re p re s s io n , says F re u d , m a k e s p s y c h o a n a ly s is u n iq u e
an d d istin g u ish e s his o w n c o n c e p t o f th e u n c o n s c io u s fr o m w h a t he
calls ra th er d is p a r a g in g ly th e “ p h ilo s o p h ic a l o p in io n s a b o u t th e u n c o n
s c io u s ,” w h ic h e x is te d in his d a y o r b e fo r e h im (sin ce L e i b n iz ’s “ p etites
p e r c e p tio n s ,” o r e v en sin ce S p in o z a ) .35 T h e u n c o n s c io u s w i t h w h ic h
F re u d (e s p e c ia lly th e e a r ly F reu d ) is c o n c e r n e d is p r im a r ily th a t w h ic h
has become u n c o n s c io u s , th a t is, th a t w h ic h t h r o u g h r e p r e s s io n has
su n k in to am n esia . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th is is a ls o th e re a so n w h y p s y
ch o a n a ly s is ca n n o t cu re all m e n ta l ills , b u t, as F r e u d s tre s s e s , o n ly
th o s e b u ilt u p o n th e m u tu a l re la tio n s h ip b e t w e e n th e c o n s c io u s an d the
re p re sse d , e s p e c ia lly n e u ro s e s an d c o m p u ls io n .
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M a jo r D if f e r e n c e s : T h er apy versu s S a l v a t io n
T h e Road to Em ancipation
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p h ysics and gen eral science. A person need not go very far beyond
h im s e lf o r h e rs e lf— she or he need n ot gain detailed know led ge o f the
u n iverse, th e la w s o f nature, G o d , and so on— in order to attain liber
ation. T h e F reud ian patien t is m uch m ore centered upon h erself and
her o w n p erson a l p sy c h o lo g ica l history.
T h is d ifferen c e is also related to the therapeutic aims o f the Freudian
syste m as d istin g u ish e d fro m the search for salvation that m otivated
S p in o za. F reud rem ain s basically a physician. T ru e, Spinoza saw his
Ethics as a k in d o f “ m ed icin e fo r the so u l” analogous to bo d ily m edi
cine; b u t this w a s m ean t in a m etaphoric and m etaphysical sense, not
in the p a th o lo g ic a l sense o f m od ern psychoanalysis. T h e soul is in need
o f " c u r e ” b ecau se o f its bo n d age to the passions and the im agination.
Its la w s, in o th er w o rd s , are ethical, not m edical. It is therefore quite
p ossib le fo r the Freudian treatm ent to p roduce a norm al, fairly bal
anced p e rs o n a lity w h ic h fro m ev e ry other point o f v ie w w ill remain a
m e d io cre h u m a n b e in g w h o m Spinoza w ill see as unfree and liv in g by
his o r h er “ im a g in a tio n .” T h is reflects, indeed, a crucial difference; the
g o a l o f F reu d ia n th e ra p y is to p roduce a norm al person; the go al o f
S p in o za ’s e th ics is to p rod u ce a non-n orm al person— a rare hum an
b ein g o f u n c o m m o n inner excellen ce.
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SPINOZA AND FREUD
co n sid ers his th e o ry to fall w ith in it. A cco rd in g ly (and because o f the
d o m in a n t m e ch a n istic id io m o f natural science), Freud pictures the
p sy c h ic life as a se m im ech an istic apparatus, w h ere instinctual energy
flo w s b a c k and fo rth , in vests itse lf in various objects, retreats, is being
tra n s fo rm e d and su b lim a ted , and so on. A ll these m ovem ents are sub
j e c t in p rin cip le to q uan titatives analysis and occur under the rules o f
d y n a m ic e ffic ie n c y (also d escribed as p sych ic “ e co n o m ics” ). Y et, on
the o th e r h an d , th e actual causal links that determ ine p sych ic life as
Freu d d escrib es it (esp ecially in therapy, w h ere it counts m ost) are de
te rm in e d b y m e an in g and by m ean in g-carryin g signs, their interpre
ta tio n , an d th eir in terio riza tio n . T h is is quite a d ifferent dom ain and
ty p e o f d isco u rse. T h e lin k s betw een signs, m eaning, and interpreta
tio n , o n th e o n e hand, and the vicissitudes o f instinctual en ergy on the
o th e r h an d , b e lo n g to tw o differen t m eth o d ological paradigm s w h ich
Freu d has taken grea t pains to reconcile. T h is is a m ajor reason w h y
p sy c h o a n a ly s is has alw a ys suffered fro m insufficient recognition and
its s c ie n tific status is d ebated to this day.41
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SPINOZA AND FREUD
p ro d u c e o f itself the clear and distinct ideas that determ ine its k n o w l
ed g e o f th e w o rld and o f itself. (W h o indeed m ore than the solitary
Je w is h h eretic co u ld te stify to the m in d ’s ability to be its o w n “ m id
w if e ” ?) T h a t self-con sciou sn ess presupposes interpersonal desire and
co n flict is a H e gelia n p rin cip le w h ich underm ined the Cartesian tradi
tion and w h ic h F reud , perhaps u n w ittin g ly, built into the p sych oana
ly tic s itu a tio n .JJ
Y e t F reud ren o u n ces the idealist n otion o f the e go as subject, and
thus co m e s clo se to S p in o za’s naturalist account o f the m ind. In Spi
n o za, the m in d is but the n exu s o f co m p lex ideas o f the body. T h e re is
no separate, u n ify in g s e lf w h ic h “ h o ld s” o r “ possesses” these ideas; in
o th e r w o r d s , o u r m in d docs n ot have ideas but is these ideas. Sim ilarly
in F reu d , th e e g o is n o t the subject o f “ its” ideas, but the conscious,
o u tw a r d ly o rien ted fu n ctio n o f the stream o f p sych ic life itself. T h e
e g o , Freud in sists, “ is . . . o n ly a portion o f the id, a portio n that has
been e x p e d ie n tly m o d ified by the p ro x im ity o f the external w o rld w ith
its th reat o f d an ger.” 44 It puts the id in relation to the outer w o rld and
screens it o f f fro m the w o rld th ro u gh the m echanism o f repression and
o th e r p s y c h o lo g ic a l tran sform ation s, all understood as d eterm in in g
co n scio u sn e ss in a natural and quasi-autom atic m anner.
T h e e g o in F reud has no connotation o f a K antian (or even C a rte
sian) s u b je c t,45 n o t o n ly because it is causally determ ined and lacks
tran scen d en tal status, but because it has no function o f self-ascrip tion ,
w h e re b y it im p rin ts its id en tity upon “ its” ideas and thus unifies them .
(O n e m a y even add that the idealist notion o f the subject, w ith its co n
n o tatio n s o f “ p u r ity ” and “ au to n om y,” m ust seem to Freud a narcis
sistic illu sio n .) H en ce k n o w led ge, in Freud no less than in Sp in o za, is
m o re a m o d e o f b e in g than o f having, not so m eth in g w e possess but
so m e th in g w e are o r become. A s M o n iq u e Schneider notes, in attain in g
k n o w le d g e w e d o n ot gain an acquisition, as i f so m eth in g n e w w ere
ad d ed to the in v e n to ry o f our possessions, but rather w e exist d iffer
e n tly , th at is, o u r p sych ic being is m od ified .*6
T h is red uces the scope o f actual self-k n o w led ge to the su ccessfu lly
in te rio rize d one. M e re understanding by the patient o f h erm en eu tic
clu es and explan atio ns w o rk ed o u t w ith the an alyst is n o t e n o u g h .
“ W ell, I have n o w un derstood— so w h at?” is a statem ent that an alysts
keep h earin g. M o reo ver, a superficial acceptance o f the an alyst m ay
serv e as ab n egatio n — a m erely intellectual adm ission o f the repressed
co n te n t th at actu ally changes n oth in g in the repression (and th e n eu
rosis) it s e lf and som etim es even serves to defend it. S e lf-k n o w le d g e
then has in F reud both a superficial and a genuine m od e; th e fo rm e r is
o n ly a ch a n ge in o ur state o f consciousness, w h ile the latter entails a
ch a n g e in o u r w h o le p sych ic being.
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T h e M in d ’s Body
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C o n c l u s io n
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In th e s a m e v e in h e w r o t e in 1930 in a s p e c ia l p r e fa c e to th e H e b r e w
e d itio n o f Totem and Taboo:
N o re a d er o f [th e H e b r e w v e r s io n o f ] th is b o o k w i ll fin d it ea sy
to p u t h im s e lf in th e e m o t io n a l p o s it io n o f an a u t h o r w h o is ig
n o ra n t o f th e la n g u a g e o f h o ly w r it , w h o is c o m p le t e ly e s tra n g e d
f r o m th e r e lig io n o f h is fa th e rs— as w e ll as f r o m e v e r y o th e r re li
g io n — an d w h o c a n n o t ta k e a sh a re in n a tio n a lis t id e a ls , b u t w h o
h as y e t n e v e r r e p u d ia te d h is p e o p le , w h o fe e ls th a t he is in his
e sse n tia l n a tu re a J e w an d w h o h as n o d e s ire to a lte r th a t n a tu re .
I f th e q u e s tio n w e r e p u t to h im : “ S in c e y o u h a v e a b a n d o n e d all
th e se c o m m o n ch a ra c te r is tic s o f y o u r c o u n t r y m e n , w h a t is th ere
le ft to y o u th a t is J e w is h ? ” h e w o u ld r e p ly : “ A v e r y g r e a t d e a l, and
p r o b a b ly its v e r y e s s e n c e .”
F re u d says th a t h e c a n n o t c le a r ly e x p r e s s th is e s s e n c e in w o r d s , and
ad d s ra th e r o p tim is tic a lly : “ S o m e d a y n o d o u b t it w i ll b e c o m e a c ce s
sib le to th e s c ie n tific m in d .”
Y e t e v e n as h e s tre ssed his J e w is h n e s s w i t h fe e lin g a n d p r id e , th e old
F re u d w a s n o t d e te r re d fr o m d e p r iv in g h is f e llo w J e w s o f th e ir g re a te st
p r o p h e t, M o s e s , w h o m h e d e cla re d to h a v e b e e n an E g y p t i a n .64 S p i
n o z a , to o , h ad u n d e rc u t M o s e s ’ ro le b y d e c la r in g th e P e n ta te u c h to
h a v e b e e n w r itt e n b y a la ter a u th o r , E z ra ; b u t th e s a m e k in d o f h eresies
th a t m a d e S p in o za s u b m it to a b a n an d b e d e c r ie d a r e n e g a d e d id n o t
p r e v e n t F reu d fr o m b e in g a c c e p te d an d r e c o g n iz e d as a b r o th e r . T h is
w a s a ra d ica l h is to ric a l c h a n g e , w h ic h S p in o z a h a d p r e fig u r e d an d e m
b o d ie d w h ile b e in g d e p r iv e d o f it h i m s e lf In th e tw e n tie t h c e n t u r y a
J e w c o u ld liv e o u ts id e th e o r g a n iz e d c o m m u n it y a n d h o ld h eretica l
v ie w s w it h o u t h a v in g to re n o u n c e h is o r h e r J e w is h id e n t it y o r b e re
je c t e d as a tra ito r. W h a t h ad b e e n a n tic ip a te d b y S p in o z a h as m e a n
w h ile b e c o m e a liv in g c o n c e p t an d a s o c ia l re a lity . T o d a y o n e can de
b a te w h a t a “ n o n r e lig io u s J e w ” m ean s; o n e ca n p o le m ic iz e w i t h su ch
a J e w , d e n o u n c e o r e x to l h im , o r t r y to m a k e h im “ r e p e n t” ; b u t o n e
can n o lo n g e r d e n y his e x is te n c e . T h e g u l f w h ic h s e p a ra te s F r e u d ’s
J e w is h s itu a tio n fr o m S p in o z a ’s th r o w s th is m a jo r h is to r ic a l c h a n g e
in to sh a rp relief.
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C H A P T E R 7
Epilogue:
Immanence and Finitude
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CHAPTER 7
(*tS)
EPILOGUE
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CHAPTER 7
m a n an d w h ic h , tr a n s fo r m e d an d in c o r p o r a t e d in h is la te r w o r k , S p i
n o z a h e lp e d tr a n s p o rt fr o m a p r o v in c ia l Ib e ria n s u b c u ltu r e in to th e
o p e n aren a o f W e s te rn in te lle c tu a l h is to ry .
T h is m o v e has d iv id e d th e p re s e n t w o r k in t w o . T h e M arrano o f R ea
son s itu a te d S p in o z a w ith in th e M a r r a n o c u ltu r e , c o m p a r in g an d c o n
tr a s tin g h im w it h o th e r M a r r a n o in te lle c tu a ls a n d lif e - fo r m s . W it h o u t
tr y in g to “ r e d u c e ” S p in o z a to th is (o r a n y o th e r ) d o m in a n t e le m e n t in
his b a c k g r o u n d , w e s a w th e id ea o f im m a n e n c e e m e r g in g an d re c u r
rin g in th e M a r r a n o e x p e r ie n c e , n o t a lw a y s an a r tic u la te d p h ilo s o p h y
b u t as a p e rs o n a l sta n d , a m a n n e r o f life , an e x is te n tia l an d a esth e tic
o u tlo o k .
S p in o z a g a v e th is id ea its p h ilo s o p h ic a l fo r m a n d p o w e r . A n o u ts id e r
b o th b y b ir th an d c h o ic e , b a n n e d b y t h e j e w s w h il e r e fu s in g to c o n v e rt
to C h r is tia n it y , he b e c a m e th e firs t E u r o p e a n o f im p o r t a n c e w h o tran
sce n d e d th e u n iv e rs e o f re v e a le d r e lig io n w h il e p r e s e n t in g it w it h a
p o w e r fu l s y s te m a tic a lte rn a tiv e . H is m o v e e n c a p s u la te d th e p rin cip le
o f m o d e r n ity in a m o s t ra d ica l fo r m . W h ile o th e r r a tio n a lis ts , D e s
ca rte s an d L e ib n iz in c lu d e d , r e v iv e d in th e ir o n t o lo g ie s th e th e istic
w o r ld - p ic tu r e o f C h r is tia n it y , S p in o z a a llo w e d n o v e s t ig e o f th e w o r ld
b e y o n d to s u r v iv e , e ith e r as a m e ta p h y s ic a l e n t it y o r as a s o u r c e o f
n o r m a tiv e v a lu e . T h e r e b y S p in o z a b e c a m e th e fo u n d e r o f m o d e r n p h i
lo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e , e ffe c tin g an in te lle c tu a l r e v o lu t io n n o less m o
m e n to u s an d c o n s e q u e n tia l th a n K a n t ’s, a n d w h ic h , h a v in g re a c h e d its
m a in im p a c t s e v e ra l g e n e r a tio n s a fte r S p in o z a , s till h as o ffs p r in g
w h ic h u p se t an d u n s e ttle tr a d itio n a l th in k in g to d a y .
S p in o z a ’s im m a n e n t r e v o lu tio n se t th e g r o u n d fo r la te r “ h e r e tic a l”
th in k e rs , w h o s o u g h t to c o n s tr u e th e p h ilo s o p h y o f i m m a n e n c e eith er
m o r e c o h e r e n t ly o r still m o r e ra d ic a lly , o r to e x te n d its b a s ic id ea s to
n e w areas ( e c o n o m ic s , d e p th p s y c h o l o g y , e tc .). W h a t t h e y s h a re d w ith
S p in o z a w a s n o t o n ly a “ c lim a te o f id e a s ,” as F r e u d p u t it, b u t a sy s
te m a tic c o n te x t: ( i) im m a n e n c e is th e o n ly a n d o v e r a ll h o r iz o n o f
b e in g ; (2) it is e q u a lly th e o n ly s o u r c e o f v a lu e a n d n o r m a t iv it y ; and
(3) a b s o r b in g th is r e c o g n itio n in to o n e ’ s life is a p r e lu d e — a n d p re c o n
d itio n — fo r w h a te v e r “ s a lv a tio n ” (o r e m a n c ip a tio n ) h u m a n s can attain.
W it h in th is n u c le a r c o n t e x t o n e ca n fu r th e r a r g u e a b o u t th e ad eq u ate
w a y to c o n s tr u e th e w o r ld o f im m a n e n c e (see P r e fa c e ). (1) Is it n atu re,
as in S p in o z a , o r s p irit, h is to ry , W ille, durée, o r s o m e o th e r s u c h m e ta
p h y s ic a l c o n s tr u c tio n ? (2) S h o u ld it b e in d iv id u a t e d as a s in g le , in fin ite
to ta lity ? (3) S h o u ld it b e d e ifie d ? (4) W h a t s tr u c tu r e a p p lie s to it— m e
c h a n ic a l ca u s a lity , o r g a n ic p u r p o s iv ity , d ia le c tic a l lo g ic , o r a m u ch
m o r e flu id an d fle x ib le m o d e l? (5) D o e s it h a v e th is s tr u c tu r e e te rn a lly ?
Is o u r S p in o z is tic q u e st fo r fix e d , e te rn a l la w s w e ll fo u n d e d o r ra th e r a
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CHAPTER 7
N ie t z s c h e ( fo llo w in g S c h o p e n h a u e r) re je c ts d e te r m in is m as b a s e d on
th e illu s io n o f ca u s a lity , an d c o n s tr u e s th e w o r l d o f i m m a n e n c e as in
d e te r m in a te flu x s u b je c t to c h a n g in g , m a n - m a d e in te r p r e ta tio n s .
D o g m a t ic versu s C r it ic a l P h il o s o p h y o f Im m an en ce
W e c o u ld g o o n d r a w in g p a ra lle ls , o p p o s it io n s , an d lo g ic a l lin k s b e
tw e e n th e v a rio u s w a y s o f c o n s tr u in g a p h i lo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e . W e
w o u ld th e re b y re fin e th e lo g ic a l m a p an d fill in its c o n t o u r s . B u t then
a fu rth e r q u e s tio n arises. G iv e n th e g e n e ra l c o o r d in a t e s o f th e a b o v e
m a p , can o n e d e c id e w h ic h is th e m o r e a d e q u a te a p p r o a c h to im m a
n en ce?
I d o n o t th in k a n y s in g le d o c t r in e w i ll p r o v id e th e a n s w e r . In e scap
a b le a n d o m n ip re s e n t, th e c o n t e x t o f im m a n e n c e is b o u n d b y fin itu d e ,
h e n c e also b y c o n s ta n t o p e n n e s s to c h a n g e . Y e t th e r e is n o t h in g e x te r
n al to c h a n g e it; all w e h a v e is th e e v o l v in g s u b s ta n c e o f o u r o w n life
a n d c u ltu re as it b e c o m e s re fle cte d in id ea s. T h is is th e u lt im a t e c o n te x t
o f e x is te n c e , th e w o r ld o f im m a n e n c e in w h ic h e v e r y t h in g e lse in h eres.
(In th is lo o s e sen se it is in d e e d o u r “ s u b s ta n c e .” ) A n d w h il e n o th in g
e x te rn a l to it can d ic ta te ru les, p r o v id e a n s w e rs , o r c r itic iz e an d c h a n g e
th e c o n te n ts w ith in th is s p h e re o f im m a n e n c e , th e re is a ls o n o th in g
w ith in it to g u a ra n te e a b s o lu te , e te r n a l tru th .
Im m a n e n c e th u s im p lie s a u t o n o m y , a lb e it a lim it e d , fin ite a u to n
o m y . It in v o lv e s a s e lf- s tr u c tu r in g p r o c e s s w h e r e b y fo r m s an d c o n
stra in s are p r o d u c e d b y th e sa m e a g e n ts w h o a s s u m e th e m — h u m a n s
in th e ir c o lle c tiv e e x p e r ie n c e . T h u s w e h a v e m o r a l v a lu e s , lo g ic a l and
s c ie n tific p ro c e d u re s , an d p a tte rn s o f p u b lic d e b a te a n d p e r s u a s io n (and
o f so cia l and e c o n o m ic o r g a n iz a tio n ) b y w h ic h th e s e n o r m s an d p ro
ce d u re s are e v e n tu a lly m o d ifie d . A n d t h o u g h n o n e o f th e m can claim
a b s o lu te o r tra n s ce n d e n t v a lid ity , th e y p r o v id e a g a u g e , a s tru c tu r e , a
p r o v is io n a l s o lid ific a tio n o f th e flu x o f life in to m e a n in g fu l p attern s
a n d c o n s tr a in ts , all p r o d u c e d b y th e fin ite p o w e r o f im m a n e n c e w h ile
g iv in g it fo r m and im p e tu s .
T h e d ic h o t o m y “ e ith e r G o d o r m o r a l a n a r c h y ” (o r its s e e m in g ly
s e cu la r tr a n s la tio n , “ e ith e r a b s o lu te v a lu e s o r n ih ilis m ” ) are v e s tig e s o f
th e tra n s c e n d e n t o u tlo o k . A c r itic a l p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e rejects
th e tim e le ss n e s s o f m a n - m a d e n o r m s as w e ll as th e ir d is m is s a l as m ean
in g le ss . H u m a n s e x is t b y p la c in g v a lu e o n th in g s b e y o n d th e ir n atu
ra lly g iv e n state. T h is is th e w a y w e tr a n s c e n d o u r s e lv e s an d g iv e our
liv e s s tru c tu r e , m e a n in g , d ir e c tio n , an d an id e n t i t y fo r w h ic h it is
w o r t h w h ile s tr u g g lin g an d m a k in g s a c rific e s e v e n in th e a b se n ce o f
tim e le ss a b s o lu te s . S e lf- tr a n s c e n d e n c e , th e e x is te n tia l d r iv e to g o be
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CHAPTER 7
(1 7 6 )
EPILOGUE
(n?)
CHAPTEH 7
A s im ila r p o in t a p p lie s to th e c o g n it iv e d o m a in . In K a n t th e fr a g m e n ts
o f e x p e r ie n c e b e lo n g in p rin c ip le to th e u n ity o f a s in g le w o r ld , b e c a u s e
th e y are all g o v e r n e d a p r io r i b y th e sa m e set o f fu n d a m e n ta l ca te
g o r ie s . T h is is a n o th e r w a y o f s a y in g th a t th e re is a s in g le , im m u ta b le
tr u th b o th f o r m e ta p h y s ic s an d th e n a tu ra l scien c es.
In S p in o z a , tr u th is u n iq u e b e c a u s e it m o d e ls it s e l f o n th e s tru c tu r e
o f th e u n iq u e w o r ld - s u b s t a n c e , w it h its a lle g e d ly d e d u c t iv e la w s . R e -
(178)
EPILOGUE
( 179)
CHAPTER 7
(180)
EPILOGUE
(1S1)
CHAPTER 7
th e m s e lv e s ,” n o in h e re n t m e a n in g s in s c r ib e d o n th e b o o k o f n atu re
w h ic h , as g o o d c o p y is ts , w e m u s t re p r o d u c e in o u r m in d s . S p in o za
h im s e lf u n w it t in g ly p ro je c te d his c o n c e p t o f d e d u c t iv e c a u s a lity u p o n
n a tu re , an d th e n th o u g h t h e w a s re a d in g it o f f th e e te rn a l n a tu re o f the
su b s ta n ce . I f th is in v e rte d p r o je c tio n lo o k s a n a lo g o u s to th e w a y the
critics o f r e lig io n (in c lu d in g S p in o z a ) e x p la in th e g e n e s is o f G o d ’s tr a n
s ce n d e n t im a g e , th is is n o ac cid en t: w e c a n n o t rid n a tu re o f h u m a n lik e
(o r h u m a n -b re d ) fea tu re s, b e c a u s e n o n a tu re w o u ld th e n b e le ft, o n ly
an in d e fin ite , m e a n in g le ss m ass o f b e in g in -itse lf.
In S p in o z a , m e a n in g s - in - th e m s e lv e s are m a d e p o s s ib le b y th e lo g ic a l
su b s ta n ce in w h ic h th e y are said to in h ere. B u t th is v ie w , as K a n t and
N ie t z s c h e w i ll ag re e , in v ite s tra n s ce n d e n t p o s tu la te s in th r o u g h th e
b a c k d o o r. If, in stea d , w e c o n s tr u e th e im m a n e n t w o r l d n o t as s u b
sta n ce o r to ta lity b u t as a h o r iz o n o p e n to m u ltip le an d p a rtia l in te r
p re ta tio n s , th en th e a g e n t o f su ch in te r p r e ta tio n , th e h u m a n ra ce , ca n
n o t b e s im p ly re d u c e d to a n a tu re e x is tin g in - its e lf, b u t m u s t b e
r e c o g n iz e d as p la y in g a c o n s titu tiv e o n to lo g ic a l ro le . T h e im m a n e n t
w o r ld in c o rp o ra te s m a n ’s a c tiv it y o f in te r p re ta tio n ; an d m a n ’s b c in g -
th e re e n lig h te n s an d im p a rts m e a n in g to w h a t in it s e l f is, at le a s t fo r us
fin ite cre atu res, o p a q u e .
T h e act o f in te r p re ta tio n , h o w e v e r , m u s t n o t b e u n d e r s to o d as e x
c lu s iv e ly o r e v e n p r im a r ily in te lle c tu a l. It e x p re s s e s it s e l f firs t as p ra x is ,
th e a c t iv it y w h e r e b y h u m a n s liv e , a ct, relate to th in g s an d to o th e r
p e o p le , fu lfill ro le s , an d so o n , and b y th us in te r a c tin g w i t h th e w o r ld ,
th e y ta c itly sh ap e and g iv e m e a n in g to th e v a r io u s th in g s in th e ir e x
p e rie n c e . O f co u rs e , n o in d iv id u a l d o e s th is as an is o la te d C a r te s ia n
e g o . W e a lre a d y e x is t in a la r g e ly in te r p re te d w o r ld , u s in g la n g u a g e ,
tr a d itio n , s o c ia l in s titu tio n s , and th e lik e , as o u r m o d e s o f re la tin g to
th in g s an d th u s as th e ca rrie rs o f m e a n in g w h ic h w e in te r io r iz e , tran s
late o r re v is e , an d p r o je c t a g a in . B u t w h a t c o u n ts as p r im a r y arc n o t
th e to o ls b u t th e a c tiv it y o f life it s e lf as it p r o je c ts it s e l f th r o u g h th e m .
R e fle c tio n is a la te c o m e r, th e o w l o f M in e r v a s p r e a d in g its w in g s
o n c e th e d a y ’s w o r k is d o rie. B e fo r e w e a rtic u la te o u r e x p e r ie n c e in
id e a s an d o th e r c u ltu ra l im a g e s , w e “ liv e th e m o u t ,” s o to s p e a k , in te r
p r e tin g o u r s e lv e s an d th e th in g s in th e w o r ld b y o u r b e h a v io r , lif e
s ty le s , w o r k an d p r o d u c tio n , b y p a rtic ip a tin g in s o c ia l ro le s a n d re la t
in g to o th e r p e rs o n s , o rg a n is m s , an d in ert th in g s a r o u n d us. S o m e o f
th is s u b s ta n tiv e in te r p re ta tio n se em s to b e g o in g o n u n c o n s c io u s ly , a f
fe c te d b y s u c h fo r c e s as th e in d iv id u a l’s p s y c h ic h is to r y , b y s o c ia l p e r
s u a s io n a n d p r o p a g a n d a , o r b y m o r e la te n t s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic , a n d d e
m o g r a p h ic u n d e rc u rre n ts a n n o u n c in g a c u ltu ra l sh ift.
In o th e r w o r d s , in te r p re ta tio n is th e m o v e m e n t o f life itse lf, n o t
(1 8 2 )
EPILOGUE
( i * 3)
CHAPTER 7
A s w e h av e seen t h r o u g h o u t th is b o o k , a p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e is
c h a ra c te r is tic a lly a p h ilo s o p h y o f e m a n c ip a tio n . It a s s u m e s th a t the
r e c o g n itio n o f im m a n e n c e as th e o v e ra ll s u b s ta n c e o f life , w h e n in te -
r io r iz e d b y th e in d iv id u a l an d im p r e g n a tin g th e d o m in a n t c u ltu r e and
s o c ie ty , is lik e ly to b e c o m e a m a jo r lib e r a tin g fo r c e . W c e n c o u n te r e d
th is lin k b e tw e e n im m a n e n c e an d e m a n c ip a tio n in all th e p re c e d in g
ch a p te rs . B u t w e a ls o n o tic e d th e v a rie tie s in w h ic h it has b e e n in te r
p re te d . T w o ty p e s o f q u e s tio n s arise: (a) can e m a n c ip a tio n a ffe c t the
in d iv id u a l d ire c tly , as d is tin g u is h e d o r ev en o p p o s e d to th e rest o f his
o r h e r s o c ia l tim e an d p lace? A n d (b) can it tra n sla te th e r e lig io u s ideal
o f s a lv a tio n in its fu ll fo rce?
S p in o z a a n s w e rs b o th q u e s tio n s a ffir m a tiv e ly . A n e s o te r ic th in k e r
(an d d e s c e n d a n t o f th e M a rra n o s ), he s a w th e a tta in m e n t o f tr u th as
in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p o litic a l an d c u ltu ra l s itu a tio n . A lt h o u g h im p r o v e d
p o litic a l c o n d itio n s e n h a n c e th e ch a n ces o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l life , th e y are
n o t a n e c e s s a ry c o n d itio n fo r it. T h e s a g e can atta in th e h ig h e s t p h ilo
s o p h ic a l d e g re e in is o la tio n , ev en w h e n th e g e n e ra l m u ltitu d e is far
f r o m its p ath .
T h is M a r r a n e s q u e o u tlo o k is n o t, I th in k , as d o g m a t ic as it is n aive.
T h e h is to r ic a lity o f h u m a n life an d a d v a n c e m e n t w a s n o t s u ffic ie n tly
r e c o g n iz e d in S p in o z a ’s tim e . N a tu r e and re a so n “ as s u c h ” w e r e th e
o b je c ts o f c o n c e rn , w h ile h is to ry , as in D e s c a r te s , w a s m e r e ly th e a c
c u m u la te d b u rd e n o f p a st e rro rs an d p re ju d ic e s fr o m w h ic h th e p h ilo s
o p h e r h ad to tea r h im s e lf a w a y as he to o k th e s ta n d p o in t o f p u r e rea
so n . It w a s K a n t w h o , firs t a m o n g th e m a jo r p h ilo s o p h e r s , m a in ta in e d
th a t r e a so n it s e l f d e p e n d e d u p o n h is to r y fo r its s e lf- e x p lic a tio n an d im
p le m e n ta tio n in th e w o r ld . T h is id ea H e g e l e la b o ra te d in to a g lo b a l
a n d s e m ir e lig io u s p h ilo s o p h y o f h is to ry , w h ile M a r x tr a n s p o s e d it to
a n a tu ra lis tic , e c o n o m ic o - s o c ia l c o n t e x t an d im p r is o n e d it w it h in th e
c o n fin e s o f r ig id h is to ric a l d e te r m in is m .
T h e r e b y n a ïv e té has tu rn e d in to d o g m a tis m . A c r itic a l c o n c e p t o f
im m a n e n c e , w h ile r e c o g n iz in g th e in te r d e p e n d e n c e o f th e in d iv id u a l
an d th e h is to r ic a l s itu a tio n , w i ll n o t see it as d e te r m in is tic . E x is te n -
tia lly , in d iv id u a ls esca p e fu ll ra tio n a l d e fin itio n ; an d h u m a n in d iv id u
als, as s e lf- tr a n s c e n d in g b e in g s , c a n n o t ev en b e d e fin e d b y w h a t th e y
h a v e th e m s e lv e s b e en o r d o n e . T h e r e a lw a y s re m a in s an irre d u c ib le
fa c to r th a t d e fie s s c ie n tific , h is to ric a l, o r ra tio n a l d e te r m in a tio n e v e n
w h il e a d m it tin g a s ta tis tic a lly p re d ic ta b le s itu a tio n w h e n la r g e r s o cia l
e n titie s are c o n c e r n e d ( g r o u p s , p e rio d s , s u b c u ltu r e s , e tc .).
A s fin ite , th e in d iv id u a l’s p o s itio n is a m b iv a le n t at its v e r y co re ; he
(¡ 84 )
EPILOGUE
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CHAPTER 7
T h e p r e c e d in g p o in ts are m e a n t to d e lin e a te o n ly th e g e n e ra l c o n t o u r s
o f a c r itic a l p h ilo s o p h y o f im m a n e n c e . M a n y w a y s still e x is t to c o n
s tru e it. B u t S p in o z a an d th e o th e r “ h e re tic s ” h e e n g e n d e r e d , w it h
th e ir q u a rre ls , a d v e n tu re s , in s ig h ts , and m is ta k e s , ad d u p to a w o r t h
w h ile , i f p a rtia l an d o p e n -e n d e d , p h ilo s o p h ic a l e n te r p ris e . T h e se a rc h
f o r lu c id it y an d d is illu s io n m e n t m a y n e v e r atta in a fin a l g o a l o r p r o v id e
m o r e th a n p a rtia l e m a n c ip a tio n ; y e t it w i ll a lw a y s a c c e p t th e im m a n e n t
w o r ld , w i t h its fin itu d e an d in h e re n t u n c e r ta in tie s , as th e o v e ra ll d o
m a in o f b e in g an d v a lu e , n e ith e r h ell n o r p a ra d is e b u t m a n ’ s m e ta
p h y s ic a l h o m e la n d , a c r e a tiv e , e v e n j o y f u l v a le o f tea rs w h e r e s u ffe r in g
an d p e r s e v e r a n c e , fin itu d e an d a u t o n o m y in fo r m o n e a n o th e r.
(186)
Notes
C hapter i
(¡s?)
NOTES TO PAGES 11- 1 $
w rites to O ld enb u rg (letter 73, 2: 298, Opera 4: 306-8) that in his Theologico-
Political Treatise he tried to clear h im self o f the charge o f atheism .
8. O n K a n t’s relationship w ith contem porary censorship E m il F rom m of
fers a detailed analysis, based on the R o yal A rch ives o f Berlin (see Kant und die
preussische Censur (nach den A kten im K o n igl. geh eim cn Staatsarchiv, H am
bu rg & Leipzig: Voss, 1894]). O th er signs o f this conflict are K an t's prudent
discussions o f political authority (see Theory and Practice in Werke, A kad cm ic
Textau sgabe 8: 273-313; Metaphysics o f Morals, pt. 1: The Metaphysical Elements
o f Justice, tr. J. Ladd [N e w Y o rk: Library o f Liberal A rts, 1965)1 Werke 6: 203-
356); his apparent am bivalence concerning revolutions in general and the
French R evolution in particular (cf., e. g . , the con clud in g chapter o f Theor)> and
Practice to par. 6 in Der Streit der Fakultaten [Werke 7]; and the attem pt he made
in Religion, pp. 112 -13 [ Werke 6: 121-22]) to find a place, even i f far-fetched,
to counter rational principles o f th eology. It is clear that K a n t was m otivated
by a desire to avoid open conflict w ith the religious p ublic (see Kant and the
Philosophy o f History, pp. 2i5flf).
9. A m ajor device w h ich both Spinoza and K ant use is to declare the co m
p atibility o f reason w ith Scripture (or w ith th eo lo gy; see Metaphysical
Thoughts, chap. 8; Theologico-Political Treatise, chap. 15; Religion, p. 11 [Werke
6: 13]). H ow ever, this is m ere lip service to an idea that both philosophers
actually refute in their books.
10. T h is is indicated in the Ethics (pt. 4, prop. 37): “ W hatsoever w e desire or
do, w h e re o f w e are the cause in so far as w e possess the idea o f G o d or kn o w
G o d , I set dow n to religion." T h is description refers neither to historical reli
gio n nor to purified religio catholica, but to the highest m etaphysical stage. T h e
man w h o understands, through an articulated system , the identity o f G od
w ith the totality o f the w orld and his o w n place w ith in this totality, has at
tained liberation and a n ew em otional status, dom inated by j o y and the love o f
G o d and m arked by “ active’' (free) desires and m otivations. In line w ith this,
Spinoza in the same proposition gives the concept o f p iety (pietas) a philosoph
ical definition par excellence, as distinguished from the popular m eaning o f
this concept in his Theologico-Political Treatise.
11. T h is idea m ay partly invoke A ristotle's concept o f practical reason.
12. Spinoza em ploys w h at he calls the “ co m m on ” definition o f (distributive)
ju stice, i.e ., “ the constant and perpetual w ill to render every m an his d u e”
( T T P , chap. 4, O pera 3: 59).
13. Spinoza does form ulate such a transition in his treatm ent o f notiones com
munes (see Ethics, pt. 2, props. 37-39, and note 6 to the T T P ).
14. T h e idea is that the man w h o falls short o f philosophical reason can in
the m eantim e rearrange his low er pow ers o f im agination and association
(m em ory) in a w ay that is conducive to sem irational behavior. T h is behavior
w ill have all the outer features and social benefits o f rational conduct, o n ly it
w ill be less stable and, m ost im portant, it w ill lack pow er to liberate the agent
and transform his inner life and personality.
15. I refer to all m odes o f m ediation between spontaneity and receptivity, as
(188)
N OT E S TO PAGES I 5 - 2 O
expressed in the fields o f action, volition, natural teleology, etc., and not only
in the field o f knowledge.
16. Such as the “ typics,” the historical process, or the postulate o f God’s
existence.
17. “ If men were so constituted by nature that they desired nothing but what
is designated by true reason, society would obviously have no need o f laws; it
would be sufficient to inculcate true moral doctrines; and men would freely,
w ithout hesitation, act in accordance with their true interests" (T T P , p. 73,
Opera 3: 73).
18. See Strauss, Persecution and the Art of Writing, p. 46.
19. Spinoza’s critical attitude toward literal meaning is similar to the critical
attitude required in his and Descartes’ science to sensations and empirical data.
T h ey serve as a starting point for knowledge and present the investigator with
his questions; but in order to understand and define them he needs additional
data and principles.
20. Spinoza does not use this terminology, but a perusal o f chapter 7 o f the
Theologico-Political Treatise will show a strong analogy.
21. O n e such presupposition was that the Bible uses language ad captum vulgi
(according to the comprehension o f the multitude). Spinoza, who also knew
the Talm udic equivalent (“ Torah spoke the language o f men” [Babylonian Tal
m ud, Brakhot 31b; Yebamot 71a]) and the ways in which the idea was formerly
interpreted, differed radically in his own interpretation. He denies that the Bi
ble transmits higher knowledge in popular language, or that it is composed o f
tw o levels, esoteric and exoteric. For him both the significance and the word
ing o f the Bible belong to the same level o f imaginatio; and therefore it is futile
to look for any hidden meaning that transcends the comprehension o f the vul
gar. Th is view is clearly derived from Spinoza’s own scientific account o f the
nature o f prophecy; and although he attempts to find support for it in the Bible
itself, in fact this is a general rationalistic presupposition derived from his phi
losophy and then superimposed on the text.
22. P. F. Moreau, “ La méthode d ’interprétation de PEcriture Sainte,” in Spi
noza, science et religion, ed. R. Bouveresse, Actes du CoUoque, Cerisy-la-Salle,
1982 (Paris: Vrin, 1988), pp. 109-14.
23. Rel., pp. 100-105; Werke 6: 109-14.
24. Ibid., p. 100, Werke 6: 110: “ If such an empirical faith, which chance, it
would seem, has tossed into our hands, is to be united with the basis o fa moral
faith . . . an exposition o f the revelation which has come into our possession
is required, that is, a thoroughgoing interpretation o f it in a sense agreeing
with the universal practical rules o fa religion o f pure reason. For the theoret
ical part o f ecclesiastical faith cannot interest us morally i f it does not conduce
to the performance o f all human duties as divine commands (that which con
stitutes the essence o f all religion).”
25. Rel., p. 101, Werke 6: 110: “ This interpretation may, in the light o f the
text [o f the revelationj, appear forced— it may often really be forced·, and yet if
the text can possibly support it, it must be preferred to a literal interpretation
(1S9)
NOTES TO PAGES 2 0 -2 9
w hich either contains nothing at all (helpful] to m orality or else actually w orks
counter to m oral incentives” (emphasis added).
26. Johann D avid M ichaelis (1 7 17 -17 9 1 ). K an t contends w ith M ich aelis’s
posthum ous essay, published in 1792 (a year prior to the p ublication o f the
Religion), w here M ichaelis accepts the literal m eaning o f Psalm 5 9 :11-16 , in
w h ich the poet prays for a cruel revenge on his enem ies (“ C o n su m e them in
w rath . . .” ).
27. See Der Streit der Fakultäten, Werke 7: 38-47.
28. In the Religion, Kant gives a series o f d oubtful reasons: (1) that it is tra
ditional in all religions to tw ist a text for desirable purposes; (2) that his
m ethod does not violate the literal m eaning to a great extent, since ancient
m yth ologies share a hidden disposition to m orality; (3) that the author m ight
have meant w hat Kant attributes to him . Y et these argum ents sound rather
like excuses: (1) A prevalent custom is clearly not ipso facto ju stified . (2) What
about cases in w h ich the violation does occur? A n d even w h ere there is a hid
den m oral im plication, it is certainly not identical w ith the literal m eaning. (3)
T h e probability o f such a case is v ery lo w (cf. Psalm 59 :11-16 ). It is ju st as
probable (and even m ore so), that the poet meant w h at he actually said.
29. See Kant and the Philosophy o f History, esp. chap. 6.
30. Sylvain Z ac, Spinoza et ¡'interprétation de l'Ecriture (Paris: Presses U n i
versitaires de France, 1965).
31. G ershom Scholem , Sabbatai Sevi— The Mystical Messiah, ¡626-1676
(Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press. 1973).
32. N on contrad iction is maintained by violating the literal m eaning o f the
B ible, especially o f those verses that have to do w ith the nature o f reason and
rationality. T yp ical exam ples are his com m ents on K in g S o lo m on ( T T P , p.
44, Opera 3: 45); his casuistic argum ents about the proh ibition to eat fro m the
tree o f kn o w led ge ( T T P , pp. 63fr., Opera 3: 63fr.); or the allegorical and rather
tw isted interpretation o f the critical dictum , “ he that increaseth kn o w led g e
increaseth so rro w ,” w h ich flatly contradicts the crux o f Sp in oza’s ethics and
an th rop o lo gy (Ethics, pt. 4, prop. 17S).
33. See m y detailed criticism o f this doctrine in Kant and the Philosophy of
History, pp. 287-98.
34. In saying this I do not mean to uphold Sp in oza’s scientific m ethod in
detail. Reducing the B ible to m ere p hilological and historical factors cannot
p rovid e an exhaustive understanding o f the phenom enon and even misses the
centra] point. Biblical science m ust un doubtedly use genuine religious cate
gories and treat the B ible as a religious docum ent.
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elty o fju d aism , for H egel, is that the form er, m erely naturalistic G o d has been
personified. This does not fit very w ell w ith Spinoza, so H egel sees him as
retreating from Judaism to som e oriental paganism .
17. See H egel’s Early Theological Writings, tr. T . M . K n o x (C h icago: C h i
cago U n iversity Press, 1948), pp. 68-69; see als ° Vorlesungen iiber die Philoso
phic der Religion, the section on “ D ie Religion der Erhaben h eit” ; also the sec
tion in the Phanomenologie w here Judaism is analyzed as alienation w ith ou t
expressly nam ing it (pp. 158-60). I have dealt w ith this p rob lem in m y “ H e-
gels B e g riff der R eligion und die Religion dcr E rhabenheit,” Theologie und Phi
losophic 51 (1976): 512-37; French version in Hegel et la Religion, ed. G . Planty-
B o n jo u r (Paris: PU F , 1982), pp. 151-7 5.
18. Ironically, it is Spinoza— mediated by M endelssohn and K ant— who
strengthened H egel’s one-sided v ie w o fju d a is m as pure “ lega lism ,” in w hich
the servitude o f man to G od (the essence o fju d a is m fo r Spinoza) was ex
pressed. In Spinoza, however, this “ fear and trem b lin g’’ posture is not d om i
nant or specific for Judaism.
19. Spinoza rejects the idea o f the incarnated “ son o f G o d ” as he does all
miracles. Even in his m ost sym pathetic w ords concerning Jesus, Spinoza pre
sents him as a man w h o had attained perfection, not as G o d — a n otion w hich
Spinoza clearly says he does not understand. M oreover, even the flattering
things he says about Jesus as a man are attributed not to Jesus him self, but to
the Scripture. Even on the basis o f the B ible itself, i f w e avoid the additional
burden o f church dogm ata, all w e can infer is the superiority o fje s u s over all
other prophets, but on ly as a man.
20. In the Phanomenologie [o f Spirit], H egel even seems to insist on the incar
nation as a real and particular historical event, A b solu te Spirit em bodied in the
particular person o fjesu s. T h is is a bizarre idea, incoherent in H eg el’s system ,
w hich— as Charles Taylo r suggests— m ust see incarnation as a universal phe
nom enon, carried equally by all men and w om en in their history, and w h o
view ed Jesus as an exem plary m an, not G o d . T h e statem ent in Phanom enoU
ogie, i f it is not made in the language o f m etaphoric Vorstellung, either stands
unexplained or is to be taken as a critique o f C a th o lic fetishism , ending in the
absurdity o f the Crusades. See Charles T aylor, Hegel (Cam bridge: C a m brid ge
U n iversity Press, 1975), pp. 489-94; see also Em il Fackenheim , The Religious
Dimension in Hegel’s Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967), esp. chap. 5. In
this section I adhere m ore closely to the letter o f H egel’s interpretations o f
C hristian d ogm a in the narrow sense (which, how ever, as w c see from the
literature, are also a m atter o f som e debate). In m y fo rego in g discussion I went
beyon d this narrow sense to expose the theological allegory em bodied in the
broader contours o f H egel’s system — especially his philosop h y o f history, in
w h ich I found a heterodox Protestant deep-structure w h ich provides a broader
philosophical interpretation o f incarnation. D . F. Strauss has bro u gh t out this
idea in his Das Leben Jesu (1839), esp. vol. 2, par. 149. I certainly concur w ith
K arl L o w ith , w h o says that Strauss’ reading is im plied in H egel h im self (From
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NOTES TO PAGES 4 7 - 4 8
Hegel to Nietzsche (N ew York: Anchor Books, 1967J, p. 330). Sec also CEing-
H anhoff, "La nécessité historique.”
21. it can be argued that Hegel also secularizes “ divine history,” but this is
true only in form , not in content. Hegel retains the substance o f this idea and
only translates it from the metaphor o f religion to the conceptual language o f
philosophy. His secularization is also sacralization, whereas Spinoza dcsacral-
izes history altogether and under whatever form it may take.
22. If this view is true, how can we explain that there is for Spinoza an
infinity o f attributes which the human mind cannot know? What sense is there
in a subjective projection o f the mind to which the mind itself has no access?
T he limitation o f our knowledge o f the attributes will make sense only if the
attributes are understood as real aspects o f God— as Spinoza indeed intends
them to be. It is true that Spinoza has problems deriving the material qualities
o f the attributes (“ extension,” “ thought” ) by sheer analysis o f the concept o f
substances. Therefore, he must appeal to the actual experiencing o f the mind
(as intellectus, not as imaginatio) to fill in the undeducible contents. To what
extent this is incongruent with the rest o f Spinoza’s system depends on how
strict an a priorist we construe him to be. But the problem concerns in any
case the method o f knowledge and not its outcome. There is no doubt that
what the intellect thus attributes to the substance is considered by Spinoza to
be tw o real and objective aspects o f the universe. O nly this enables us to have
objective knowledge at all, for such knowledge takes place only by laws and
causal explanations that necessarily presuppose either “ extension” or
“ thought” as their fundamental category. Denying natural entities any one o f
these characteristics as real will make objective knowledge impossible, just as
their underlying presence is a necessary condition for it. The attributes are
“ low er” epistem ologically than the substance in that they are necessary only
for know ing particular things in the universe, which must fall within some
qualified range o f phenomena and under specific natural laws, but they are not
necessary for knowing a priori the substance-God as such. In this sense, the
attributes are the aspects in which God opens up toward the realm o f particu
larity; they are the material substrate o f the natura naturata— but as such, pre
cisely, they are real and objective.
Similarly, there is no doubt that Spinoza considered the particular modes as
real entities, enjoying individuality and their own mode o f existence (even o f
necessary existence). All existence is necessary in Spinoza, but there are two
different kinds o f existence (and o f necessity). Existence can flow, necessarily,
either from the essence o f an entity or from something else, considered as its
cause. The first kind o f existence is eternal (in the sense o f supratemporal),
belonging to God or substance alone; the second kind is finite existence, be
longing to the particular modes and expressed in their duratio. This term docs
not signify time in Spinoza, but a certain mode o f being, the kind which must
eventually pass away— a mode o f existence which is proper to finite (and there
fore perishable) things. T hey are real; but they merely endure.
The endeavor (conatus) to so endure also gives finite things their singular
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NOTE TO PAGE 4 8
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NOTE S TO PAGES 4 9 - 3 6
and che infinice, even if this comes as a result o f criticism and is opposed co
Spinoza’s ow n intencion.
24. M acherey tries co minimize this resulc, but wich little conviction. See his
Hegel on Spinoza (note 14).
25. I mean his theory that God as infinite comprises no negation (Ethics, pt.
1, ax. 6, exp., pt. 1, prop. 8S)— while determinate items involve ic necessarily
(determinatio negatio est). The latter principle is highJy praised by Hegel as a
predialectical intuicion, which it is not. Spinoza did see, o f course, that nega-
cion is conscitucive o f any specification; but precisely for this reason he denied
negacion from God as cocality and arrived ac his basically undialectical syscem.
26. I stress the word ultimately, for this is true onJy in globaJ contours and in
the final analysis, not in the detailed texture o f Hegel’s work, which pays deep
dialectical tribute to the forces o f the irrational and the “ cunning o f reason.”
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being higher than the latter. Feuerbach reverses this order and, it seems, attrib
utes this theory to Spinoza himself.
57. The Essence of Christianity, tr. George Eliot (New York: Harper Torch-
books, 1957), pp. 12-13.
58. Ibid., p. 197.
59. Die Phänomenologie des Geistes, ed. J. Hoffmeister (Hamburg: Meiner,
1952), esp. pp. 158-62. Without mentioning Judaism by name, the analysis
here fits the account o fju d aism by the young Hegel. See Hegels theologische
Jugendschriften, cd. H. Nohl (Tübingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1907) and elsewhere;
and the m ore mature but fundamentally similar analysis ofjudaism as a reli
gion o f sublim ity in H egel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion. 1have dealt
w ith this topic in “ Hegels B eg riff der Religion und die Religion der Erhaben
heit,” Theologie und Philosophie 51 (1976): 512-37 (partly reprinted in Hegel et
la Religion, ed. G. Planty-Bonjour [Paris: PUF, 1982J, pp. 151-75).
60. See m y essay on H egel’s concept o f the religion o f sublimity, mentioned
in note 59.
61. Essence o f Christianity, pp. 532-35.
62. Ibid., p. 231.
63. Grundsätze der Philosophie der Zukunft, par. 53, in Werke 2: 315fr; Eng.
tr.: Principles o f the Philosophy of the Future (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966),
p. 69.
64. Even though this is an odd theory, I was not persuaded by Wartofsky’s
attempt to construe it as naive realism and a direct sequel to French eighteenth-
century materialism. W artofsky is led by this interpretation to dismiss as
m erely “ careless” or confused the attempt Feuerbach makes to say something
less ordinary and indeed original— i f certainly incoherent. The theory (of the
senses) Feuerbach suggests is a kind o f inverted Hegelianism, or rather a “ He
gelianism o f the senses” : actual reality (Wiklichkeit) is attained by sense percep
tion rather than reason, but in such a way that the subject side o f perception is
united w ith its object side (just as was the case with reason in Hegel). Or,
com paring this theory with Kant: the subject’s perception is necessary (though
not sufficient) for the object to be actual, but (1) this is a sensual rather than
intellectual perception; and (2) it gives us the thing itself and not a mere phe
nomenon. This peculiar epistemology, despite its flaws, distinguishes Feuer
bach’s intent from naive realism and the French materialists as well as from
idealism o f Kant and Hegel.
65. I say “ rather Hegelian,” because sensibility to Feuerbach is both subject
and object, both the sensing activity and its corporeal counterpart.
66. From this standpoint, I cannot agree with M arx’s statement in his fa
mous Second Thesis on Feuerbach, that Feuerbach lacked the principle o f sub
jectivity. He lacked it only in the practical sense used by M arx, that o f human
ity shaping its world (and itself) through work.
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capacity i f the m atter does not exist beforehand" (Holy Family, p. 65). In the
fo rm er (and similar) texts M a rx speaks o f “ in organ ic" nature as the given sub
strate o f w o rk , using the term inorganic in an o n to lo gical rather than biological
or chem ical sense. It is the raw s tu ff o f nature upon w h ich the hum an izing
activity exercises itself. (See also A . Sch m id t’s rephrasing o f M a rx ’s concept
o f nature in The Concept 0/Nature in Marx [London: N .L .B ., 1 9 7 1 1, pp. 63-
64.) T h e idea o f an "interchange” between nature and m an in this raw or “ in
organ ic” sense is constant in M arx, go in g from the Manuscripts to the Capital,
w here it is som etim es reform ulated as “ the m etabolism betw een m an and na
ture” — equivalent to “ hum an life itse lf” (Capital, tr. B en F o w kes [Penguin,
1976], 1: 133. A lso: “ Labour is first o f all a process betw een m an and nature;
in this process m an, through his o w n actions, regulates and controls the m e
tabolism between h im self and nature" (ibid., p. 283).
14. A s in his rem ark in German Ideology that raw nature exists n o w h ere “ e x
cept perhaps on a few Australian islands” ( o f ¡he Young Marx, p. 418).
Ironically, M arx does n ot notice that in calling these islands “ A ustralian ” he
already puts them in a hum an con text and underm ines his o w n statem ent.
F rom another angle, this v iew is reinforced by the claim that the senses them
selves are historically determ ined. L ivin g after the era o f the great discoveries
in astronom y, geography, and the like, and prior to o ur o w n space era, M arx,
his th in kin g im m ersed in social and historical m atters, seem s to have been in
sensitive to the cosm os as such, w hich he observed o n ly th rough the prism o f
culture and history, and o f natural science as a historical entity. W hile K an t had
experienced “ the starry heavens above m e” and “ the m oral law w ith in m e” as
tw o independent dom ains, o f equal infinity and sublim ity, M a rx fro m the o u t
set v ie w s the form er through the latter. T h e cosm os is seen th rough its role in
hum an affairs, as a m om ent o f history and praxis and the object studied by the
natural sciences, w h ich are hum an-historical products them selves.
15. T h e am biguity gave place, on the one hand, to the crude m aterialism o f
E n gels and the Soviet physicalism , and on the other hand to the analyses o f the
en soi, the pratico-inerie (Sartre), or the distinction betw een vorhanden and zu-
handen (H eidegger).
16. Even natural science, the m edium by w h ich such “ ra w ” nature can be
addressed is a historical phenom enon and thus the product o f the practical re
lation o f m an-in-nature, falling w ithin its context.
17. Manuscripts, “ Private Property and C o m m u n ism ,” in Early Huntings, 165.
18. Manuscripts, “ C ritiq u e o f H egel’s D ialectic,” in Early Writings, p. 207. In
Spinoza, o f course, this rule applies o n ly to particular things, whereas the to
tality— G o d — has its nature (or essence) w ithin itself and still is natural (it is
nature itself).
19. I f so, then the contem porary M arxist philosopher, Karel K o sik , n ot
w ith stan din g (see Dialektik des Konkreten [Frankfurt a. M . : Suhrkam p, 1971],
pp. 34-35), Spinoza serves as prim e m odel for M arxist philosop h y not in his
origin al u n ity o f natura naturans and natura naturata, but in m aking the latter the
n e w causa sui (see also n. 21).
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T h a t D ebo rin (like M arx and Spinoza him self) was o f Jew ish o rigin (his
form er nam e was lofe), is a m inor, th ough n ot an irrelevant, fact. We have
seen h o w assim ilated Jew s in search o f a universal hum an m essage have used
Spinoza as a vehicle for th ough t. B u t even am o n g the non-Jew ish So viet phi
losophers, their attitude to Spinoza was, indeed, id eological appropriation
rather than balanced scholarship. For this reason, neither their em brace nor
Stalin’s rebuke can serve our analytic purposes here. T h e y did indicate som e
im portan t particular points, but their vu d'ensemble is usually unacceptably
biased— not o n ly w ith respect to Spinoza but also w ith respect to M a rx him
self. T h eir M a rx is a rigid o n tological realist, w o rk ed o ut by E n gels and shrunk
by Plechanov to an official doctrine o f “ historical m aterialism ,, 111 the m ost
rigid id eological sense; and their Spinoza is an atheist and a “ m aterialist” in a
one-sided sense. T h e y fail to realize the spiritual significance o f S p in o za’s iden
tity o f th ough t and extension, and v ie w the d ivin ity o f the n ature-G o d as spu
rious and the personal salvation perspective in Spinoza as irrelevant. O n e may
think this a better philosop h y than Sp in oza’s— but it certainly is v ery different
from his.
25. O f course it is n ot the actual product w h ich the w o rk er in capitalist so
ciety m akes that should have enhanced his or her su bjectivity— not the bo lt he
o r she screw s or the electronic chip he o r she w elds. T h is p rod uct is already
affected or determ ined by the current “ alienated” system , its d ivision o f labor,
m od e o f production, and distribution. Th erefore, the “ p roduct that opposes
and dehum anizes its creator” has to be understood in M a rx in term s o f the
system it creates and underlies (i.e., capitalism); whereas the liberating m od e o f
p rod u ctio n m ust equally involve a new system o f prod uction and distribution
(for M a rx , com m unism ).
26. T h e so-called “ reflective ju d g m en t” o f purpose that K ant devised for the
field o f k n o w led ge (in the Critique o f Judgment) has no bearing 011 reality— not
even in its new , C opernican sense. It is not an object-shapin g category.
W hen stu d yin g certain types o f phenom ena, such as liv in g organism s or em
pirical history, this principle calls for using the form o f purpose as a pure m eth
o d ologica l device, necessary from the standpoint o f all rational investigators
but unable to determ ine the ontic features o f the object as a real entity in na
ture. T h u s by K a n t’s ow n construal the cognitive form o f purpose is in su ffi
cient and neither reaches nor affects the actual texture o f reality.
27. I have dealt w ith these questions in Kant and the Philosophy o f History
(Princeton: Princeton U n iversity Press, 1980), esp. chaps. 3 and 4.
28. I say “ m eta-eco n om ic,” for I mean the anthropological and on to lo gical
sign ifican ce o f material production w hich underlies M a rx ’s concept o f eco
n om ics.
29. M a rx h im se lf used the term practical materialism to distinguish his v iew s
fro m Feuerbach’s (see The German Ideology, in Writings o f the Young Marx, p.
416). E n gels and Lenin— and m ost o f the Soviet M arxists— blurred the issue
b y ascribing to M a rx an ontological realism (or m aterialism ) he never asserted.
M a n y other scholars, since Lukács and even before him , righ tly contested this
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N OTE S TO PAGES 9 6 - 9 9
view. Recent analyses can be found in Schmidt (The Concept of Nature in Marx)
and in KJinc (Spinoza in Soviet Philosophy). Kline calls M arx’s materialism
“ econ om ic,” but I prefer M arx’s own term (practical materialism) because it
hints at the broader context o f economics.
30. Th e constitution o f this substrate includes, o f course, the social relations
between humans, which both mediate and are mediated by the man-nature
relation. But this dimension, important in itself, need not be spelled out in the
present discussion, which centers on the origin o f teleology and the natural-
in-itsclf.
31. Alienation is central in M arx’s work throughout; in his mature years he
renounces the word, but not the issue.
32. A Frenchman w h o M arx frequently visited described him, with some
sim plification but also w ith some justice, as “ the powerful investigator who
had applied Spinoza’s method to social science.” More importantly, Marx
him self struggled with Spinoza’s method, writing to Lassale (May 31, 1858),
that the inner structure o f Spinoza’s system was quite different from its overt
and conscious exposition— and M arx later makes the same remark about his
ow n Capital, in an afterword to the second edition o f 1873. M. Rubel, who
quotes these tw o facts, concludes that “ the wish to make o f his ‘Economics’ a
w ork comparable to a construction tnoregeometrico was certainly not foreign to
the author o f the Capital” (“ M arx á la rencontre de Spinoza,” p. 25). But,
perhaps, what M arx sought was not the same method but another, as strictly
scientific but better suited to its subject matter.
33. Allen Wood claimed that M arx’s critical analysis o f capitalism was not
motivated by concepts o f justice but by a scientific approach. (The American
M arx debate is echoed in Marx, Justice and Histoty, a Philosophy and Public
A ffairs Reader [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980], where Wood’s
original essay is republished.) As I sec it, both motivations are equally present
in M arx, who offers in the Capital “ a science o f redemption” and inevitably
ends with providential teleology.
34. This, o f course, is both following H egel’s method and dem ystifying it,
as M arx claims he does. See Joseph J. O ’Malley, “ M arx, Marxism and
M ethod,” in Varieties of Marxism, ed. S. Avineri (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1977),
pp. 7-42. Whether Marx can consistently hold to both is another question.
But, interestingly, in both ways he opposed Spinoza: in opting for dialectics
instead o f deduction, and in criticizing H egel’s “ m ystified” dialectics because
it deifies the rational totality. The latter move had already been taken by Spi
noza, albeit without historical teleology. M arx’s dialectics opposes both Spi
noza and Hegel in that it cannot allow for any divine connotations; to be con
sistent, it must be construed as a dialectic o f pure finitude (or o f the natura
naturata taken as the whole totality). In this sense, Sartre’s attempts in the Cri-
tique of Dialectical Reason were, at least programmatically, a consistent offshoot
o f M arx’s dialectic o f finitude, in its opposition to both the deductive and the
dialectical explications o f the absolute offered by Spinoza and Hegel, respec
tively.
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35. Spinoza confirm s this alm ost literally in a letter (no. 78) to O ld en b u rg ,
and the conclusion fo llo w s from the lo gic o f his theory. T h ere are various
attem pts to resolve this problem ; but m y aim here is n ot to discuss it in itself,
but to trace a structural sim ilarity w ith M arx.
36. See his Critique de la Raison Dialectique, w here this becam e a m ajor prob
lem in the philosophy o f history. See also the epilogue to vol. 1 and m y articles:
“ Existentialism and H istorical D ialectic,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Re
search 39 (1979): 480-97; “ D ialectic W ithout M ed ia tio n ,” in Varieties o f Marx
ism, ed. S. A vin eri, pp. 175-94.
37. I concur here w ith Schm idt (review ing E. B lo c h ’s M arxian analyses in
Das Prinzip Hojjiiung)·, see his Concept o f Nature m Marx, pp. 127-28. Karel
K o sik (Dialektik des Konkreten, pp. 189-90) dism isses those w h o sec in the Cap
ital a “ m essianic” or “ H egelian izing” drive as “ b o u rgeo is” and “ refo rm ist,”
m eaning, probably, all four terms as derogatory, but o fferin g little m ore than
verbal confusion to support his objections.
38. T h is paradox m ay well affect M a rx ’s very m aterialism , i f the essence o f
the latter consists, as Balibar suggests, in a critique o f m ys tify in g im ages and
speculative ideologies, rather than in som e substantive p h ilo so p h y o f history
(Etienne Balibar, “ La vacillation de l’ideologie dans le M arxism e, Part 1 ,” in
Raison Présente 66 [1983]. 1 quote fro m a m im eograph o f the m anuscript, p.
8.) Balibar, a distinguished proponent (since Lire Marx, in w h ich he collab o
rated w ith Louis Althusser) o f the so-called “ structuralist” reading o f M arx,
adds in the present essay that elim inating speculation (the prim e m eaning o f
m aterialism , according to him ), signifies “ releasing h isto ry fro m the h old o f
te le o lo g y ” (soustraire l'histoire à l ’emprise de la téléologie) both “ from its religious
fo rm s” (Providence, the notion o f the m eaning o f h istory, origin s and final
ends), and from its philosophical forms: the periodization in accordance w ith
the m anifestation o f the principle o f the “ Progress o f H um anity. . . . In short,
any identification o f a subject o f h isto ry” (ibid., pp. 7-8). T h is M a rxist cri
tique, says Balibar, also denounces m aking man, “ a universal abstraction ,” into
the illu sory subject o f the historical process. H ow ever, upon m y reading,
M arx did not free h im self o f a teleological illusion. I f so, then his o w n m ate
rialistic critique should apply to the residual deep structure o f M a rx him self.
M arx had chased G od from being but, to paraphrase N ietzsch e’s language, he
did not o verco m e the shadows o f the dead G o d . O r, in term s o f this bo o k —
M a rx did not g o back from H egel to Spinoza’s objective naturalism , free o f
an y teleological patterns— as Balibar and the disciples o f A lthusser w o u ld per
haps have him do.
Specifically, I agree w ith Balibar that in M arx there is no universal “ subject
o f h isto ry,” as in H egel’s idealism; nor is there utopia in the Kantian sense o f
the hum an m oral w ill im posing itself upon an alien nature. M a rx, as I have
stressed all along, is Spinozistic in seeking all historical changes w ith in the
inner forces and pregnancy o f im m anent reality. B u t this leads him to expcct,
o r presuppose, that reality in and o f itself w ill lead to a state w here the deepest
aspirations o f hum an ity and its true need (alleviation o f alienation and resto
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N OT E S TO PAGES IO I-IO 7
ration o f hum anity) will be fulfilled. The problem, or the paradox, arises in
M a rx ’s broader sense o f Spinozism: his combining a vision o f universal liber
ation w ith the inner natural laws o f reality. The teleology lies in the presup
posed harm ony between the tw o realms, and is closer in type to that o f Leib
niz's harm ony or K an t’s postulate o f “ G od ” (i.e., to what Nietzsche criticized
as a “ moral w orld-order” ) than to Hegel. In a word, it is a natural harmony
w ithout a direct subject o f history. But in this sense it is a momentous depar
ture from Spinozism . (I concede that the old Marx became more sober and
som ew hat pessimistic; his predictions were less strong and high-flown, but
this is perhaps a personal more than a systematic fact.)
39. Its main danger is the total politicization o f values. There can be no nor
m ative authority other than the state by which to judge the deeds o f the state.
In his (still Hobbesian) concern to avoid a “ realm within a realm,” Spinoza did
not provide a higher ethical viewpoint from which to judge the polity. The
rational philosopher can advise, but can set no real norms.
40. Recall the story o f Spinoza advising his good landlady to go to church
as planned: he respected her in her very stage o f imaginatio.
41. A t the other extreme, the multitude cannot be completely brainwashed
according to Spinoza, and this provides a natural barrier to the possibility o f
totalitarianism. As Balibar put it (“ Spinoza: la crainte des masses” in Proceed-
tugs o f the First Italian International Congress on Spinoza, ed. £. Giancotti [Na
ples: Bibliopolis, 1985], pp. 293-320), “ Spinoza is the anti-Orwell." Whether
this is realism or the naivete o f the pre-Enlightenment is another question.
C hapter 5
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NOTES TO PAGES I I O -I I 8
his Ethics (5) is impersonal; it is the eternal idea o f m y s e lf in the “ infinite intel
lect” w hich exists w ith o u t the body. T h e m in d -bod y parallelism is not broken
but the problem is shifted to another duality, that o f etern ity and duration.
7. T h ey w ere collected and analyzed by W urzer (see note 1 above).
8. The Will to Power 688, tr. W alter Kaufm ann and R. J. H ollin gd alc (N ew
Y ork: V ik in g , 196$).
9. Beyond Good and Evil 13, in Basic Writings o f Nietzsche, tr. and ed. Walter
K aufm ann (N e w Y ork: Random H ouse, 1968).
10. Gay Science 349 (N e w Y ork: Random H ouse, 1974).
11. For exam ple, in Ethics, pt. 3, prop. 13, Spinoza shifts from the original
conatus to the concept o f “ the pow er o f a ctivity” o f the b o d y and/or the m ind.
12. In the preface to Ethics 4, Spinoza rejects the usual concept o f perfection
and im perfection, then gives them a new use: greater perfection means that the
pow er o f activity has increased (meaning self-originating activity o r freedom ).
T h is is independent o f duration; one cannot say that a thing is m ore perfect
because it has persisted longer in existence. H ence, the go al o f increasing the
pow er o f activity o f the individual is dissociated from self-preservation and
linked d irectly to freedom .
13. T h is contrast remains significant even if w e choose to read N ietzsch e ’s
w ords m etaphorically rather than literally. Such a reading is invited because
the crude physicalistic translation o f w ill to pow er runs into grave difficulties,
not the least o f w hich results from N ietzsch e’s ow n critique o f the concepts o f
“ m atter,” “ bo d y,” and “ quantifiable space” as "fiction s.”
14. Will to Power 636. Th is corresponds ro ugh ly to w h a t non-C artesian phi
losophers (such as Locke and his followers) called “ im penetrability," nam ely,
the ontic quality that constitutes materiality. (In Spinoza and D escartes, exten
sion alone is sufficient for this purpose, but Spinoza, in the physical side o f the
conatus, im plies a form o f im penetrability as well.)
15. K arl Jaspers, “ M an as H is O w n C reato r,” reprinted in Nietzsche, A C o l
lection o f Essays, ed. R. C . Solom on (N otre Dam e: U n ive rsity o f N o tre D am e
Press, 1980), p. 153. Recall also N ietzsch e’s com m ent on Goethe: “ he created
h im self.”
16. Gay Science 333.
17. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror o f Nature (Princeton: Princeton
U n iversity Press, 1980). T h e “ m irror” in this case is the o bjective order and
connection o f ideas, w hich Spinoza also calls (m etaphorically) “ the infinite in
tellect o f G o d ,” nam ely, all the true ideas w ith their true connections. T h is set
exists in itself in nature, as part o f the attribute o f th ough t that docs n ot depend
upon o u r actual subjective thinking. H ence nature, so to speak, has its ow n
“ m irro r” w ith in it; the “ m irro r” is its inner self-reflection.
18. Gay Science 108.
19. N eith er in the realist sense, nor in the Kantian sense o f a necessary uni
versal structure o f self-consciousness.
20. Gay Science 110. B y “ appearance,” N ietzsche seems to mean the scien
tific picture o f a phenom enon, not its bare sensual face. Scientific “ explana
(2 0 8 )
N O T E S T O P A G E S I I 8 —I 2 4
tions” arc phenomenal, but taken to express some “ true being” o f what they
stand for.
21. Gay Science n o .
22. Will to Power 512. B y “ logic” we should understand beside formal logic
also rationalist thinking in general which uses it as a basis.
23. Will to Power 511.
24. Twilight of the Idols, “ The Four Great Errors,” 3.
25. Gay Science 127.
26. Ibid. 112.
27. Will to Power 488.
28. That immanence is Nietzsche’s main theme and the meaning o f his claim
that “ G od is dead” was recognized by Heidegger. God, says Heidegger, stands
for the supersensible world in general, which since Plato (or more precisely,
his late Greek and Christian interpreters) has been “ considered the true and
genuinely real w orld” in contrast to the sensible and changeable world down
here, which therefore is unreal. “ The world down here is the vale o f tears in
contrast to the mountain o f everlasting bliss in the beyond.” Therefore, Hei
degger concludes, Nietzsche’s word that God is dead means the denial o f this
transcendent world, the “ supersensible world is without effective power.”
Transcendencc is negated; immanence is all there is. (M. Heidegger,
“ Nictzsches Wort: ‘Gott ist T o t,1 " in Holzwege (Frankfurt a. M.: Kloster-
mann, 1963], p. 200; English tr. “ The Word o f Nietzsche: ‘God is Dead,’ ” in
The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays (New York: Harper &
Row, 1977], p. 61). Heidegger, incidentally, comes close to Heine at this point
(see chap. 3).
29. Will to Power 1067.
30. Ibid. 1066, 796.
31. This suggests, as Schacht holds (see Nietzsche [London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1983], that Nietzsche does recognize causation, but objects to the
duality o f cause and effect as separate items. The world process is a continuum
and a totality, where both simultaneously and consecutively innumerable fea
tures take shape and flow into each other; it is flux in the ancient sense o f Her
aclitus, or rather Cratylus, where one cannot enter the same river even once,
yet the river flows on.
32. For a detailed study o f Nietzsche from this perspective, see Alexander
Nehamas, Nietzsche: Life as Literature (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1985).
33. Nietzsche would agree with Cratylus, who radicalized Heraclitus in say
ing that one cannot enter the same river even once, since flux undermines selt-
identity and there is no such thing as the same river. But even Cratylus did not
deny— as Nietzsche does— the eternal logical order o f the universe which the
flux constitutes and reproduces.
34. I share Schacht’s view that eternal recurrence appears primarily as a test
for the Dionysian life; only later did Nietzsche also try to see “ whether it
might as well be true” (Schacht, Nietzsche, p. 260). This attempt powerfully
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NOTES TO PAGES I 2 5- I 3 2
tem pted N ietzsche but is overridden w ith problem s, both w ith in the theory
proper and in its status as m etaphysical “ truth.” O n this last issue it ties in w ith
the general problem o f truth 1 sketched above. B u t even as a perspectival
h ypothesis it has its problem s o f coherence, both w ith in the rest o f science and
concerning its postulates. H o w can identical states recur i f there is nothing
identical in the w orld? T h is in itself should have underm ined all efforts by
N ietzsche to canonize his existential fable o f recurrence into a sem iscientific
theory. Fortunately, how ever, the existential and ethical function (and m ean
ing) o f this fable does not depend on its being also a full-fledged co sm ological
theory; hence I m ay ign ore this question w hen tryin g to use eternal recurrence
to explicate the experience o f im m anence in amor fati. B . M agn u s calls it a
“ co u n term yth ” (Nietzsche’s Existential Imperative [Indiana U .P ., 1978], chap. 6).
35. I am using M agn u s’s slight corrections.
36. B u t N ietzsch e is less naive than the yo u n g Heine. N ietzsch ean m an is no
stranger to suffering and the tem ptation o f pessim ism and there is a Sisyphean
elem ent in the fable o f eternal recurrence.
37. “ D u ratio n ” is Spinoza’s term for the tem poral process as a real m ode o f
being, before its continuity is broken by lim its and m easurem ents. T h e latter
is called tempus and is considered unreal, a mere (though necessary) “ auxiliary
o f the im agination .”
38. H egel, incidentally, unites them both in the sam e telos. T h e go al o f his
torical progress in H egel is the suprahistorical (or eternalistic) standpoint
w h ich is to em erge from it. A fter this occurs, there w ill be a kind o f eternal
recurrence o f the sam e in H egel’s w orld too— nam ely, the sam e rational and
tim eless principle m aintaining itself as actualized th rough out the em pirical va
rieties in tim e. T im e w ill again lose its qualitative nature; there w ill be o n ly
ch ron ological tim e, but not a strictly historical one.
39. Will to Power 1059, 1060.
40. O n e can, how ever, argue w hether this overco m in g o f C h ristian ity is
essential to the D ion ysian posture or o nly a necessary historical condition; but
N ietzsch e w rites for his contem poraries. Even i f the future Übermensch w ill
celebrate im m anence im m ediately, Zarathustra can o n ly do so as an o verco m
in g o f C hristianity.
41. Will to Power 1038, 1037, 1038.
42. Ibid. 1062.
43. Ibid. 1038.
44. Perhaps there is som e doubtful room for a kind o f left-N ietzschean ism
as tried in A m erica since the 1960s, to w hich N ietzsche h im self w o u ld alm ost
certainly have objected. For another objection, see A llan B lo o m , The Closing
o f the American Mind (N e w Y ork: Sim on and Schuster, 1987), pp. 225-26.
45. Thus Spoke Zarathustra, “ O n T h e N e w Id ol” (Portable Nietzsche, p. 160).
46. Twilight o f the Idols, “ W hat the Germ ans L ack ,” pp. 1, 4.
47. O n this and related issues, see also Z v i Rosen, “ Friedrich N ietzsches
politisch e W elt,” Jahrbuch des Instituts Jur Deutsche Geschichte 14 (1985): 221;
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N O T E S TO PAGES I 3 3“ I 45
Raym ond Polin, “ Nictzsche und der Staat,” in Hans Steffen (ed.), Nietzsche,
Wet’k und Wirkung (Gottingen, 1974).
48. Genealogy of Morals 3, in Basic Writings, p. 543.
49. Gay Science 349.
50. Beyond Good and Evil 25.
C hapter 6
1. See chapter 5.
2. From “ T he Resistance to Psycho-Analysis,” in S. Freud, Standard Edition
tr. from the German under the general editorship ofjam es Strachey in collab
oration with Anna Freud (London: Hogarth, 1953) 19: 222; see also “ An Au
tobiographical Study,” 1, Standard Edition 20: 9.
3. From "N e w Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis,” Lecture 32,
Standard Edition 22: 107; emphasis added.
4. O n Freud’s problematic relation to philosophy, see P.-L. Assoun, Freud,
La Philosophie et les Philosophes (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1976).
5. Letter to Lothar Bickel o f June 28, 1931; English translation in H. Z.
Winnik, “ A Long-Lost and Recently Recovered Letter o f Freud,” Israel Annals
of Psychiatry 13 (1975): 1-5. Original German (with facsimile) recently repro
duced in Spinoza in newer Sicht, ed. Leo Sonntag and Heinz Stoltc (Meisen-
heim: Anton Hain, 1977). PP· 169-71 ·
6. From a letter to S. Hessing, in S. Hessing (ed.), Spinoza-Festschrift (Hei
delberg: Karl Winter, 1932), p. 221; see also Hessing’s paper, “ Freud’s Relation
with Spinoza,” in his Speculum Spinozatwtn 1677-1977 (London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1977), pp. 224-39. See also J. Golomb, “ Freud’s Spinoza: A Re
construction,” Israel Annals of Psychiatry 16 (1978): 275-88.
7. His Unglaubensgenossen, a pun used by Heine with reference to Spinoza,
and quoted by Freud ("The Future o f an Illusion,” 9, Standard Edition 21: 50)
w ho therebyjoins them both.
8. “ Leonardo,” 1, Standard Edition 11: 73.
9. Ibid., 11: 75-76.
10. Ibid., 11: 74.
11. I mean “ science” as the metatheory o f psychoanalysis (or other natural
sciences). Freud saw his theory as a Naturwissenschaft, not as particular knowl
edge gained by the individual about himself or herself through psychoanalytic
hermeneutics.
12. See chapter 5.
13. Freud’s idiom is in part hermeneutical and in part semimechanistic; the
latter, roughly speaking, obtains in his description o f mental processes in gen
eral, and the former in the investigation o f individual case histories. But the
ambivalence o f the two affected psychoanalysis for a long time and marred its
scientific standing. For a recent discussion o f this ambivalence, see Carlo
Strenger, Between Hermeneutics and Science (New York: International U niver
sities Press, in press).
14. Sartre, Les Mots (Paris: Gallimard, 1964), pp. 210-11.
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NOTES TO PAGES I 4 6 -1 5 I
15. Stuart Ham pshire, in his stim ulating discussion lin king libido and cona
tus, has not, however, taken som e o f the m ajor differences into considération.
See his Spinoza (Penguin, 1962), pp. 141-44. O n som e other differences see
Véron ique M . Foti, “ T h o u gh t, A ffect, D rive and Pathogenesis in Spinoza and
Freud,” History o f European Ideas 3 (1982): 221-36.
16. “ N e w Introductory Lectures,” Lecture 32, Standard Edition 22: 94.
17. Ibid., pp. 102-3. See also “ Instincts and T h eir V icissitud es,” Standard
Edition 14: I24ff., w here the definition o f the cgo-instincts as “ self-preservative
instincts” and their distinction from and rivalry w ith the sexual instincts are
restated.
18. T h is does not contradict m y previous statem ent, that libido is presup
posed by all affective phenom ena; yet it is not their unique presupposition. Sex
ual instincts are active in opposing the ego-instincts from w h ich they are to be
distinguished; but as such they still are psych olo gically ubiquitous.
19. T h is has similarities w ith N ietzsch e’s account o f the origin s o f con
science, guilt, and interiorized m oral norms.
20. In his fam ous letter to Einstein, Freud calls this “ a theoretical clarifica
tion o f the universally fam iliar opposition between Love and H ate” (“ W h y
W ar,” Standard Edition 22: 209).
21. For a clear restatem ent o f this dualism (including its definition) in “ Ego
and Id,” see Standard Edition 19: 40-41.
22. Ethics, pt. 3, prop. 6 dem . and pt. 3, prop. 4, respectively. C f. the exact
opposite in Freud; “ E verythin g livin g dies for internal reasons . . . the aim o f
all life is death” (“ B eyon d the Pleasure Principle,” Standard Edition 18: 36).
23. Ethics, pt. 4, prop. 68.
24. See “ N e w Introductory Lectures,” Lecture 31, Standard Edition 22: 73 -
74; on Schopenhauer’s role as a link between Spinoza and Freud— and also
betw een N ietzsch e and Spinoza— m any interesting com m ents can be made
(e.g., that Schopenhauer, as another “ irrationalist,” attem pts to com bine Spi
noza and Kant, understanding the Ding an sich in term s o f an irrational, im
m anent m onism ).
25. H am pshire, Spinoza, p. 141.
26. Even on the fundam ental level, a pertinent difference w ill be noted later:
conatus, n ot libido, is ultim ately a striving for infinity, or salvation.
27. T h is account o f the third kind o f know led ge is not the standard one, but
includes m y o w n interpretation. I have elaborated it in vol. 1, chap. 6.
28. Preface to Ethics, pt. 3.
29. “ O n the H isto ry o f the Psycho-A nalytical M o v em en t,” Standard Edition
14: 16.
30. “ A u to bio grap h ical Study,” Standard Edition 20: 30.
31. Ibid.
32. “ O n the H isto ry o f the P sycho-A nalytical M o v em en t,” Standard Edition
14: 16; “ A u to bio grap h ical Study,” Standard Edition 20: 27-30. See also note 33.
33. “ In tro d u ctory Lectures on P sych o -A n a lysis,” Lecture 28, Standard Edi
tion 16: 450. “ H ypn o sis had screened from v ie w an interplay o f forces w hich
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N O T E S TO PAGES I 5 2—I 5 7
now came in sight and the understanding o f which gave a solid foundation to
m y theory” (“ Autobiographical Study,” Standard Edition 20: 29).
34. “ Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis,” Lecture 28, Standard Edi
tion 16: 454.
35. Spinoza seems to attribute some degree o f mental life to any individual
in nature, even w ithout attaching consciousness to it.
36. C f , e .g ., “ U nconscious,” or “ Ego and Id.”
37. “ N e w Introductory Lectures,” Lecture 31, Standard Edition 22: 80.
38. Eternity in Spinoza is the mode o f existence specific to things whose
existence follow s from their essence o f definition, as a timeless truth. Thus
defined, eternity has no relation to time or duration, not even to endless du
ration (Ethics, pt. 1, def. 8). As for duration, it is the other mode o f existence,
the one pertaining to finite things whose existence does not follow from their
cssence but from external causes. Tim e is distinguished from duration; it is the
external device by which duration is quantified and measured. Tim e is thereby,
according to Spinoza, only an “ auxiliary o f the imagination” ; in providing
relative and comparative values, it renders no specific knowledge o f a real en
tity. D uration (the object which time measures), however, is considered real
by Spinoza; it is the mode o f being specific to finite things, whose essence does
not entail existence.
39. Herein lies a crucial difference between Spinoza and the Aristotelian tra
dition (by which he is certainly inspired): the cognitive act by which my mind
is identified w ith a universal kind o f logos is an act o f sef/^-knowledge, not the
know ledge o f God or the universe as such. In Aristotle wc attain this stage by
know ledge o f an object, here by knowledge o f ourselves. In Aristotle God has
self-intellection (God knows himself eternally); in Spinoza only man does.
This is an important modern feature o f Spinoza's doctrine.
40. A n interesting return to the metaphysical tradition occurs in Sartre.
Sartre combines Freud and Spinoza. He, too, defines man as desire— the meta
physical desire to become a causa sui, which is impossible and therefore
doom ed to failure; and even the “ libidinal” and other concretely erotic mani
festations o f life, on which Sartre, following Freud, insists in great detail in
his existential psychoanalysis, is fundamentally a metaphysical desire to over
com e our contingent existence. While the substance o f Sartre’s analysis is
heavily influenced by Freud, the fundamental structure o f desire is Spinozistic,
only the salvation is in principle impossible and man is therefore by nature
doom ed to metaphysical frustration.
41. Though this topic falls outside our present concern, I may venture a
speculation based upon Spinoza's “ complementarity,, principle, which may be
o f some assistance to Freud. Spinoza saw the study o f the body and the study
o f the mind as two parallel approaches to describe a single entity, using differ
ent language and methods which cannot be mixed or reduced to each other
without committing a fallacy, but which have the same ontological reference.
Similarly— with certain adjustments— a Freudian might say that mental phe
nomena are to be investigated on three different levels, each subject to a differ
(2 1 3 )
NOTES TO PAGES I 5 8 —I 6 I
ent m ethodological paradigm : (1) biophysical analysis o fth c som atic substrate;
(2) analysis o f the corresponding “ psychic e n e rg y ” and its structural vicissi
tudes; (3) analysis o f m eaning-relations and the w o rk o f interpretation that
constitute and m ove che same mental system . Sp in o za’s b o d y-m in d parallel
ism is here adapted and expanded into a b o d y-m in d -m ca n in g parallelism based
on three com plem entary approaches to the sam e ontic system — nam ely, the
integral organism .
If this speculation holds for Freud (even in part), then w e have found another
link to Spinoza, this time on che level o f ep istcm ology. B u t the actual sim ilar
ity resides in the integral v iew o f man as a p sych osom atic system ; the m eth
odological rapprochement o n ly fo llo w s from here.
42. O n this see P. Ricoeur, Freud and Philosophy (N e w Haven: Y ale U n ive r
sity Press, 1970), p. 474.
43. Ibid. R icoeur even sees “ a rem arkable structural h o m o lo g y ’’ betw een the
patient-analyst situation and H egel’s dialectic o f m aster and slave. C f. also Jean
H ypp o lite, “ Ph énom énologie de H egel et la Psychan alyse,” in La Psychanalyse
3 ( 1957): I 7ff-
44. “ N e w Introductory Lectures,” Lecture 31, Standard Edition 22: 75, 76 -
77-
45. Paul R icoeur has tried to ascribe a “ subject” to Freud, but he does so,
adm ittedly, as part o f his ow n philosophy, w hich is im bued w ith H u sserl’s
p h en o m en ology and accepts the I think, I am as prim ary. R icoeur, how ever,
points o u t “ the absence in Freudianism o f any radical question ing about the
existential and thinking subject” (Freud and Philosophy, p. 420) and goes on to
illustrate the im possibility o f locating the subject in any o f the m ental struc
tures and typ ologies offered by the literal theory o f Freud (p. 421). R ico e u r’s
o w n “ arch aeology o f the subject” avow edly puts F reud’s ideas “ in a different
philosophical d im ension” (p. 422).
46. “ Spinoza et Freud: La problém atique du savoir dans ses rapports avec
rén te n d u ," in Spinoza, science et religion, ed. R. B ouveresse, A ctes du C o l
loque, C erisy-la-Salle, 1982 (Paris: V rin, 1988), pp. 77-8 7; see also “ Le fini,
l’autre et le savoir chez Spinoza et Freud,” Cahiers Spinoza 1 (1977): 2 6 7 -3 19·
47. “ E g o and Id,” Standard Edition 19: 26.
48. Freud seems to have in m ind a literal meaning o f “ surface” and “ d ep th ” :
the surface o f the body, the parts spatially closer to the environm ent, serve the
function o f the ego m ore specifically than the hidden and protected parts. A t
the sam e tim e, Freud insists that the ego-id-superego distinction is n ot rigid,
fo r their lim its m erge in various degrees (“ N e w Introductory Lectures,” end
o f Lecture 31, Standard Edition 22: 79).
49. “ Future o f an Illusion,” Standard Edition 21: 53-54, and note 1. A b o u t the
private in form ation I learned from P.-L. Assoun.
50. R icoeur, Freud and Philosophy, p. 262.
51. H erb ert M arcuse, in Eros and Civilization (N e w Y o rk: V in ta ge B o o k s,
J955)> P· 16 identifies ananke w ith the struggle for existence and econ o m ic
scarcity (Lebensnot); but this is a M arxian bias far from faithful to the concept.
(21 4 )
N O T E S T O P A G E S I 6 I —I 6 6
52. R icocur (Freud and Philosophy, p. 328) suggests that it may have elements
o f both.
53. B y the second kind o f knowledge, wc perceive things from the stand
point o f necessity and acquire in ethics the foundations for new and correct
understanding. B ut this kind o f knowledge is still general and abstract; there
fore, its em otional resonance cannot supply sufficient power to overcome the
affects and provoke an overall transformation o f the person. One o f the results
is the notorious gap, o f which moralists have always complained, between
understanding and m otivation: what we know to be better for us we arc unable
to realize in fact. Th is gap is typical o f the level o f mere ratio, or abstract ra
tional understanding in Spinoza.
54. “ B ey o n d the Pleasure Principle,” Standard Edition rS; 45.
55. “ Future o f an Illusion,” Standard Edition 21: 56. For Freud’s defense of
scientific objectivism and his attack on “ anarchist” epistemology, see "New
Introductory Lectures,” Lecture 35, Standard Edition 22: 175-76; also the end
o f “ Future o f an Illusion,” where scicnce is, by implication, deified as part of
the feeble G o d , logos. (“ O u r God Λ όγος is perhaps not a very almighty one’’
but, by it, “ it is im possible for scientific work to gain some knowledge o f the
reality o f the w orld by means o f which we can increase our power and in ac
cordance w ith w hich we can arrange our life.’’)
56. See P.-L. Assoun, Freud, la Philosophic et les Philosophes (Paris: Presses
U niversitaires de France, 1976), pp. 99-105.
57. “ N e w Introductory Lectures," Lecture 35, Standard Edition 22: 168; also
“ Future o f an Illusion,” Standard Edition 21: 43, 53-55.
58. “ Future o f an Illusion,” Standard Edition 21: 53—55-
59. W ould Freud suggest that a collective form o f transference is needed
here, spun about the figure o fa new spiritual leader, an antireligious prophet,
a m odern M oses, Jesus, Spinoza or Freud? Is that one o f the reasons why psy
choanalysis, ostensibly a science, was also called a movement (Bewegung), and
organized like one, w ith dissenters seen as heretics?
60. It is indeed in the “ Leonardo" that ananke makes its first appearance in
Freud. Sec “ Leonardo,” Standard Edition 11: 124-25.
61. See, e .g ., “ Autobiographical Study,” Standard Edition 20: 51-53.
62. O n Freud’s Jewish affiliation see Ernst Simon, “ Sigmund Freud the
Jew ,” Are We Still Jews (Hebrew) (Tel-Aviv: Sifriat Poalim, 1982), pp. 173-
213; see also “ Freud und M oses," in his Entscheidung zum Judentuni (Frankfurt
a. M . . Suhrkam p, 1980), pp. 196-211. See also the concluding chapter in Peter
G a y ’s biograph y o f Freud: Freud, A Life for Our Times (New York-London:
N o rto n , 1988).
63. For Freud’s statements mentioned in this paragraph, see Peter Gay’s
chapter cited in note 62; and also his A Godless Jew: Freud, Atheism, and the
Making o f Psychoanalysis (N ew Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).
64. O n Freud’s hesitation to publish Moses and Monotheism while the Nazis
reigned, see Standard Edition 23: 55-56. See also Marthe Robert, From Oedipus
to Moses (N e w Y ork: Anchor, 1976).
(215)
NOTES TO PACES I 6 8 —I 8 1
C h apter 7
(216)
N O T E TO PAGE I 8 3
absolute, the, 35 -3 8 , 4 1, 42, 44, 48, 60, autonomy, 23, 172, 186; of reason, B, 26
[91; h isto riciza tio n o f, 42 Avineri, S., 197-98, 201
“absolute k n o w le d g e ,” 28
absolutism , relig io u s, 178 Bachmann, C. F. von, 198
(219)
INDEX
D ra p e r, H a l, 195
causality, 119 -2 0 , 122, 1 7 0 - 7 1
D r e s c h , J o se p h , 196
causality, natural, 81, 181
d u a l la n g u a g e , ix , x , 8, 11
causation (m echanical), 122, 209
“ d u a litu d e ," 10 4 -8 , 132, 207
C h ristian du alism , 7
d u ra tio n (duratio), 48, n o , 15 5 -5 6 , 19 3-
C h ristian ity, 3, 4· U . 44. 4<5, 52 , 6 0 -6 1 ,
94, 208, 2 io , 2 13
66, 69, 75, 128, 167, 198. 210; “ N e w
d u ty , 8, 113
C h ristian ity," 53
church, in v isib le and v isib le , 15
e c o n o m ic th e o ry , 59; a n a ly sis, 98
C isn ero s, C a rd in a l, 19
ed u c a tio n , 4 1 - 4 2
clear and d istin ct ideas, 4—6, 2 7
e g o , 39. t 52- 53. 1 5 9 -6 0
“ clim ate o f id eas,” xi
e g o - in s t in c t s , 146
C o le , G . D ., 198
E in ste in , x i
co m m u n ism , 63, 6 7 -6 9 , 103, 204
e m a n c ip a tio n , 1 3 7 - 6 6 , 1 73—74. 184-85
conatus, 48, 110—14, 126, 13 1, 133» ! 45-
e m o t io n s , 1 16, 149
47. 15 5 -5 6 , 175. 19 3-9 4. 212; conatus
E n g e ls . 6 7 , 200, 202, 204
intelligendi, 156
E n lig h t e n m e n t, 1 1 , 26, 57, 6 4 -6 5 , 99,
“ C o n c e p t," the, 30. 39
136. 144, 1 5 2 - 5 3 . 162
consent, n o tio n o f, 129
e p is t e m o lo g y , 35
Contest o f the Faculties, 20, 190
e q u iv o c a t io n , ix , x , 108—9
contract, n o tio n o f, 129-30
e ro s, 1 4 0 -4 1 , 146, 156
C o p ern ica n rev o lu tio n , 7, 40, 7^ - 77. 9^.
e s c h a to lo g y , x i
181, 2 0 i, 217; m aterialist, 95; practical
e s o tc r ic is m , 108
and m aterial, 84
E s p a g n e , M ., 198
C o rn u , A ., 197
e tern a l r e c u rre n c e , 12 4
corpus christi, 46
e te rn ity , 15 5 , 208, 2 13 ; e t e m ity - w ith in -
corpus dei, 46
d u ra tio n , 156
C o u sin , V icto r, 53, 19 5-96
e th ic a l c o m m u n it y , 1 5 - 1 6
C ra tyfu s, 209
Ethics, 3 - 4 . 13. 2 7, 37. 45. 6 1, 6 9-70 , n o ,
C rescas, 169
n 6 , 149 , 15 5 , 16 4, 208, 2 1 2 -1 3
criticism . See biblical criticism
e th ic s , im m a n e n t, 114
Critique o f Judgment (K an t), 74
e x is te n c e in se a n d p er se, 3 3
critique o f relig io n , 3, 11, 27, 5 1, 52, 74,
78 -79. 82, 143 F a c k e n h e im , E ., 1 9 1 -9 2
culture, 89, 146, 162, 1 7 1 , 183; critiq u e fa sc ism , 1 3 1 - 3 2
o f, 153; the e n e m y o f, 132 fatum (fate), 10 7 , 16 1
F e u e rb a c h , 5 1 - 7 7 , 7 9 -8 0 , 82, 85, 88, 90,
D a rw in , 109, 136 1 1 2 , 19 8 - 2 0 1 , 2 1 7
D eb o rin , A . M ., 203-4 F ic h te , x , x ii, 30, 64
deism , 57, 59 fin itu d e , 88, 1 5 5 -5 6 , 1 7 2 - 7 6 , 178, 180,
D escartes, x, 4 -5 , 25, 86, 150, 170, 184, 183, 186, 205
187, 189 F isch er, K u n o , 105
determ inism , 10 0 -10 1, 143, 156, 1 7 1 - 7 2 , F ó ti, V . M ., 2 12
184; natura], 142; p sy ch o lo g ica l, 127 fre e d o m ( m e ta p h y s ic a l) , 9 9 -10 2
deus sive natura, 46, 79 , 128 fre e d o m o f th e w ill, 105
deviation, principle o f, 185 fre e w ill, 4
dialectical lo g ic, 28, 40, 44 -4 5 , 94, 170, F re u d , x i, x ii, 6, 4 7 , 102, 109, 135, 13 7 -
*94 66, 1 7 1 , 17 6 , 2 1 3 - 1 5
D io n ysian truth, 133-34 F r o m m , E m il, 188
D io n ysu s, D io n y s ia n , 10 4 -6 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 ,
12 1, 124, 126, 128, 1 3 1 , 132, 2 0 9 -10 , G a y , P ., 2 15
216 G e b h a r d t, C . , 9, 187
(220)
INDEX
135- 37, 163, 165, 195- 97, 210 interpretation, 17. 174, 178, 182. See also
(22 l)
INDEX
k n o w l e d g e , 28, 4 1 . 106, 10 9 , 1 1 6 , 1 4 0 - 7 3 - 1 0 3 , 10 9 , 12 6 , 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 7 1 , 17 3 ,
4 1 , 1 4 8 -4 9 , 15 5 , 179, 18 1 , 18 3, 193- 94. 1 7 6 , 1 8 3 -8 5 , 1 9 9 - 2 0 7 , 2 1 6 - 1 7
2 1 1 , 2 13 ; s e c o n d k in d o f, 148 , 1 6 1 , 2 1 5 ; M a r x is m , 5 4 , 203
th ir d k in d o f, 12 , 4 5 , 47i 1 0 1 , 1 4 1 . M 4» m a s k , ix , 10 8 -9
(222)
INDEX
(2 2 3 )
INDKX
(224)
INDEX
(225 )