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https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijsell/v6-i1/2.pdf
MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UNIVERSITY

OF BAGHDAD , COLLEGE OF EDUCATION FOR HUMANITIES – IBN RUSHD
Critical Discourse Analysis of Blackness in American and Arabic Poetry of
Langston Hughes and Mohammed Al- Vaitory Mini Thesis Submitted by
Supervised by : Prof. Bushra Ni’ma Rashid (Ph.D) Abstract The present study
is an investigation of the concept of blackness as exhibited in the poetry of
American poet Langston Hughes and Arab poet Mohammad Al-Vaitory as
representatives of two different cultures, the American and the Arab
consecutively. It assigns itself the task of answering questions pertinent to
the way the two different languages, Arabic and English, handle the
contentious issue of race, ethnic strife and power. How the discourse of the
hegemon is producing the image of the other? And how the language of
poetry in both languages is responding to the challenges that the racial strife
had given rise to. The endeavor to answer these questions has been mainly
based on the tools and elements that critical discourse analysis offers. Aiming
at making possible further studies in the topic by providing a Post-Colonial
Critical Discourse Analysis of the chosen case studies. Hypothesizing that
discourse plays a crucial role in determining who is considered part of the
ingroup and who is part of the outgroup since it helps to create the self-other
binary. Qualitative method is used to analyze the poetry of the two poets. The
research has proven that the use of language of race and power is a cross-
cultural phenomenon and different languages converge at a cross point when
dealing with subjects of a controversy. Further, it has demonstrated that
discourse gives voice to the disadvantaged in their quest for justice and
equality. Last but not least, the study suggests further studies on how religion
and gender are shaping the debate on racial discrimination and ethnic strife
from a critical discoursal vantage point. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1
The Problem Linguistic variation is the main manifestation of ethnic diversity
in modern societies. It takes many different forms and carried out in a variety
of methods. Yet, the main discussed issues remain the same: oppression,
inequality, marginalization and the perpetuation of injustice on the hands of
the ruling elite which happens to belong to a different, more powerful ethnic
group. Moreover, the skin color of the oppressor used to be different from
that of the oppressed, signifying a contrasting racial background, and,
historically speaking, black has been associated with the colonized Africa and
African people. Blackness became a symbol of the struggle against
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colonialism and oppression and it also symbolised the emancipation
movements around the world. In the United States of America , and due to
the long history of slavery in that country, the members of African American
population were considered second class citizens in many parts of that
country where policies of segregation were commonplace. The racial tension
has peaked by the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, who was shot in
Tennessee on April 4th, 1968. The questions of the research are how the two
different languages, Arabic and English, approach the contentious issue of
race, ethnic strife and power relation? How the discourse of the hegemon
creates the image of the other? And how does the language of poetry in both
languages respond to the challenges that the racial strife had given rise to?
1.2. Aims of the Study: The study aims at: 1. Providing a Post-Colonial
Critical Discourse Analysis for the selected case studies that would pave the
way for further research in the field. 2. Showing that the use of language of
race and power is a cross-cultural phenomenon. 3. Identifying the linguistic
variations between English and Arabic in dealing with issues of race and
power through poetry. 1.3 Hypotheses It is hypothesized that: 1. Issues of
power relation and ethnic struggle are transcultural and -trans-linguistic. They
are universal human experiences that transcend the cultural and linguistic
differences. People with similar life experience will find somehow similar ways
in order to express their feelings and thoughts through language regardless of
time and place. 2. Hegemonic discourse contributes to creating the binary of
the self and the other and by doing so, discourse plays a pivotal role in
deciding who is ingroup and who is outgroup. 3. Discourse can perpetuate
injustices of the colonial times by framing the other in certain depiction. 1.4
Limits of the Study The study will be limited to selected poems of the
American poet Langston Hughes and the Sudanese poet Mohammad Al
Vaitory. It will only deal with poems that relate to the themes of racial
discrimination, oppression and aspirations of black people. 1.5 Value The
study will shed light on the ways in which Arabic and English handle issues of
high social sensitivity such as race and marginalization. It will provide a
blueprint to those interested in comparative studies in linguistics and
literature. CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Critical Discourse
Analysis: An overview Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is defined by
Fairclough as “relationships of causality and determination that occur between
(a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider social and cultural
structures, relations and processes’’. It is used to investigate how such
practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by
relations of power and struggles over power. Furthermore, it is used to
explore how the opacity of these relationships between discourse and society
is itself a factor securing power and hegemony” ( Fairclough,1993:135).
Another definition introduces Critical discourse analysis (CDA) as “a critical
device and it calls itself merely as a method of analyzing the text, although it
is not attached to any special theory and philosophy. It has a political attitude
because it studies the questions of inequality and power, power institutes and
the relation of language and power” (Stubbe et al, 2003). Wodak's (2006)
description of CDA considers it “as an interdisciplinary knowledge and
heterogeneous mass that cannot be put in one category. It is located
somewhere between sociology and linguistics so it is called interdisciplinary
and some linguists believe that a correct understanding of the relations
between society and discourse is impossible unless logistics and sociology
approaches are totally combined”. Van Dijk (2001:352) points out that
“Critical discourse analysis is a type of discourse analytical research that
primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are
enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political
context.” As well, Van Dijk (1993b) holds that the word "discourse" in the title
of this method suggests that there are multiple methods of dissecting the
social strata and the inevitable inequalities that result from the power
dynamic of a given society. In this regard, discourse functions as a source
and conveyer of power. Power, which is produced by the hegemonic elites
results in hegemony and discourses reproduce this hegemony or challenge it;
in this condition an analyst examines the structures, strategies and other
properties of the text or discourse to see how they work and (re)produce this
dominance. 2.2 The Principles of CDA The summarization of Fairclough and
Wodak (1997: 271-280) to the main tenets of CDA is as the following: 1. CDA
addresses social problems 2. Power relations are discursive 3. Discourse
constitutes society and culture 4. Discourse does ideological work 5.
Discourse is historical 6. The link between text and society is mediated 7.
Discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory 8. Discourse is a form of
social action. Furthermore, the eight characteristics for CDA as McKenna
(2004:10-14) generally mentions are as the following: 2.2.1 Teleology In this
respect, CDA has a teleological vantagepoint on issues of power, authority,
equality, etc. McKenna (2004:12) thinks that “CDA claims, sometimes
implicitly, sometimes explicitly, that demystifying and emancipator effects are
provided by its 2.2.2 Theories of Critical Discourse Analysis There are several
well-known approaches to CDA, each approach has its own methodology
which is combined with a theoretical position of its own (Bell &Garret,1998.7).
2.2.2.1 Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach Wodak's Discourse-Historical
framework (HDA) emphasis is on the historical and socio- political features of
context in analyzing a discourse (Wodak & Meyer, 2015).The term “historical”
serves a pivotal role in this CDA framework, since it demonstrates the
importance of incorporation of “all available background information in the
analysis and interpretation of the many layers of a written or spoken text”
(Wodak, 2009: 209). Wodak presented three types of criticism, in her
approach, to express the justification of why certain interpretations are so
criticized, seemingly valid and abstract (Wodak, 2001). The three types of
criticism are as follow: 1. Criticism of text or discourse-immanent aims at
finding inconsistencies, self-conflicts, paradoxes, and dilemmas in the internal
structure of text or internal-discourse. 2. Socio-diagnostic criticism aims to
demystify persuasive character or potentially manipulative or discursive
practice. Here, analysts utilize contextual knowledge and social theory as well
as other rhetorical models from various disciplines to interpret discursive
events. 3.Future prospective criticism seeks to contribute to improving
communication (eg, by outlining guidelines for the use of sexist language by
reducing 'language barriers' in hospitals, schools and so on). 2.2.2.2 Teun
Van Dijk: A Socio-cognitive Approach Van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach
perceives discourse as a form of social practice. However, it does not focus on
discursive practice. Van Dijk (1993) rather concentrates on social cognition as
the mediating part between text and society. He claims that CDA needs to
account for the various forms of social cognitions that are shared by the social
collectivities (groups, organizations, institutions, etc.) (p.257). Van Dijk
further identifies two levels of (discourse) analysis: macro vs. micro.
Language use, discourse, verbal interaction and communication determine
the micro level of social order, while the macro level refers to power,
dominance and inequality between social groups (Van Dijk, 2003). Moreover,
Van Dijk' approach is based on understanding ideological structures and social
relations of power embedded in discourse. He defines "social power‟ in terms
of control and views ideologies as "the basis of the social representations of
groups" (Van Dijk, 1995:131). He, therefore, argued that "groups have
power if they are able to control the acts and minds of other groups" (Van
Dijk, 2003:354-5). Van Dijk claimed that CDA should not limit itself to the
study of the relationship between discourse and social structure, but that
language use and discourse always presuppose the intervening mental
models, goals and general social representations (knowledge, attitudes,
ideologies, norms, values) of the language users. In other words, the study of
discourse triangulates between society, cognition and discourse. 2.2.2.3
Fairclough's three- dimensional model Fairclough (1995) believed that critical
analysts should not only focus on the texts, the process of the text production
and the interpretation of the texts, but also look into the interrelationship
among texts, production processes, and their social context (p. 131).
According to Fairclough (1995), there are some underlying assumptions
behind certain selections of discourse. These assumptions are ideologically
driven and motivated (p.93). Therefore, CDA analysis may have ideological
effects since they can produce and reproduce unequal power relations
between social classes, gender groups and ethnic and cultural majorities and
minorities through the ways they represent things (Fairclough,1989; 28).
From this point of view, Fairclough (1995: 97) argues that "the exercise of
power, in society, is increasingly achieved through ideology." Subsequently,
Fairclough (1989: 24) combines the micro, meso and macro-level
interpretation of text through a three-dimensional framework for the analysis
of text and discourse, which is illustrated as: 1) Description For Fairclough
(1989),"description stage is concerned with the formal properties of text” (p.
26). At this micro-level, this level includes traditional forms of linguistic
analysis, such as vocabulary analysis, grammar of sentences and smaller
units, etc. Specifically, the analysis concerns with the various aspects of text,
for example; syntactic analysis, use of metaphor and rhetorical devices
(Blommaert & Bulcaen, 2000, 448). 2) Interpretation The discursive 7
practice or "meso-level of analysis" involves studying issues of production and
consumption, for instance, which institution produced a text, or receiving and
producing messages. The "discursive practice is constitutive in both
conventional and creative ways: it contributes to reproducing society (social
identity, social relationships, systems of knowledge and belief) as it is"
(Blommaert & Bulcaen, 2000, p. 448). Thus, the discursive practice attempts
to link the social practice with the textual practice by using three additional
sub-headings, namely, they are: force of utterances, text coherence and
intertextuality (1992: 75). 1. Force of utterances refers to “what the speaker
actually wants to achieve in functional, communicative terms” e.g. what sorts
of speech they represent; (Lawson, 2008). 2. Text Coherence : A coherent
text is one whose constituent parts are meaningfully related so that the text
as a whole makes sense. The coherence is sometimes driven by explicit
features of the text, such as references, connectives, and signaling devices.
(Fairclough, 1992:83). 3. Intertextuality: Fairclough (1992. 84) calls
intertextuality, " the possessions of being full of other texts," and
distinguishes between two types: 'manifest intertextuality' which signifies
intertextual elements such as presupposition, parody, irony and
'interdiscursivity' which concerned with the multilevel structure of texts
(Lawson, 2008). 3) Explanation The explanation level is concerned with the
relationship between interaction and social context with the social
determination of the process of production and interpretation, and their social
effects (Fairclough,1989: 26). Based on the analysis of textual features
(micro), the macro dimension of sociocultural practice analysis explores how
social context gives an impact on the spoken/ written form (Fairclough
1992,78). At this level, factors like ideology of power and gender inequalities
are taken into account so as to fully explain the interaction between social-
cultural context and the production and consumption of texts (Fairclough
1992 : 66) 2.2.2.4 Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) Halliday
(2004) stated that language use in SFL has three socio-semiotic variables,
namely: field, tenor, and mode. Field is realized through the ideational
(experiential function) – processes, participants and circumstances. Tenor
dealt with the role relationships between language users and is expressed
through interpersonal meanings – mood and modality choices and appraisals.
The last variable (Mode) accounts for textual features like cohesion,
coherence and thematic patterns (p.52). 2.2.3 Ideology People are the agents
of ideology because they are the ones who make their subjectivities. In line
with this, social practises, which are how people build their subjectivities, are
an example of an ideology that is built broadly. There have been many
definitions and explanations of this topic. For example, Bourdieu and Eagleton
say that ideology is a "spontaneous belief or opinion that would seem natural
and unquestionable" (1992:112) or "things people accept without knowing"
(p.114). Hodge and Kress, on the other hand, say that it is "a system of ideas
organised from a certain point of view." So, ideology is a category that
includes both science and metaphysics (1993: 6). These cases can show how
important the question of ideology is to CDA. In general, we can say that the
ideology that guides a discourse is largely responsible for what happens in
that discourse. 2.2.4 Power Power is one of the elementary realms of CDA .
Basically, the very reason that justifies the existence of CDA is its propensity
to investigate the power relationships between social groups that are divided
along the lines of ideology, race, gender, ethnicity, religion and social class.
Power and discourse have a strong, yet a contentious, relationship as the
question remains: which informs the other? Michel Foucault equates power
with knowledge that shape and direct the use of power. He defines it as a
type of a dynamic relationship rather than a static 9 show of force. Foucault
recognizes the shortcomings of the structuralist Marxists’ interpretation of
power who view power only through the lens of state vs working class
dichotomy and their understanding of state apparatus and ideological state
apparatus. While Foucault’s postulation of power can be tricky as it can be
mutually exercised by all factions of a society and, hence, it may prove
difficult to pinpoint where power lies, his concept of power and knowledge
combined with discourse and production and reproduction of power can be
very useful for this research as it brings discourse to the fora instead of the
backseat of the discussion on hegemony and social interaction. 2.2.5
Postcolonial Critical Discourse Analysis Martin and Rose (2003: 29) hold that
the best method to encapsulate the more extensive socio-economic setting of
a text and to acquire an "away from of social, social and financial changes at
the large-scale level" is to investigate both the content and the setting that
encompasses it from a text chronicled point of view. These authors contend
that feudalism, mercantilism, private enterprise and corporatism are verifiable
advancements in western financial frameworks which have "tended towards
an increasing dependence on theoretical digressive as opposed to animal
actual compulsion in the support of imbalances" (2003: 29). It is suggested
that imperialism and postcolonialism should figure among the verifiable
advancements that they identify, since these two practices have assumed a
pivotal job in molding contemporary force relations and structures far and
wide. In a similar vein, Brunt and Cere (2011) contend that Postcolonial
Theory is applicable to the translation of contemporary media societies to
show how these relate to the 'metropolitan focal point' of Britain. Building up
this contention, Cere (2011: 3–12) presents an intellectual guide of ideas
attracted from Postcolonial Theory to show how the British media are changed
by postcolonial points of view. These ideas incorporate the connection
between the 'colonizer' and the 'colonized', 'hybridity' and 'mimicry',
'orientalism' and 'subalternity'. The basic reasoning is that contemporary
Britain and its media creation ought not be concentrated from the present,
yet should consider how British political, social and media talks are molded by
the post-provincial. In the event that the British media are mixed with the
recorded, postcolonial associations among Britain and its previous provinces,
at that point a postcolonial hypothetical structure ought to be considered for
the examination of talk created in postcolonial times. With regards to the
overall reason contended by CDA, the talks and portrayals got from
postcolonial times are illustrative of, and can be clarified by, the postcolonial
settings in which they happened. 2.2.6 The Racism in The Arabic Poetry
References to one’s race and tribal roots abound the Arabic poetry. One of the
main purposes of poetry in the Arabic tradition is to show pride in one’s
ancestry and emphasize the purity of the lineage of the Arabic native. Arab
poets have always expressed their racial supremacy by highlighting their
“authentic” Arab roots and their tribal dominion. Amro Bin Kolthom, the pre-
Islamic poet had put that idea into one line of poetry: ‫ةربابجال هل رخت يبص انل ماطفال‬
‫غلب اذا انيدجاس‬If a boy from us reaches weaning The mighty men will kneel down
to Him. The arrogance and self-glorification are very evident. In such a
context and environment of discrimination black people had to navigate life
with no hope to be treated equally. Therefore, black skin of the African person
constituted a psychological complex. Many Africans did not dare to disclose it
and say who was able to transcend this complex. Blacks were subjected to it
and the accompanying crushing of the simplest human right and many of the
black poets and writers were afraid to confront the reality that their skin color
was of a secondary significance to the public , so they distanced themselves
from it, except for the great poet Mohammad Moftah Al-Vaitory, who is one of
the most outspoken poets in the Arab world. Chapter Three Methodology The
researcher will use the qualitative approach in his analysis of the data of the
case study. The researcher will study and analyze selected poems from
American and Arabic poetry that portray themes of blackness, oppression,
inequality and racial strife. However, the following steps will be followed in
verifying the hypotheses stated above: 1- A survey of the theories of CDA
and PCDA and how they relate to discourse of racial struggle and power
dynamic. 2- Presenting the main models of CDA analysis in order to arrive at
the proposed model of analysis of the collected data. 3- Conducting a PCDA
analysis of the American and Arabic poems. 4- Results will be obtained and
main conclusions, pedagogical recommendations and suggestions for further
studies will be put forward. Chapter Four Data Analysis and Discussion of the
Results 4.1 Blackness in Context 4.2 Blackness in the Arabic Poetry
References to one’s race and tribal roots abound the Arabic poetry. One of the
main purposes of poetry in the Arabic tradition is to show pride in one’s
ancestry and emphasize the purity of the lineage of the Arabic native. Arab
poets have always expressed their racial supremacy by highlighting their
“authentic” Arab roots and their tribal dominion. Amro Bin Kolthom, the pre-
Islamic poet had put that idea into one line of poetry: ‫اذا بلغ الفطام لنا صبي تخر له‬
‫ الجبابرة ساجدينا‬If a boy from us reaches weaning The mighty men will kneel down
to Him The arrogance and self-glorification are very evident. In such a
context and environment of discrimination black people had to navigate life
with no hope to be treated equally. Therefore, black skin of the African person
constituted a psychological complex. Many Africans did not dare to disclose it
and say who was able to transcend this complex. Blacks were subjected to it
and the accompanying crushing of the simplest human right and many of the
black poets and writers were afraid to confront the reality that their skin color
12 was of a secondary significance to the public , so they distanced
themselves from it, except for the great poet Mohammad Moftah Al-Vaitory,
who is one of the most outspoken poets in the Arab world. The titles of some
of those collections of poetry betrays his infatuation with Africa such as : The
Songs of Africa, poetry collection, published 1956. Lover from Africa poetry
collection, 1964. Remember Me Africa, poetry collection, 1965. Collapse of
Doapashalim, poetry collection, 1968. The Lyric of Roaming Dervish, poetry
collection 1969. The Hero, Revolution and Gallows, 1972 poetry collection.
The Saying of Witness, poetry collection, 1973. Smile Until the Horses Passes,
poetry collection, 1975. Blood Bird, poetry collection, 1983. This is how Al-
Vaitory used to see himself, the illegitimate son of this life, lost between
freedom and slavery, in this pre-Islamic society. Antara bin Shaddad’s life
represented a scene completely identical to his life, so he took Antara bin
Shaddad to prove his presence in this life, which represented the physical
strength and the power of the word. Al-Vaitory was the driving force of the
development of blacks' psyche and expressing it honestly, as he disgusted
himself as a young man because blacks were ugly, no matter how handsome
he was. Accordingly, the blacks were under this influence and submitted to it
and were ashamed of their color. He wrote Al-Vaitory in "Remember me,
Africa." Collection of poems: “Poor, yeah, and bloodthirsty, the color of winter,
the color of clouds He walks, faces mock him, and even worries He carries his
grudges madly and embraces his sorrows in Jom But he is never a dreamer
with the awakening of the stars in his heart” So, Al-Vaitory showed his pain
through his words, which were filled with a lot of blackness, dryness, and the
feeling of being exposed and emotionally cold (poverty, the colour of winter,
the colour of clouds), and he sees the rest of the white people and even gay
people making fun of him. Mocking him and the colour of his skin, and
despite the high vigour that Al-Vaitory shows in his saying, "But he is never a
dreamer, and in his heart, the awakening of the stars," he admits that he has
an inner grudge, planted by the African identity and his belonging to it,
because of the oppression, humiliation, and repetition it has suffered, and he
has learned that "sadness is rooted in himself," so Al-Vaitory is truly Africa's
advocate, and he is the first Arab poet to address the African cause. Al-
Vaitory merged the revolutionary religious component with the pure black
African heritage as he dealt with the African issues through his collections of
poetry: Songs of Africa, Remember Me, O Africa, a Lover from Africa, The
Sorrows of Africa, and he also sought to uncover the black truth so that this
would be embedded in his own culture. Similar on the ethnic level, and an
inexhaustible source of freedom on the struggle level: “I am a nigger ... And
my father is a nigger grandfather ... And my mom is a negro ... I'm black,
Black but I am free I have freedom African land . Long live my land ... Long
live Africa!” In this text, Al-Vitoury shows pride in his African identity and his
blackness, the spirit of revolution, seriousness and perseverance in order to
break the inner humiliation of the Al- Vitoury, as well as the oppression that
blacks suffer from, remained raging in the Al-Vitoury. In many of Al-Vitoury
poetic works, the glamor of that eternal struggle against slavery,
enslavement, colonialism, oppression and oppression was evident, discussing
the issue of neglect. Discarding all the colors of racism, waking up the
oppressed peoples from their slumber, calling them to take pride in their black
color, which should be no less than the color of colonial white, revealing a
deep interest in the African liberation movements along the African continent.
With the aim of preserving the black race and preventing its dissolution in the
white colonial entities, proving the right of black people to live, and smashing
the myth that says (white supremacy) is a factor in instilling the ugliness of
what 14 the white hands have committed in the collective memory, calling for
pride in the African and the Negro. Al-Vaitory says: “Africa in the darkness of
the ages An old woman covered with incense And a great fire pit And an owl's
beak And a horn of a beast And an ancient prayer mantra.” The overwhelming
anger took over him, so his words belong to that deep sadness that
generated within him the feeling of inferiority of his identity despite his
revolution on feeling, so when he invokes his identity he brings with it the
darkness that hangs over the souls of his people, and the depth and breadth
of this darkness which he expressed by saying: (An old woman wrapped in
incense), then continues with his desperate and volatile scenes, (the great
fire pit, the beak of an owl). 4.3 The Major Themes in The Black American
Writings No matter what name was given to African-Americans, it always
meant that they were treated differently because of the colour of their skin.
So, they have all had to deal with racism and oppression. This is why racism
and oppression are common themes in most of their writings, even the ones
they wrote when they were young. In the poem below, written by Claude
McKay, these two ideas are shown. Claude Mckay in his poem If We Must Die
writes: “If we must die, let it not be like hogs hunted and penned in an
inglorious spot, While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs, Making their
mock at our accursed lot. If we must die, O let us nobly die, So that our
precious blood may not be shed in vain; then even the monsters we defy
Shall be constrained to honor us though dead! O kinsmen we must meet the
common foe! Though far outnumbered let us show us brave, And for their
thousand blows deal one deathblow! What though before us lies the open
grave? Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall,
dying, but fighting back!” In 1919, the poem came out in Max Eastman's
Liberator. In this angry and aggressive sonnet, McKay talks about how white
mobs were beating and attacking black people at the time. He tells black
people to fight against injustice. Through this poem, McKay shows how
desperate and stubborn black people in America are. The poem also shows
that black people were treated unfairly and separated from white people even
after they died. Not only in poetry, but also in fiction, oppression and racism
are common themes. For example, in Walter White's book The Fire in the Flint
(1924), he tells the story of a black doctor whose career was held back by
racism. In Ralph Ellison's book The Invisible Man, the idea of being invisible is
used to show how black people were treated during segregation. In the
beginning of the book, the main character, an invisible man with no name,
runs into a white man. When two people run into each other in the dark, it
seems like a normal accident. However, the next day, the main character sees
his picture in the Daily News with the words, "An invisible man bites a white
man." In fact, what hurt the white man was that he thought black people
were by definition wild and violent (Abbot, 1993, pp. 46–47; Ward et al.,
2002, p. 17): "Something in this man's thick head had come out and beat
him to within an inch of his life" (Ellison, 2014: 4-5) In Chopin's Desiree's
Baby, Armand Aurigny, a rich, noble white man, marries a girl whose
background he doesn't know. This shows the theme of oppression. He loves
her deeply until they have their first black child. Because he thinks Desiree
was born black, the husband's love for her turns into neglect and dislike. They
go their separate ways. But later, the husband finds out that his mother was
black, and he feels bad about what he did. The story shows how deeply racist
white people can be towards black people. 4.4 Langston Hughes and the
Black Voice James Mercer Langston Hughes was born February 1, 1902, in
Joplin, Missouri. His parents divorced when he was a young child, and his
father moved to Mexico. He was raised by his grandmother until he was
thirteen, when he moved to Lincoln, Illinois, to live with his 16 mother and
her husband, before the family eventually settled in Cleveland, Ohio. It was in
Lincoln that Hughes began writing poetry. After graduating from high school,
he spent a year in Mexico followed by a year at Columbia University in New
York City. During this time, he worked as an assistant cook, launderer, and
busboy. He also travelled to Africa and Europe working as a seaman. In
November 1924, he moved to Washington, D. C. Hughes's first book of
poetry, The Weary Blues, (Knopf, 1926) was published by Alfred A. Knopf in
1926. He finished his college education at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania
three years later. In 1930 his first novel, Not Without Laughter, won the
Harmon gold medal for literature” Chapter Five Conclusions,
Recommendations and Suggestions 5.1 Conclusions 1. Discourse is a primary
manifestation of power relations. Power can be exercised through
disseminating discourse that seeks to perpetuate or challenge any
imperfections and imbalance in the power relations. 2. Power-Discourse
relationship is reciprocal. One shapes and informs the other through
processes of producing and reproducing images of the self and the opposite
other by which one can identify or reject. 3. Impact of discourse is
transcultural and universal. The ramifications of a hate speech, for instance,
can be felt throughout the globe. No culture is immune to subversive effects
of such a malice discourse. 4. Victims of such discourse can challenge it
through the same channel, discourse. 5. References to race and skin color
abound the canonical writings of African literature. 5.2 Recommendations and
suggestions for further Studies The terrain of postcolonial discourse analysis
is still a fertile one that can yield many interesting outcomes. In order to take
a closer look at how discourse is shaping and being shaped by the ongoing
impetus of the hegemonic discourse promoted by the global North— which
controls the production and dissemination of global media and, as a result,
shapes the world according to its own desires and agendas—the study
suggests additional studies in this area, along with research on religion and
gender in particular. In order for the government and other interested parties
to have better access to those people's voices and testimonies so that
injustice committed against them can be rectified, it is also suggested that
more research be done on issues of discourse of minorities and the
disadvantaged classes in our own local environment. References Al-Vaitory,
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Bhaskar, R. (2008). A Realist Theory of Science. London: Verso. Bourdieu, P.
and Wacquant, L. (1992). An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Cambridge:
Polity Press. Chouliaraki, L. and Fairclough, N. (1999). Discourse in Late
Modernity. Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
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Schiffrin and M. Bamberg (eds.) Discourse and identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 263-282. Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G. and
Trew, T. (1979). Language and Control. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Gibson, Donald B. Modern Black Poets. (1973). Princeton-Hall, New Jersey.
USA Lin, A. (2014). ‘Critical discourse analysis in applied linguistics’, Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics, 34: 213–232. Sayer, A. (2011). Why Things
Matter to People: Social Science, Values and Ethical life. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Sealey, A. and Carter, B. (2004). Applied
Linguistics as Social Science. London: Continuum. Wodak, R. (2014). ‘The
Discursive Construction of Strangers: Analyzing Discourses about Migrants
and Migration from a Discourse-Historical Perspective’, Migration and
Citizenship (Newsletter of the American Political Science Association
Organized Section on Migration and Citizenship) 3(1): 6-10. Wodak, R., de
Cillia, R., Reisigl, M. and Liebhart, K. (2009). The Discursive Construction of
National Identity. 2nd edn. [1st ed. 1999]. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press. Wodak, R. and Meyer, M. (eds.) (2009). Methods for Critical Discourse
Analysis. 2nd edn. London: Sage. Fairclough, N. (1993) ‘Critical Discourse
Analysis and the Marketization of Public Discourse: The Universities’,
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‘Critical discourse analysis’, van Dijk (ed) Discourse Studies :A
multidisciplinary Introduction, 2, 258-84. Fairclough,N., Cortese, G., &
Ardizzone,P. (eds) (2006). Discourse and Contemporary Social Change. Bern:
Peter Lang. Hodge, R., & Kress, G. (1993) Language as Ideology, 2nd edn.
London: Routledge McKenna B. (2004) ‘Critical Discourse Studies: Where To
From Here?’, Critical Discourse Studies, 1 (1), 9–39. Rahimi, A., & Sahragard,
R. (2007). Critical Discourse Analysis. Tehran: Jungle Publications. Smedley,
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Anthropologist, 100, 690–702. Stubbe, M., Lane, C., Hilder, J., Evine, E., Vine,
B., Marra, M., Holmes, J., & Weatherall, A. (2003). ‘Multiple Discourse
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‘Discourse and Manipulation’, Discourse & Society, 17 (3), 359–383. Van Dijk,
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