CHAPTER TWO

Kinematics of particles
Introduction: Here we will consider dynamics, which deals with the accelerated motion of a
body. The subject of dynamics will be presented in two parts: kinematics, which treats only
the geometric aspects of the motion, and kinetics, which is the analysis of the forces causing
the motion. There are two type of kinematics of particles.
-Rectilinear Kinematics (motion)
-Curvilinear kinematics (Motion)
Rectilinear Kinematics: The kinematics of a particle that moves along straight line paths
known as rectilinear kinematics. Recall that a particle has a mass but negligible size and
shape. There are two type of rectilinear kinematics motion
-Rectilinear Kinematics: Continuous Motion
-Rectilinear Kinematics: Erratic Motion
Rectilinear Kinematics: Continuous Motion
Rectilinear Kinematics:-The kinematics of a particle is characterized by specifying, at any
given instant, the particle's position, velocity, and acceleration.
Position
The straight-line path of a particle will be defined using a single coordinate axis s .The origin
O on the path is a fixed point, and from this point the position coordinate s is used to specify
the location of the particle at any given instant.

Displacement
The displacement of the particle is defined as the change in its position. For example, if the
particle moves from one point to another, the displacement is

[2.1]
In this case ∆s is positive since the particle's final position is to the right of its initial position
Likewise, if the final position were to the left of its initial position, ∆s would be negative. The
displacement of a particle is also a vector quantity, and it should be distinguished from the
distance the particle travels. Specifically, the distance traveled is a positive scalar that
represents the total length of path over which the particle travels.
Velocity
If the particle moves through a displacement ∆s during the time interval ∆t, the average
velocity of the particle during this time interval is

[2.2]
If we take smaller and smaller values of ∆t, the magnitude of ∆s becomes smaller and
smaller. Consequently, the instantaneous velocity is a vector defined as v = lim (∆s/∆t), or
∆t--->0

[2.3]
Since ∆t or dt is always positive, the sign used to define the sense of the velocity is the same
as that of ∆s or ds. For example, if the particle is moving to the right, the velocity is positive;
whereas if it is moving to the left, the velocity is negative. (This is emphasized here by
the arrow written at the left of Eq. above.). The magnitude of the velocity is known as the
speed, and it is generally expressed in units of m/s or ft/s.
Occasionally, the term "average speed" is used. The average speed is always a positive scalar
and is defined as the total distance traveled by a particle, ST, divided by the elapsed time ∆t;
i.e.

[2.4]

For example, the particle in Fig. d travels along the path of length ST in time ∆t, so its
average speed is (vsp)avg = sT/∆t, but its average velocity is vavg = -∆s/∆t..
Acceleration. Provided the velocity of the particle is known at two points, the average
acceleration of the particle during the time interval ∆t is defined as

[2.5]
Here ∆V represents the difference in the velocity during the time interval ∆t, i.e., ∆v = v' - v,
Fig. e. The instantaneous acceleration at time t is a vector that is found by taking smaller and
smaller values of ∆t and corresponding smaller and smaller values of ∆v, so that a = lim
(∆v/∆t) , or ∆ t--->0

Substituting above into this result, we can also write

Both the average and instantaneous acceleration can be either positive or negative. In
particular, when the particle is slowing down, or its speed is decreasing, the particle is said to
be decelerating.
Finally, an important differential relation involving the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration along the path may be obtained by eliminating the time differential dt between
Eqs. , which gives

[2.6]
Although we have now produced three important kinematic equations, realize that the above
equation is not independent.
Constant Acceleration, a =ac. When the acceleration is constant, each of the three kinematic
equations ac = dv/dt, v = ds/dt, and ac ds = v dv can be integrated to obtain formulas that
relate ac, v, s, and t.
Velocity as a Function of Time. Integrate ac = dv/dt, assuming that initially v = vo when t =
0.

[2.7]

Position as a Function of Time

Integrate v = ds/dt = vo + act, assuming that initially S = So when t = 0.

[2.8]

Velocity as a Function of Position. Either solve for t in Eq. and substitute into Eq., or
integrate v dv = ac ds, assuming that initially v = vo at s = so.

[2.9]

The algebraic signs of So, vo, and ac, used in the above three equations, are determined from
the positive direction of the s axis as indicated by the arrow written at the left of each
equation. Remember that these equations are useful only when the acceleration is constant
and when t = 0, s = so, v = vo.
A typical example of constant accelerated motion occurs when a body falls freely toward the
earth. If air resistance is neglected and the distance of fall is short, then the downward
acceleration of the body when it is close to the earth is constant and approximately 9.81 m/s2
or 32.2 ft/S2.
Example 2.1 A The car in Fig. 1 below moves in a straight line such that for a short time its
velocity is defined by v = (3 + 2t) ft/s, where t is in seconds. Determine its position and
acceleration when t = 3 s. When t = 0, s = o.
Solution
Coordinate System: the position coordinate extends from the fixed origin 0 to the car,
positive to the right. Since v = f(t), the car's position can be determined from v = ds/dt, since
this equation relates v, s, and t. Noting that s = 0; when t = 0, we have

When t = 3 s,

Acceleration: since v =f(t), the acceleration is determined from a = dv/dt, since this equation
relates a, v, and t.

When t = 3 s,

NOTE: the formulas for constant acceleration cannot be used to solve this problem, because
the acceleration is a function of time.
Exercises
The position of a particle which moves along a straight line is defined by the relation
x  t 3  6t 2  15t  40
, where x is expressed in m and t in second.
Determine:
a) The time at which the velocity will be zero.
b) The position and distance traveled by the particle at that time.
c) The acceleration of the particle at that time.
 d) The distance traveled by the particle between 4s and 6s.
2. A motorcycle patrolman starts from rest at A two seconds after a car, speeding at the
constant rate of 120km/h, passes point A. if the patrolman accelerate at the rate of 6m/s 2 until
he reaches his maximum permissible speed of 150km/h, which he maintains, calculate the
distance s from point A to the point at which he overtakes the car.
Example 2.2
A particle moves along a horizontal path with a velocity of v = (3t2 - 6t) m/s, where t is the
time in seconds. If it is initially located at the origin 0, determine the distance traveled in 3.5s,
and the particle's average velocity and average speed during the time interval.
Solution
Coordinate System: here positive motion is to the right, measured from the origin o, Fig a.
Distance Traveled: Since v = f(t), the position as a function of time may be found by
integrating v = ds/dt with t = 0, s = 0

.
S|t=o = 0 S|t=2 s = -4.0 m S|t=3.5 s = 6.125 m
The path is shown in Fig a.. Hence, the distance traveled in 3.5s is
ST = 4.0 + 4.0 + 6.125 = 14.125 m = 14.1 m
Velocity. The displacement from t = 0 to t = 3.5 s is
∆s = S|t=3.5 s – s|t=o = 6.125 m - 0 = 6.125 m, and so the average velocity is

The average speed is defined in terms of the distance traveled ST' this positive scalar is
Vav = (4.0 + 4.0 + 6.125)m/3.5=4.04 m/s
Note: In this problem, the acceleration is a = dv/dt = (6t - 6) m/s2, which is not constant.
Exercise: The position of a particle which moves along a straight line is defined by the
relation x  t 3  6t 2  15t  40
, where x is expressed in m and t in second. Determine:
a) The time at which the velocity will be zero.
b) The position and distance traveled by the particle at that time.
c) The acceleration of the particle at that time.
d) The distance traveled by the particle between 4s and 6s.
Rectilinear Kinematics: Erratic Motion
When a particle has erratic or changing motion then its position, velocity, and acceleration
cannot be described by a single continuous mathematical function along the entire path.
Instead, a series of functions will be required to specify the motion at different intervals. For
this reason, it is convenient to represent the motion as a graph.
The s-t, v-t, and a-t Graphs
To construct the v-t graph given the s-t graph, Fig. a, the equation v = ds/dt should be used,
since it relates the variables s and t to v. This equation states that

[2.10]
 [2.11]
The v-s and a-s Graphs
If the a-s graph can be constructed, then points on the v-s graph can be determined by
using v dv = a d s. Integrating this equation between the limits v = vo at s = so and v =
v1 at s = s1, we have,

[2.12]
Example 2.3
A bicycle moves along a straight road such that its position is described by the graph
shown in Figure. Construct the v-t and a-t graphs for 0 <t <30 s.

Solution
v-t Graph. Since v = ds/dt, the v-t graph can be determined by differentiating the
equations defining the s-t graph, Fig’a. We have
Example 2.4: A motorcyclist starting from rest travels along a straight road and for
10 s has acceleration as shown. Draw the v-t graph that describes the motion and find
the distance traveled in 10 s.
 General Curvilinear Motion
Curvilinear motion occurs when a particle moves along a curved path. Since this path is often
described in three dimensions, vector analysis will be used to formulate the particle's
position, velocity, and acceleration.* In this section the general aspects of curvilinear motion
are discussed, and in subsequent sections we will consider three types of coordinate systems
often used to analyze this motion.
Position
Consider a particle located at a point on a space curve defined by the path function S (t), Fig.
The position of the particle, measured from a fixed point 0, will be designated by the position
vector r=r(t). Notice that both the magnitude and direction of this vector will
change as the particle moves along the curve.
Displacement
Suppose that during a small time interval ∆t the particle moves a distance ∆s along the curve
to a new position, defined by r' = r + ∆r, Fig. b. The displacement ∆r represents the change in
the particle's position and is determined by vector subtraction; i.e., ∆r = r' - r.
Velocity
During the time ∆t, the average velocity of the particle is ∆r

[2.13]

The instantaneous velocity is determined from this equation by letting ∆t -> 0, and
consequently the direction of ∆r approaches the tangent to the curve. Hence, v = lim (∆r/ ∆t)
or

Since dr will be tangent to the curve, the direction of v is also tangent to the curve, Fig.c. The
magnitude of v, which is called the speed, is obtained by realizing that the length of the
straight line segment ∆r in Fig. b approaches the arc length ∆s as ∆t -> 0, we have v = lim
(∆r/∆t) = lim (∆s/∆t), or

[2.14]
Thus, the speed can be obtained by differentiating the path function s with respect to time.
Acceleration
If the particle has a velocity v at time t and a velocity v' = v + ∆v at t + ∆t, Fig .d from above ,
then the average acceleration of the particle during the time interval ∆t is

[2.15]

Where ∆ v = v' - v. To study this time rate of change, the two velocity vectors in Fig. d are
plotted in Fig. e such that their tails are located at the fixed point 0' and their arrowheads
touch points on a curve. This curve is called a hodograph, and when constructed, it describes
the locus of points for the arrowhead of the velocity vector in the same manner as the path s
describes the locus of points for the arrowhead of the position vector, Fig. a. To obtain the
instantaneous acceleration, let ∆t -> 0 in the above equation. In the limit ∆v will approach the
tangent to the hodograph,
And so a = lim (∆v/∆t), or ∆t->0

Substituting Eq. 2-14 into this result, we can also write

[2.16]

By definition of the derivative, a acts tangent to the hodograph, Fig.f, and, in general it is not
tangent to the path of motion, Fig .g. To clarify this point, realize that ∆v and consequently a
must account for the change made in both the magnitude and direction of the velocity v as the
particle moves from one point to the next along the path,
Curvilinear Motion: Rectangular Components
Occasionally the motion of a particle can best be described along a path that can be expressed
in terms of its x, y, z coordinates.
Position. If the particle is at point(x, y, z) on the curved paths shown in Fig.a, then its
location is defined by the position vector
r = xi + yj + zk [2.17]
When the particle moves, the x, y, z components of r will be functions of time; i.e., x = x(t), y
= y(t), z = z(t), so that r = r(t). At any instant the magnitude of r is defined as

And the direction of r is specified by the unit vector ur = r/||r||.

Velocity
The first time derivative of r yields the velocity of the particle. Hence,

[2.18]
When taking this derivative, it is necessary to account for changes in both the magnitude and
direction of each of the vector's components. For example, the derivative of the i component
of r is.

The second term on the right side is zero, provided the x, y, z reference frame is fixed, and
therefore the direction (and the magnitude) of i does not change with time. Differentiation of
the j and k components may be carried out in a similar manner, which yields the final result,

[2.19]
Where

The "dot" notation x, y, z represents the first time derivatives of x = x (t), y = y (t), z = z (t),
respectively. The velocity has a magnitude that is found from

And a direction that is specified by the unit vector uv = v/||v||. As discussed in previous
section, this direction is always tangent to the path, as shown in Fig.
Acceleration
The acceleration of the particle is obtained by taking the first time derivative of Eq. 2-19 (or
the second time derivative of).We has
 [2.20]

Where

Here ax, ay, az represent, respectively, the first time derivatives of vx = v x(t), vy = vy(t), vz =
vz(t), or the second time derivatives of the functions x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t). The
acceleration has a magnitude

And a direction specified by the unit vector ua = a/||a||

Important Points
 Curvilinear motion can cause changes in both the magnitude and direction of the
position, velocity, and acceleration vectors
 The velocity vector is always directed tangent to the path.
 In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent to the path, but rather, it is tangent to
the hodograph.
 If the motion is described using rectangular coordinates, then the components along
each of the axes do not change direction, only their magnitude and sense (algebraic
sign) will change.
 By considering the component motions, the change in magnitude
and direction of the particle's position and velocity are automatically taken into
account.
Example 2.5. At any instant the horizontal position of the weather balloon in Fig.a is
defined by x = (8t) ft, where t is in seconds. If the equation of the path is y = x 2/10,
determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity and the acceleration when t = 2 s.
 Motion of a Projectile
The free-flight motion of a projectile is often studied in terms of its rectangular components.
To illustrate the kinematic analysis, consider a projectile launched at point (x o, yo), with an
initial velocity of vo, having components (vo) x and (vo) y, Fig. When air resistance is
neglected,
the only force acting on the projectile is its weight, which causes the projectile to have a
constant downward acceleration of approximately ac = g = 9.81m/s2 or g = 32.2 ft/s2.*
Horizontal Motion: Since ax = 0, application of the constant acceleration equations yields

The first and last equations indicate that the horizontal component of velocity always remains
constant during the motion.
Vertical Motion: Since the positive y axis is directed upward, then ay = -g. we get

Recall that the last equation can be formulated on the basis of eliminating the time t from the
first two equations, and therefore only two of the above three equations are independent of
one another.
This assumes that the earth's gravitational field does not vary with altitude. To summarize,
problems involving the motion of a projectile can have at most three unknowns since only
three independent equations can be written; that is, one equation in the horizontal direction
and two in the vertical direction. Once Vx and Vy are obtained, the resultant velocity vo
which is always tangent to the path, can be determined by the vector sum as shown in.
Example.2.6 The chipping machine is designed to eject wood chips at = 25 ft/s as shown
in Fig. If the tube is oriented at 30° from the horizontal, determine how high, h, the chips
strike the pile if at this instant they land on the pile 20 ft from the tube.
Solution

Exercise: The track for this racing event was designed so that riders jump off the slope at
30°, from a height of 1 m. During a race it was observed that the rider shown in Fig. below
remained in mid air for 1.5 s. Determine the speed at which he was travelling off the ramp,
the horizontal distance he travels before striking the ground, and the maximum height he
attains. Neglect the size of the bike and rider.
 Curvilinear Motion: Normal and Tangential Components
When the path along which a particle travels is known, then it is often convenient to describe
the motion using n and t coordinate axes which act normal and tangent to the path,
respectively, and at the instant considered have their origin located at the particle.

Planar Motion
Consider the particle shown in Fig. a, which moves in a plane along a fixed curve, such that
at a given instant it is at position s, measured from point O. We will now consider a
coordinate system that has its origin at a fixed point on the curve, and at the instant
considered this origin happens to coincide with the location of the particle. The t axis is
tangent to the curve at the point and is positive in the direction of increasing. We will
designate this positive direction with the unit vector ut .
A unique choice for the normal axis can be made by noting that geometrically the curve is
constructed from a series of differential arc segments ds, Fig.b. Each segment ds is formed
from the arc of an associated circle having a radius of curvature ( ) and center of curvature o.
The normal axis n is perpendicular to the t axis with its positive sense directed toward the
center of curvature O', Fig.a. This positive direction, which is always on the concave side of
the curve, will be designated by the unit vector un

Velocity
Since the particle moves, s is a function of time. As indicated in Sec above, the particle's
velocity v has a direction that is always tangent to the path, Fig. c, and a magnitude that is
determined by taking the time derivative of the path function s = s(t), i.e., v = ds/dt (Eq.).
Hence

Where

Acceleration
The acceleration of the particle is the time rate of change of the velocity. Thus,
Substituting into Eq., a can be written as the sum of its two components,

Three-Dimensional Motion
If the particle moves along a space curve, Fig., then at a given instant the t axis is uniquely
specified; however, an infinite number of straight lines can be constructed normal to the
tangent axis. As in the case of planar motion, we will choose the positive n axis directed
toward the path's center of curvature 0'. Since ut and Un are always perpendicular to one
another and lie in the osculating plane, for spatial motion a third unit vector, ub , defines the
binormal axis b which is perpendicular to ut and un.

ub = ut x un
RADIUS OF CURVATURE AND EVOLUTE OF THE FUNCTION y=f(x)
When the particles moved on curved path that its function expressed as y = f(x). The radius of
curvature r at any point on the path is determined from the equation. An increment of length
ds along this curve is-for very small curve length between two points, ∆r= r’-r =ds, this curve
become straight or neglected arc.

Also we have that at x the angle between the x axis and the curve is

Differentiating this last expression with respect to x produces-

If we now go back to the above figure, we see that at any point x along the curve y=f(x) there
lies a unique circle whose radius represents the radius of curvature . Mathematically we
have-

Example: When the skier reaches point A along the parabolic path in Fig. a, he has a speed
of 6 m/s which is increasing at 2 m/s2. Determine the direction of his velocity and the
direction and magnitude of his acceleration at this instant. Neglect the size of the skier in the
calculation.
Solution
Coordinate System
Although the path has been expressed in terms of its x and y coordinates, we can still
establish the origin of the n, t axes at the fixed point A on the path and determine the
components of v and a along these axes
Velocity. y = 1/20x2
dy/dx = 1/10x
at x = 10 m, dy/dx = 1
Ɵ= tan-1l = 450

VA = 6 m/s

Acceleration: The acceleration is determined from

The acceleration becomes

As shown in Fig. b,
Example: The boxes in Fig. a travel along the industrial conveyor. If a box as in Fig.b starts
from rest at A and increases its speed such that at = (0.2t)
m/s2, where t is in seconds, determine the magnitude of
its acceleration when it arrives at point B.
To determine the acceleration components at = v and an
= v2/r, it is first necessary to formulate v and v so that
they may be evaluated at B. Since VA = 0 when t = 0,
then

Exercise: If the roller coaster starts from rest at A and its speed increases ,
determine the magnitude of its acceleration when it reaches B where = 40 m.
 Curvilinear Motion: Cylindrical Components
Sometimes the motion of the particle is constrained on a path that is best described using
cylindrical coordinates. If motion is restricted to the plane, then polar coordinates are used.
Polar Coordinates
We can specify the location of the particle shown in Fig. a using a radial coordinate r, which
extends outward from the fixed origin 0 to the particle, and a transverse coordinate Θ, which
is the counterclockwise angle between a fixed reference line and
the r axis. The angle is generally measured in degrees or radians, where 1 rad = 180°/ . The
positive directions of the ur and uΘ coordinates are defined by the unit vectors r and Θ,
respectively. Here ur is in the direction of increasing r when e is held fixed, and uΘ is in a
direction of increasing Θ when r is held fixed. Note that these directions are perpendicular to
one another.
Position
At any instant the position of the particle, Fig.a, is defined by the position vector
r = rur
Velocity
The instantaneous velocity v is obtained by taking the time derivative of r. using a dot to
represent the time derivative, we have
ur = cos θi + sin θj
uθ = − sin θi + cos θj
dur/dt = (-θsin i +θcos θj)= θ(-sinθi +cos θj)= θuθ
duθ/dt = θ(-cosθi -sinθj)= -θ(cosθi + sinθj) = -θur

or
Substituting into the above equation, the velocity can be written in component form as
v = vrur + vθuθ
Where

And the direction of v is, of course, tangent to the path

Acceleration
Taking the time derivatives of Eqn, above equations we obtain the particle's instantaneous
acceleration,

To evaluate ừΘ, it is necessary only to find the change in the direction of uΘ since its
magnitude is always unity

Substituting this result and Eq. In to the above equation for a, we can write the acceleration
in component form as
Where

Since ar and aΘ are always perpendicular, the magnitude of acceleration is simply the positive
value of

The direction is determined from the vector addition of its two components. In general, a will
not be tangent to the path,
Example: Peg P is driven by the fork link OA along the curved path described by r = (2Ɵ) ft.
At the instant Ɵ= ӆ/4 rad, the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the link are ֗= 3
rad/s and ӫ= 1 rad/s2. Determine the magnitude of the peg's acceleration at this instant.

Example: Peg P is driven by the forked link OA along the path described by r = e Ɵ. When
=ӆ/4 rad, the link has an angular velocity and angular acceleration of = 2 rad/s and = 4
rad/s2. Determine the radial and transverse components of the peg's acceleration at this
instant.
Solution
Exercise: A jet plane flying at a constant speed v at an altitude is being tracked by
radar located at O directly below the line of flight. If the angle is decreasing at the rate of
0.020 rad/s when , determine the value of at this instant and the magnitude of the
velocity v of the plane.

Curve linear motion: Cylindrical Coordinates

If the particle moves along a space curve as shown in Fig., then its location may be specified
by the three cylindrical coordinates, r, Ɵ, z. The z coordinate is identical to that
used for rectangular coordinates. Since the unit vector defining its direction, uz ' is constant,
the time derivatives of this vector are zero, and therefore the position, velocity, and
acceleration of the particle can be written in terms of its cylindrical coordinates as follows:

Constrained Motion of Connected Particles

Constraint Motion or Absolute Dependent Motion Analysis of Two Particles
In some types of problems the motion of one particle will depend on the corresponding
motion of another particle. This dependency commonly occurs if the particles, here
represented by blocks, are interconnected by inextensible cords which are wrapped around
pulleys. For example, a movement of block A downward along the inclined plane in Fig. will
cause a corresponding movement of block B up the other incline.

We can show this mathematically by first specifying the location of the blocks using position
coordinates SA and SB. Note that each of the coordinate axes is:
(1) Measured from a fixed point (o) or fixed datum line,
(2) Measured along each inclined plane in the direction of motion of each block, and (3)
has a positive sense from C to A and D to B. If the total cord length is lT, the two
position coordinates are related by the equation

Notice: The results do not depend on the lengths or pulley radii; we should be able to
analyze the motion without considering them. The system is called one degree of freedom if
it has only one variable.
Example: As above, we have chosen position coordinates
which:
a) Have their origin at fixe points or datums,
b) Are measured in the direction of motion of each block,
and
c) Are positive to the right for SA and positive
downward for SB. During the motion, the length of
the red colored segments of the cord in Fig. below
remains constant. If l represents the total length of
cord minus these segments, then the position
 coordinates can be related by the equation

Since l and h are constant during the motion, the two time derivatives yield

Hence, when B moves downward (+SB), A moves to the left (-SA) with twice the motion

Example: Determine the speed of block B in Fig. if the end of the cord at A is pulled down
with a speed of 2 m/s.
Solution: position coordinates equation is 2 DOF
SC + SB = l1
(SA - SC) + (SB - SC) + SB = l2
Time Derivative: the time derivative of each equation gives
VC + VB = 0
VA – 2VC + 2VB = 0
Eliminating VC, we obtain
VA + 4VB=0 so that when VA = 2 m/s (downward),
VB = -0.5 m/s = 0.5 m/s ↑
Exercise: If the end of the cable at A is pulled down with a speed of 2 m/s Fif a below,
determine the speed at which block E rises.

fig a fig b
Determine the vertical rise h of the load W during 5 seconds if the hoisting drum wraps cable
around it at the constant rate of 320 mm/s as shown in fig b above.
 Relative-Motion of Two Particles Using Translating Axes
Throughout this chapter the absolute motion of a particle has been determined using a single
fixed reference frame. There are many cases, however, where the path of motion for a particle
is complicated, so that it may be easier to analyze the motion in parts by using two or more
frames
of reference. For example, the motion of a particle located at the tip of an airplane propeller,
while the plane is in flight, is more easily described if one observes first the motion of the
airplane from a fixed reference and then superimposes (vector ally) the circular motion of the
particle measured from a reference attached to the airplane. In this section translating frames
of reference will be considered for the analysis. Relative-motion analysis of particles using
rotating frames of reference will be treated in other, since such an analysis depends on prior
knowledge of the kinematics of line segments.
Position
Consider particles A and B, which move along the arbitrary paths shown in Fig. The absolute
position of each particle, r A and r B, is measured from the common origin 0 of the fixed x, y,
z reference frame. The axes of this frame are only permitted to translate relative to the fixed
frame.
The position of B measured relative to A is denoted by the relative-position vector rB/A'
Using vector addition, the three vectors shown in Fig. can be related by the equation

Velocity
An equation that relates the velocities of the particles is determined by taking the time
derivative of the above equation;

i.e., (12-34) Here VB = drB/dt and vA = drA/ dt refer to absolute velocities, since they are
observed from the fixed frame; whereas the relative velocity vB/A = drB/A/dt is observed from
the translating frame. It is important to note that since the x', y', z' axes translate, the
components of rB/A will not change direction and therefore the time derivative of these
components will only have to account for the change in their magnitudes. Equation therefore
states that the velocity of B is equal to the velocity of A plus (vector ally) the velocity of "B
with respect to A," as measured by the translating observer fixed in the x', y', z ' reference
frame. z' z Fixed Observer’s
Acceleration
The time derivative of Eq. yields a similar vector relation between the absolute and relative
accelerations of particles A and B.

Example: Two planes A and B are traveling with the constant velocities shown. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the velocity of plane B relative to plane A.

Example: At the instant shown in Fig. a, cars A and B are traveling with speeds of 18 m/s
and 12 m/s, respectively. Also at this instant, A has a decrease in speed of 2m/s 2, and B has
an increase in speed of 3 m/s2. Determine the velocity and acceleration of B with respect to
A.
Solution
Velocity
Using a Cartesian vector analysis, we have
VB = VA + VB/A
-12j = (-18 cos 600i - 18 sin 600j) + VB/A
VB/A = {9i + 3.588j} m/s
VB/A = = 9.69 m/s
Noting that VB/A has +i and +j components,
Fig.b, its direction is
 tan Ɵ =(VB/A)y/(VB/A)x = 3.588/9
Ɵ=21.7°
Acceleration
Car B has both tangential and normal components of acceleration. Why? The magnitude of
the normal component is
(aB)n = V2B/r= (12 m/s)2/100m=1.440 m/s2
Applying the equation for relative acceleration yields
aB = aA + aB/A
(-1.440i - 3j) = (2 cos 600i + 2 sin 600j) + aB/A
aB/A = {-2.440i - 4.732j} m/s2
aB/A = = 5.32 m/s2
tan ∅=(aB/A)y/(aB/A)x =4.732 /-2.440
∅ = 62.70

Exercise: Car B is traveling along the curved road with a speed of 15 m/s while decreasing
its speed at 2 m/s2. At this same instant car C is traveling along the straight road with a speed
of 30 m/s while decelerating at 3 m/s2. Determine the velocity and acceleration of car B
relative to car C.