THE INFLUENCE OF WOMEN'S INVOLVEMENT

ON THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDE IN THE COASTAL

AREAS OF INDONESIA
1
Khoirul Atmono , Ririn Nopiah
1
Development Economics, 2 Bengkulu University, Indonesia
1
[email protected] , 2 [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Development in Indonesia's coastal areas is challenging, with a variety of factors affecting the
welfare of its communities. Women's involvement and socio-economic factors are important in formulating
inclusive and sustainable development policies. This study aims to identify and analyze the influence of
women's involvement and socio-economic variables, including women's income contribution, women's average
years of schooling, women's labor force participation rate, women's involvement in parliament, gender
inequality index, population, and number of poor people, on the Human Development Index (HDI) in
Indonesia's coastal areas. The data analysis method used was a multiple linear regression approach.
Secondary data were obtained from various sources. Data collection was conducted through surveys and
documentation analysis.The results show that women's involvement has a significant influence on HDI in
coastal Indonesia. Women's income contribution, women's labor force participation rate, and women's average
years of schooling have a significant positive influence on HDI. On the other hand, gender inequality index and
poverty headcount have a significant negative impact. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the
factors that influence human development in Indonesia's coastal areas and provide a basis for formulating
more effective policies to improve the welfare of coastal communities.
Keywords: Human development index, female labor participation rate, gender inequality index .

INTRODUCION
Gender inequality in Indonesia continues to be a hot topic today. The government has attempted in
various ways to achieve gender equality, although there are still gaps between women and men in various fields
such as education, health, economics, politics and socio-culture (Lorenza, 2022). Gender is represented as a set
of roles in a theater that tells other people that someone is feminine or masculine (Lusiarista & Arif, 2022).
However, according to Giyono & Maemunah (2021), gender is interpreted as differences in the roles and
behavior of men and women which are socially constructed. Gender is not something that is innate, gender is a
social form that is formed by several factors such as region, culture, state ideology, politics and economics
(Utaminingsih, 2017).
 Figure 1.1 Human Development Index by gender in Indonesia's coastal areas in 2022
Source : Central Statistics Agency (processed), 2024

From the picture above you can see clear that Index Development Man (IPM) Woman in Indonesia's
coastal areas are lower than men in 2022, where if specified the DKI Jakarta province has the highest HDI
ranking for men , namely 84.36% and the lowest in the province of East Nusa Tenggara, namely 69.9%, while
for HDI women the highest ranking in the province DKI Jakarta is 80.08% and the lowest is in West Papua
province , namely 61.26% . This supports the fact that women as contributors to the human development index
still have minimal contributions .

Apart from the low contribution of women to the economy, participation Women in politics in Indonesia
are also still relatively low. Representation Woman in in parliament expected capable push well-being women's
groups and influence more equitable and responsive policies gender (Widyaningrum, 2020).

The study, according to research from Utami & Arif (2023), shows that the involvement of women in
parliament and the level of female labor force participation have a positive effect on the Gender Development
Index. The higher the involvement of women in parliament and the level of female labor force participation
increases, the gender development index will correspondingly increase.

According to Abdurrahmana & Tusianti (2021), the percentage of women as entrepreneurs, the
percentage of women in parliament, and the percentage of women as managers, professionals, administrators
and technicians have a positive and significant influence on women's HDI. If women are empowered in
economic and political aspects, then the quality of Indonesian women as reflected in the HDI will certainly
continue to improve.

Several previous studies reviewed the role of women's involvement in society towards quality
development human life. A number of country advance in process development show that participation Woman
is an important element in economic development. Broadly speaking, it is women in government and leadership
can provide aspirations for other women to improve their educational attainment (Beaman et al ., 2012).

Therefore, the level of women's education, which is reflected in the average length of schooling for
women, greatly influences the increase in HDI in the future, as the results of previous research show that the
average length of schooling for women has a significant positive effect in improving women's quality of life,
which will later contribute to an increase in HDI. (Widiastuty, 2019).

According to (Permatasari et al., 2021) , Community development and development, especially women.
As the main support in the wheel of development, women's empowerment is expected to create a generation
that is creative, innovative and highly competitive. The role characteristics of women are expected to be able to
contribute and win global competition. And it will increase the human development index and reduce gender
inequality in Indonesia.

As indicator For measure success development quality human life, the Human Development Index
(HDI) shows how far public can obtain results development form enhancement income, health, and education.
So researchers want to know more deeply whether these women's involvement variables have a significant
positive effect and support the growth of HDI along Indonesia's coastal areas .
LITERATURE REVIEW
Human Development Index
According to the United National for Development Program (UNDP), the Human Development Index is
a measuring tool for a country's achievements in three basic dimensions of development, including longevity
and healthy living, measured by life expectancy at birth, knowledge or education level, measured by a
combination of the expected number of years of schooling and the average number of years of schooling and
decent living as measured by per capita expenditure.
The Relationship between Women's Involvement and the Human Development Index
The Relationship between Women's Income Contribution to HDI
An analysis of the income of female workers has been carried out by Christopher et al. The results of
this research show that the level of education and number of hours worked have a positive effect on the
income of female workers from poor households (Christoper et al., 2019). Other research analyzing the
determinants of female workers' income was also carried out by Huruta et al using the multiple regression
analysis method. This research shows that partially, age and level of education have a positive and significant
influence on the income of female workers, while the number of family members, marital status and
employment do not have a significant influence (Huruta et al., 2019). Women's income does not always
guarantee empowerment, especially when wages are at low levels (Bhattacharjee & Goswami, 2020). Other
research shows that age and education level influence the added worker income of married women, while the
presence of children aged 0-14 years and husband's education do not have a significant influence (Febriani &
Saleh, 2016).

The Relationship between Average Years of Schooling and HDI

Average years of schooling is defined as the number of years a population has been in education. It is
assumed that under normal conditions the average length of schooling in a region will not decrease. The
population coverage calculated in calculating the average length of schooling is residents aged 25 years and
over (Soleha, 2023 ).

According to previous research, the relationship between average length of schooling and HDI. Formal
education can provide beliefs, goals, attitudes and aspirations that occur directly or indirectly related to
development problems, increase knowledge and abilities for development purposes. Formal education is
stated to be more capable of guaranteeing the quality of society with an education system such as a curriculum
that has been regulated by the government. The ability and opportunity for people to work to reduce the level
of open unemployment increases when people take longer to complete formal education. Women's Work
Participation (Havista, 2023 ).

The Relationship between Women's Work Participation and HDI

From previous research, the female labor force participation rate has a positive effect in line with the
human development index in Central Java in 2015-2019. Increased productivity caused by an increase in the
Human Development Index (HDI) will encourage economic growth. Increasing economic growth will
increase job opportunities and demand for labor so that many people, especially women, can be absorbed into
the labor market (Ningrum , 2021 ).

The Relationship between Women's Involvement in Parliament and HDI

 Next is the low participation of women in public (political) decision making. It is hoped that women's
representation in parliament will encourage the welfare of women's groups by representing, overseeing and
influencing policies that are more equitable and gender responsive (Rahmaniah, 2016)

In research by Abdurrahman & Tusianti ( 2021) , the percentage of women in parliament has a positive
and significant effect on women's HDI. If the percentage of women in parliament increases by 1 percent, the
HDI value for women will increase by 0.196. The results of this research provide an indication that women's
participation in politics has an influence on the quality of women. Women who sit as members of parliament
are expected to be able to fight for women's aspirations at the legislative level.

Gender Inequality Index Relationship Against HDI

The relationship between HDI and IKG then becomes an interesting thing to discuss because gender
equality is actually part of human development . As stated by UNDP (2015), equal opportunities for all groups
of people in various aspects of life is the main key to human development. Therefore , ideally high human
development is accompanied by equal development for all groups, both men and women.

Simply put, this connection is if an area that has low human development will also have low gender
equality conditions (high IKG). Conversely, if a region has a high HDI it tends to have a low IKG Ema
(Tusianti & Prihatiningsih, 2017) .

RESEARCH METHODS
This research uses panel data, namely cross-section data collected over a certain period of time so that it
has spatial and temporal dimensions. Panel data consists of balanced panels and unbalanced panels. Panel data
is said to be balanced if each cross-section unit has the same number of time-series observations and is said to
be unbalanced if each cross-section unit has an unequal number of time-series observations (Greene, 2012). The
Gross Section data consists of all districts/cities along Indonesia's coastal areas, namely 409 districts/cities, with
a 5 year data series from 2018 to 2022 with a total of 2,045 panel data.

This research uses secondary data taken from several publications published by the Central Bureau of
Statistics in the Indonesian region: Women's Educational Contributions, Average Years of Schooling for
Women, Women's Work Participation, Women's Involvement in Parliament, and the Gender Inequality Index
as independent variables and control variables namely the Number of Population and the Number of Poor
People, on the Human Development Index as the dependent variable.

The analytical method used is panel data regression analysis. Panel data regression is divided into 3
approaches, namely the Common Effects Model (CEM), Fixed Effects Model (FEM), and Random Effects
Model (REM) approaches, which are three stages in the panel data regression model. Chow test and Hausman
test are used to decide which model is best estimated. Then, a model goodness-of-fit test was carried out as well
as a validity test of the influence on the best estimated model.

function is written as follows:

𝐼𝑃 M 𝑖𝑡 = 0 + 𝛽 1SPW 𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽 2 𝑅 LS_Female 𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽 3 𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽 4 𝑃 arlem 𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽 5IKG 𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽 6JP 𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽
7JP_Miskin 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜀𝑖𝑡
 𝐼𝑃 M : Human Development Index
𝛽0 : Constant
𝛽 1, 𝛽 2, 𝛽 3, 𝛽 4, 𝛽 5, 𝛽 6, 𝛽 7, : Independent variable coefficients
SPW : Women's Income Contribution (percent )
𝑅 LS_Female : Average Years of Schooling for Women (percent )
𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃 : Female Labor Force participation rate (percent )
𝑃 parliament : Women's Involvement in Parliament (percent )
IKG : Gender Inequality Index ( index )
JP : Population ( number )
JP_Miskin : Number of Poor People ( number )
𝑖 : Cross section ( 409 districts /cities throughout the region
Coast )
𝑡 : Time series (201 8-2022)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 : Natural logarithm based on e : Residual

The model equation will then be modified according to the best model. So the next step is selecting the
most appropriate model for panel data. To check whether the best model is a pooled regression or a fixed effect
model, the Chow test is used. To check whether the best model is a random effect model or a fixed effect
model, the Hausman test is used. To check whether the best model is a pooled regression or random effect
model, the Breusch-Pagan Lagrange Multiplier test is used.

If the model chosen is a pooled regression or fixed effect model, it is necessary to check the
homoscedasticity assumption and check for cross-sectional correlation to find out whether OLS is the
appropriate estimation method. If the model chosen is a random effect model then GLS is the appropriate
estimation method.

Next, a model significance test was carried out by looking at the coefficient of determination value, F
test and t test. The coefficient of determination is used to measure the proportion of the total variation in the
dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variables in the regression model. The F test is
used to test the significance of the overall regression equation. The t test is used to test whether an independent
variable has a significant effect on the dependent variable partially.

After testing the significance of the model, classical linear regression assumptions were tested on the
model formed. These assumptions are normality, non-multicollinearity, non-autocorrelation and
homoscedasticity. If the selected model is a pooled regression or fixed effect model then checking the
homoscedasticity assumption has been carried out to select the best model.

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This research describes the research results based on statistical descriptions and logistic regression test results.
This description can be seen in table 2 below
Table 1. Statistical Description of Research Data
Variable Obs Mean Std. Dev Min Max
Women's Income
2041 33.88238 7.439384 12.48000 77.73000
Contribution
Female Labor Force
2041 65.69844 23.87433 4.700000 60.14000
Participation Rate
Gender Inequality Index 2041 0.557822 2.020489 0.050000 62,00000
 Women's Involvement in
2041 15.83235 10.63993 0.000000 26.50000
Parliament
Average Years of Schooling
2041 7.363145 2.311971 1.190000 7.38831
for Women
Total population
2041 669125.1 2511606.0 13804.0 49935858
Number of Poor People
2041 24009.63 30382.00 6.630000 196870.0
Human Development Index 2041 69.86664 5.143063 51.95000 87.69000
Source: Eviews data processed by the author, 2024
Based on table 1, it can be seen that the lowest contribution to women's income is 0.12% with the
highest contribution to women's income being 0.77% with an average of 0.33%. The Human Development
Index variable has a minimum value of 0.51% and a maximum value of 0.87% with an average of 0.69% and a
standard deviation of 0.051%. The variable female labor force participation rate has a minimum value of
0.047% and a maximum value of 60.14% with an average of 0.65% and a standard deviation of 2.38%. The
Gender Inequality Index variable has a minimum value of 0.05 % and a maximum value of 62.00% with an
average of 0.005% and a standard deviation of 0.02%. The variable Average Years of Schooling for Women
has a minimum value of 0.011% and a maximum value of 7.388% with an average of 7.36% and a standard
deviation of 2.31%. Meanwhile, the control variable Population has a minimum value of 6,630.00 thousand
people and a maximum value of 196,870.0 thousand people with an average of 669,125.1 thousand people and
a standard deviation of 30,382.0 thousand people.
100
80
60
40
20
0

IPM Laki-laki IPM Perempuan SPW

Figure 1.2 Relationship between HDI based on gender and women's income contribution in 2022
Source : Central Statistics Agency (processed), 2024
The picture above shows that HDI has a relationship with women's income contribution in coastal areas
of Indonesia. where when the HDI increases each year it is followed by a fluctuating increase in Women's
Income Contribution. Several coastal areas in Indonesia continue to experience an increase in HDI every year
and also an increase in women's income contribution. When HDI continues to increase, women's income
contribution will also increase.

Table 2. Classic Assumption Test

Multicollinearity Test
SPW IKG 𝑃 arlem 𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃 𝑅 JP JP_Poor
LS_Female
SPW 1,000000 -0.02974 -0.028756 0.021809 -0.014323 -0.078258 -0.005057
 IKG -0.02974 1,000000 -0.019075 -0.002306 -0.000371 0.002902 -0.018879

𝑃 arlem -0.028756 -0.019075 1,000000 0.010551 0.000600 -0.026795 -0.166976

𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃 0.021809 -0.002306 0.010551 1,000000 0.000314 -0.004262 -0.029534

𝑅 LS_Female -0.014232 -0.00371 0.000600 0.000314 1,000000 -0.005381 -0.007864

JP -0.078258 -0.002902 -0.026795 -0.004262 -0.005381 1,000000 -0.038555

JP_Poor -0.005075 -0.018879 -0.166976 -0.029534 0.007864 -0.038555 1,000000

Heteroscedasticity Test

Coefficient Prob
SPW 0.032322 2,0999
𝑅 LS_Female -2.130000 0.9641
𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃 -0.000214 0.6426
𝑃 arlem 0.096859 0.1209
IKG -0.187081 8.8017
JP 1.720000 0.5891
JP_Poor -1.480000 0.7110
Source: Eviews data processed by the author, 2024
, the correlation value between X1 (Women's Income Contribution) and
Based on table 2, the results of the heteroscedasticity test using the Glejser test, it can be seen that there
is no heteroscedasticity problem. This is because the probability value of each independent variable is greater
than 0.05, so there is no heteroscedasticity problem.

Table 3 . Correlation and Regression Results

Variable Human Development Index
Fixed Effects Random Effects Common Effects
Women's Income Contribution 0.042157** 0.039649** 0.032459**
(0.0105) (2.698788) (2.181964)
Female Labor Force Participation -2.04E-05 -2.43E-05 -0.000221***
Rate (0.8430) (-0.236916) (-0.479301)
Gender Inequality Index -0.010648** -0.012510** -0.184745**
(0.3794) (-1.034187) (-3.383852)
Average Years of Schooling for 1.95E-07 1.77E-07 -1.56E-07
Women (0.8536) (0.1698183) (-0.032647)
Women's Involvement in 1.82E-07 0.009522** 0.096564**
Parliament (0.0251) (2.681028) (9.181220)
Total population 1.82E-07 1.73E-07 1.72E-07
(0.0251) (2.793044) (3.899755)
Number of Poor People -5.18E-05 -2.52E-05 -1.48E-05
(0.0025) (-3.51049) (-4.023911)
 Description: Significance Level 1%(<0.001)***, 5%(<0.05)**,10%(0.1)*
Source: Eviews data processed by the author, 2024
From the regression results using fixed effect, random effect and common effect models through the Chow test
and Hausman test, the best regression results were obtained, namely using the fixed effect model.

Table 4. Fixed Effect Regression Results

Variables Coefficient Prob
SPW 0.042157 0.0105
𝑅 LS_Female 1.95E-05 0.8536
𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃 -2.04E-05 0.8430
𝑃 arlem 0.007286 0.0421
IKG -0.010648 0.3794
JP 1.82E-07 0.0251
JP_Poor -5.18E-05 0.0025

Value Test

R-squared 0.970712

Adjusted R-squared 0.963232

F-statistic 129.7789

Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
Source: Eviews data processed by the author, 2024
Based on the table above, the correlation value between X1 (Women's Income Contribution) and X2
(Gender Inequality Index) is -0.02 = -0.02, so there is no multicollinearity problem.

Based on the table, the F-statistical test is obtained with a calculated F value of 129.7789 > F table
2.014077 and a significant value of 0.0000 < 0.05, so H0 is rejected and Ha is accepted, meaning that the
independent variables in this study have an effect on the Human Development Index in Indonesia's coastal
areas. The adjusted R Square value is 0.963232 or 96%. The coefficient of determination value shows that the
independent variables in this study are able to explain the Human Development Index variable in Indonesia's
coastal areas.

From the regression results above, the following multiple linear regression equation is obtained:

𝐼𝑃 M 𝑖𝑡 = 69.45081 + 0.0042157 (SPW) +1.95( LS_Female) - 2.04 ( 𝑇𝑃𝐴𝐾𝑃 ) + 0.007286 ( 𝑃 arrangement)

-0.010648 (IKG) + 1.82 (JP) - 5.18 (J P_Poor 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝜀𝑖𝑡
Based on this equation, it can be explained that when the constant has a positive value of 69.45081, this
shows that if the independent variable changes, the HDI will have a constant effect of 69.45081. The regression
coefficient for Women's Income Contribution is positive at 0.0042157 This shows that when SPW increases,
HDI will also increase by 0.0042157 assuming the other independent variables are constant. The regression
coefficient for the Average Years of Schooling for Women is positive at 1.95 This shows that if the regression
for the Average Years of Schooling for Women increases, the HDI will also increase by 1.95.

The Prob (F-Statistics) value of 0.000000 shown in the table above indicates that the value is less than the
significance level (<0.05 ) . So, H1 is accepted and Ho is rejected. So the independent variables used in this
research simultaneously have a big impact on the Human Development Index.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the studies that have been carried out, it can be concluded that the results of the research show
that the factors Contribution to Women's Education, Women's Involvement in Parliament, Population and
Number of Poor People greatly influence the growth of the Human Development Index in Indonesia's coastal
areas. However, there are 3 variables that apparently do not influence HDI growth, namely the Average Years
of Schooling for Women, Women's Work Participation, and the Gender Inequality Index in Indonesia's coastal
areas.

Therefore, we admit that this research still has many shortcomings and in the future it is highly
recommended to examine more deeply why the 3 variables of Average Years of Schooling for Women,
Women's Work Participation, and the Gender Inequality Index cannot influence the growth of the Human
Development Index in the region. Indonesian coast.

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