Mzo 24

5ulpsTo Spbstmoi udoascmodapab
Master of Science
in
Zoology
AQUACULTURE
(MZO-24)
School of Science
TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
577,Anna Salai, Saidapet Chennai -600 015
Tamil Nadu
Master of Science
in
ZOOLOGY
Course IX (Second Year)
Aquaculture
(MZO-24)
School of Science
TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
577, Anna Salai, Saidapet,
Chennai – 600 015
Tamil Nadu, India.
Course Team
Chairperson : Dr. K. PARTHASARATHY
Vice-Chancellor
Tamil Nadu Open University
Coordination : Dr. M. Murugan

Professor and Head
School of Science
Course Design,
Writing &Editing : Dr. T. Ravimanickam
Associate Professor in Zoology
School of Science
© Tamil Nadu Open University

All rights reserved. No part of this book must be used in any form
without obtaining a prior written permission from the University.
First Edition: July 2019

Course - Introduction
AQUACULTURE (MZO-24)
BLOCK – I
Importance of aquaculture – Over exploitation of wild fish stocks –

advantages of aquaculture – Aquaculture production trends in the
world and in India. Scope for aquaculture in India. Basic Fish farm
design: selection of site, grow - out and nursery ponds.
BLOCK – II
Cultivable species of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae. Culture

systems: Extensive, intensive and semi-intensive culture, composite fish
culture. Integrated farming. Advantages of polyculture, monoculture
and monosex.
BLOCK – III
Culture of carp species –oyster culture: pearl oyster. Prawn culture: the
problems in penaeid prawn(shrimp) culture due to socio-economic and
environmental problems. Freshwater prawn culture. Potential for
ornamental fish culture. Common species for ornamental fish culture.
BLOCK – IV
Fish disease management : Common bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoan

and crustacean diseases, their symptoms and treatment. Water quality
maintenance. Importance and composition of feeds; types of feed: wet
and dry feeds.
BLOCK – V
Marketing the products: Marketing the fish to local markets and for
export. Harvesting and transport. Quality control and norms of MPEDA
for export of fishes. CANNING AND FREEZING.
Contents
Chapter Title of the Course Page No.
Block - I 1
Learning Objective 2
1.1 Importance of Aquaculture 2
1.2 History of Aquaculture 7
1.3 Advantages of Aquaculture 14
1.4 Aquaculture Product Trends 17
1.5 Basic Fish Farm Design 19
1.6 Pond Construction 21
Summary 32
Learning Activity 32
Block - II 34
2.1 Cultivable Species of Fishes 35
2.2 Cultivable Molluscs 48
2.3 Cultivable Algae 50
2.4 Cultivable Algae 67
Summary 72
Block-III 73
3.1 Culture of Carp Species 74
3.2 Oyster Culture 85
3.3 Shrimp Culture 94
3.4 Socio-Economic and Environmental 111
Problem of Shrimp Culture
3.5 Ornamental Fish 121
Summary 123
Block -IV 124
4.1 Fish Diseases and Management 125
4.2 Fungal Diseases of Fishes 130
4.3 Parasitic Diseases of Fishes 131
4.4 Protozoan Diseases in Fish 134
4.5 Viral Disease in Fishes 140
Summary 155
Block -V 156
5.1 Marketing of Aquatic Products 157
5.2 Marketing of Fish 160
5.3 Harvesting and Transport 163
5.4 Fish Transport 178
5.5 Quality Control and Norms of MPEDA 183
for Export Fishes
Summary 194
BLOCK -I
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
1.1. IMPORTANCE OF AQUACULTURE
1.1.1. Introduction
1.2. HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE
1.2.1. Scope of Aquaculture
1.2.2. Over Exploitation of wild fish stocks
1.3. ADVANTAGES OF AQUACULTURE
1.3.1. Alternative food source
1.3.2. Alternative fuel source
1.3.3. Increase Jobs in the market
1.3.4. Reduce Sea Food Trade Deficit
1.3.5. Environmental advantages
1.4. AQUACULTURE PRODUCT TRENDS
1.4.1. In the word
1.4.2. In the India
1.5. BASIC FISH FARM DESIGN
1.5.1. Site selection
1.5.2. Ecological factors
1.5.3. Biological factors
1.5.4. Social and economic factors
1.6. POND CONSTRUCTION
1.6.1. Steps in pond construction
1.6.2. Site preparation
1.6.3. Construction of dyke
Summary
Learning Activity
1
OVERVIEW:
Aquaculture otherwise called aqua-farming, is the farming of
fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic
organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater
populations under controlled conditions and can be contrasted with
commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. In this block,
we are going to discuss about the importance of aquaculture, over exploitation
of wild fish stocks, advantages of aquaculture, aquaculture production trends
in the word and in India, scope for aquaculture in India, basic fish farm design,
selection of fish site, grow – out and nursery ponds.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completion of this block, you will be able to

 Explain the general characteristics of aquafarming.
 Discuss the importance of aquaculture.
 Describe the basic fish farm design.
 Understand the advantages and disadvantages of aquaculture.
1.1. IMPORTANCE OF AQUACULTURE
1.1.1. Introduction
Fish farming or pisciculture involves raising fishes commercially in
tanks or enclosures, usually for food. Aquaculture has been defined in
many ways. It has been called as the rearing of aquatic organisms under
controlled or semi controlled condition - thus it is underwater
agriculture. The other definition of aquaculture is the art of cultivating
the natural product of water, the raising or fattening of fish in enclosed
ponds. Another one is simply the large-scale husbandry or rearing of
aquatic organisms for commercial purposes. Aquaculture can be a
potential means of reducing over need to import fishery products, it can
mean an increased number of jobs, enhanced sport and commercial
fishing and a reliable source of protein for the future.
2
Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in different types of
marine environments and in underwater habitats. According to the Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO) aquaculture "Farming implies
some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production,
such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc.
Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock
being cultivated. The reported output from global aquaculture
operations in 2014 supplied over one half of the fish and shellfish that is
directly consumed by humans. Particular kinds of aquaculture include
fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture
(such as seaweed farming) and the cultivation of ornamental fish.
Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming. An
understanding of the principles of operation of capture and culture
fisheries helps to throw light on the definition of aquaculture. The
expressions capture and culture fisheries are self-explanatory.
The capture fisheries are the natural fisheries of the seas,
estuaries, rivers, lagoons, large lakes etc. Culture fisheries are usually
carried out in small water bodies which can be manipulated, pre-
prepared for stocking; which are often manured and/or fertilized before,
during and after stcking; and/or where fish are fed from extraneous
sources. The special type of aquaculture practices are pen culture, cage
culture, culture in running waters, in recirculating systems and in
reconditioned water. All shades of intermediate stages between true
capture and culture fisheries exist such as in man-made-lakes, which are
stocked extraneously but where no manuring, fertilizing and feeding are
generally done. Stocking is often done in large water-bodies such as
lagoons and rivers where natural stocks have undergone ‗depletion‘.
The principles of management of capture and culture fisheries
are very different from each other. In the case of capture fisheries one
has to attempt to harvest maximum sustainable yield by regulating
fishing effort and mesh after taking into account parameters of
population dynamics such as rates of recruitment, natural and fishing
mortalities, fish growth and size at which recruitment occurs.
3
Management of capture fisheries requires knowledge of the dynamics of
the fish populations under exploitation. The extended exclusive
economic zone of 200 miles brings into focus the national and
international complexities of regulating the capture fisheries of the seas
and the oceans and apportionment of the marine harvest because fish
populations do not abide by man-made boundaries.
In the case of culture fisheries, no detailed knowledge of the
population dynamics of the cultivated finfish or shell fish is involved.
Here, one has to breed, if one technically can, the chosen fish under
controlled conditions, if it does not breed naturally, and develop fish
husbandry practices so as to be able to formulate economically viable
technologies. For effective aquaculture, one has to gain familiarity and
control water quality to enhance its biological productivity; one has to
understand fish nutrition so as to be able to formulate nutritionally
balanced fish diet; one has to delve deep into fish genetics so as to be
able to evolve new varieties and strains which bestow commercial
advantages to the product in terms of superior growth rate, nutritive
value, bonelesness, taste, odour etc, one has to prevent incidence of fish
infections and diseases through prophylatics and therapeutics.
Examples
Finfish: Carp, trout, milkfish, bait minnow, yellow tail, mullet,

cat fish, Tilapia.
Shellfish: Shrimps, prawns, oysters, mussels, pearl oyster for

cultured pearls (eg. Japanese pearl oyster).
Plants: Water chestnut (Trapa natans). Red alga of Japan,

―Norie‖ (Porphyra). Red alga of Philippines & U.S.A.
(Eucheuma) Brown alga of Japan, ―Wakame‖
(Undaria).
During the last decade or so there has been noticeable a global

upsurge for aquaculture. Some of the factors which have contributed to
the increase are:
4
a. Increased and continuously rising cost of fishing operations due
to steep rise of the price of fuel.
b. Fear of reduction in marine fish landings by countries that
depend on fishing in the territorical waters of other countries as a
result of the new laws of the sea of 200 miles exclusive
economic zone.
c. Need, in some countries, for finding alternative and/or additional
employment for large numbers of surplus fishermen or under-
employed farmers.
d. A persistent demand in most developed countries for high cost
species like shrimps and prawns. This has greatly promoted
interest in aquaculture in countries that wish to increase their
foreign exchange earnings.
Factors which have been unfavourable to the development of
aquaculture are:
a. Shortage of fertilizers in most developing countries and their
allocation to agriculture. In this respect, there is a measure of
conflict between agriculture and aquaculture.
b. Increasing prices and even the availability of fish meal, which,
as stated earlier, is the ingredient of most fish-feeds. This is
linked with the Peruvian Anchovy crisis, which, apart from
aquaculture, adversely hit agriculture, through scarcity of guano
and fertilizer, and poultry industry through scarcity of fish meal.
This has led to search for cheaper protein substitutes in fish
feeds and spurt of research activity in that direction in different
countries.
c. While a general global environmental consciousness has
ameliorated aquatic pollution and has thus helped fish culture,
aquaculture itself is considered by some as a polluting agent,
through release of water containing fish metabolites leading to
eutrophication in the recipient waters, which may be a stream or
a river or another kind of natural water-body. Discharge
regulations which are applicable to aquaculture by authorities in
some countries.
5
Multi-disciplinary and systems characteristics of modern
aquaculture need to be especially emphasised some of the
essential components of aquaculture such as water quality
control, fish breading, fish genetics, fish nutrition, fish feed
formulation, fish pathology, fish parasites and predator control
etc.
Complete package of practices have to be developed which
involve accomplishment of several steps such as fish
multiplication, nursing, tending, and rearing the young, all of
which require special food for the larvae and the young fish; then
growing the young to marketable size which require special feed
again and often intensive feeding for quick growth. The quality
of fish feed would naturally depend on the species cultivated. All
the above mentioned steps in the practice of aquaculture require
rigid water quality control. The cultivated fish has to be saved
from the depredations of predators all along its culture. The
health of the fish has to be continuously monitored and guarded
against infections and infestations which have got to be checked.
Fig. 1.1. Aquaculture
6
1.2. HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE
The cultivation of marine species is also an ancient practice.
Ancient Chinese manuscripts from the 5th century B.C. indicate the
Chinese practiced fish culture. Egyptian hieroglyphics indicate the
Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom (2052-1786 B.C.) attempted
intensive fish culturing. Following in the footsteps of the Egyptians, the
Romans also developed aquaculture practices as they are known to have
cultivated oysters. The culture of oysters established by the Romans is
the first known form of aquaculture that has continued in some form or
another to the modern day. All of the early forms of aquaculture differed
greatly from much of the aquaculture practiced today. The major
difference is that aquaculture in ancient times involved harvesting
immature fish or shellfish and transferring them to an artificially created
environment that is favourable to their growth. Carp, in China,
thousands of years ago were collected as youngsters and transferred to
special ponds where they were grown. As the Egyptians and Romans
proved this practice was not limited to carp but was used with many
other species such as oysters and other hardy creatures capable of
surviving the transfer to the culture ponds.
Cyprinus carpio the common carp has been exported to several
countries over the entire world and its culture has achieved a very high
degree of perfection. The poly culture of carps appears to have been first
developed in China. In India, fish culture system was developed
thousands of years ago.
Susreta made ecological classification of fishes in 600BC. Kautilya
mentioned in his Arthasastra about fish culture in tanks and reservoir
period in 246BC. Kings Someswara III son of the king Vikramaditya VI
possessed immense knowledge of herbivorous carnivorous and
detritivorous feeding habits of different species of fish. Princess Khona,
knew about integration of aquaculture and agriculture and
recommended rearing of vegetables of the banks of fish ponds. During
7
1785 Bloch published a book ‗Auslandiche fische‘ which contains many
Indians marine species.
1.2.1. Scope of Aquaculture

i. Production of protein rich, nutritive, palatable and easily
digestible human food benefiting the whole society through
plentiful food supplies at low or reasonable cost.
ii. Providing new species and strengthening stocks of existing fish
in natural and man-made water bodies through artificial
recruitment and transplantation.
iii. Production of spotfish and support to recreational fishing.
iv. Production of bait-fish for commercial and sport fishery.
v. Production of ornamental fish for aesthetic appeal.
vi. Recycling of organic waste of human and livestock origin.
vii. Land and aquatic resource utilization: this constitutes the macro-
economic point of view benefitting the whole society. It
involves (a) maximum resource allocation to aquaculture
and its optimal utilization; (b) increasing standard of living
by maximising profitability; and (c) creation of production
surplus for export (earning foreign exchange especially
important to most developing countries).
viii. Providing means of sustenance and earning livelihood and
monetary profit through commercial and industrial
aquaculture. This constitutes the micro-economic point of
view benefiting the producer. In the case of small - scale
producer, the objective is to maximise income by greatest
possible difference between income and production in the
case of large scale producer, by maximising return on
investment.
ix. Production of industrial fish. Fish flesh, on the average,
contains: Moisture and oil, 80% Protein, 15-25% mineral
matter, 1-2% and other constituents, 1% water content is
known to vary inversely with fat content.
8
The habitats of aquaculture, there are three categories of waters,
viz. freshwater, salt water and brackish water. Fresh waters, generally
abounding in the inland areas of a country and the salt water of the seas
and oceans are characterised by a wide difference in their salinities
ranging from 0 to 35 ppt. The difference in salinity within each category
of water, fresh and sea, is restricted to rather narrow limits. The salt
content of fresh and sea water exercises a very selective influence on the
fauna and flora that live in each type of water.
In as far as finfish and shellfish are concerned, the normal
residents of each type of water are said to be stenohaline, i.e. they can
withstand only a narrow variation in the salinities of their surrounding
medium. A carp is an example of stenohaline freshwater fish and a
sardine or a mackerel may be cited as examples of stenohaline saltwater
fish.
Brackish water normally naturally occurs in estuaries, deltas of
rivers, lagoons and backwaters, which everywhere in the world are
under tidal regime. In such habitats the salinity of the water fluctuates
widely between negligible to 35 ppt, depending on the phase of the tide
and volume of fresh water discharged through the river into the sea. The
finfish and shellfish that inhabit brackish waters are invariably
euryhaline i.e. they form a group of organisms which physiologically
withstands wide ranges in salinity of the surrounding medium.
Stenohaline organisms are devoid of physiological mechanisms to
tolerate wide ranges of salinity. So, a special type of fauna inhabits the
estuarine habitat beyond the sea-end of which live the stenohaline and
saltwater forms. Examples of euryhaline fish are a mullet (Mugil
cephalus) and mud-skipper, Periophthalmus and those of crustaceans
are several species of penaeids (e.g. Penaeus monodon) and crab
(e.g.Scylla serrata)
The capacity of the residents of an estuary to tolerate a wide
range of salinity that prevails there is by virtue of a dynamic
physiological process of osmoregulation in which the gills, the kidneys,
the skin and the buccal cavity lining play significant roles.
9
Now, a day‘s Indian aquaculture has demonstrated a six and half
fold growth over the last two decades, with freshwater aquaculture
contributing over 95 percent of the total aquaculture production. The
production of carp in freshwater and shrimps in brackish water forms
the major areas of activity. The three Indian major carps, namely catla
(Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala)
contribute the bulk of production with over 1.8 million tonnes (FAO,
2003); followed by silver carp, grass carp and common carp forming a
second important group. Average national production from still water
ponds has increased from 0.6 tonnes/ha/year in 1974 to 2.2
tonnes/ha/year by 2001–2002, with several farmers even demonstrating
production levels as high as 8–12 tonnes/ha/year.
The technologies of induced carp breeding and polyculture in
static ponds and tanks virtually revolutionised the freshwater
aquaculture sector and turned the sector into a fast growing industry.
The research and development programs of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) as well as the development support
provided by the Indian Government through a network of Fish Farmers'
Development Agencies and Brackishwater Fish Farmers' Development
Agencies have been the principal vehicles for this development,
additional support has been provided by several other organisations,
departments and financial institutions.
The farming of giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
has gained increased interest in recent years, due to its high economic
value and an annual production of over 30,000 tonnes has been
achieved through the use of monoculture practices. In addition, the
sector has been witnessing increased interest in diversification with the
inclusion of high-valued species, including medium and minor carps,
catfishes, murrels etc. While carp and other finfishes are grown for the
domestic market, a large proportion of freshwater prawn production is
exported. In contrast, the development of brackish water aquaculture
has been confined to a single species, Penaeus monodon, the scientific
farming of which began only recently during the early 1990s. The area
devoted to shrimp farming extends to as much as 152 000 ha producing
10
approximately 115 000 tonnes, the majority of which is destined for
export.
1.2.2. Over Exploitation of wild fish stocks
Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living
resources to levels that can not sustain viable populations. Ultimately,
overexploitation can lead to resource depletion and put a number of
threatened and endangered species at risk for extinction.
A greater variety of species at a higher trophic level is exploited in the
sea than on land: humans exploit over 400 species as food resources
from the marine environment; whereas on land only tens of species are
harvested for commercial use. Exploitation of marine biodiversity is
also far less managed than on land and amounts to the hunter-gatherers
stage that humans abandoned on land over 10,000 years ago, yet
exploitation technology is becoming so advanced that many marine
species are threatened to extinction. Insufficient consideration has been
given to the unexpected and unpredictable long-term effects that such
primitive food-gathering practices engender.
The exponential growth in human population experienced in last
decades has lead to an overexploitation of marine living resources to
meet growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to
three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and
other marine species and as what our oceans can sustainably support.
The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and
storage has accelerated this trend. According to the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) over 25% of all the world's fish
stocks are either overexploited or depleted and 52% are fully exploited.
Thus a total of almost 80% of the world's fisheries are fully to
overexploited, depleted, or in a state of collapse. Although, these
estimates are considered rather conservative. Recently, a study showed
that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e their catch has
declined by 90%) and are projected to collapse within by 2048, unless
inmediate action is taken. Worldwide about 90% of the stocks of large
predatory fish stocks are already collapsed.
11
Overexploitation do not only affect open ocean or pelagic ecosystems,
but also coastal and intertidal areas. For example, intertidal limpets in
Hawaii (Cellana spp.), the Azores, Madeira and Canaries (Patella spp.)
have all shown declines, and in the case of the Azores, dramatic
population crashes owing to food gathering
Effects of Overexploitations
All fishing activities, if not conducted in a sustainable non-destructive
manner, can lead to overexploitation of marine living resources.
Overexploitation of marine resources has major impacts on marine
systems as a whole, but target species are generally the most impacted.
Fishing effect can be divided into: direct effect and indirect effects.
Direct effects are related to target species and by-catch species.
1.2.2.1. Direct Effect
When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of
individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested
and populations display signs of growth overfishing. When adult
populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult
population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the
reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to recruitment
overfishing. Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance
by fishing gear than can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of
the substratum. The effects vary according to the gears used and the
habitats fished.
Fig. 1.2.
12
Fig. 2. Tuna fisheries represent a typical case were the growth
overfishing of stocks can be generated by technological progress. Photo
© NOAA
Trawling for demersal species is having a major effect on the habitat for
species other than target species. It has been estimated that all of the sea
bed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear
is getting heavier over time. Trawls have destroyed long-lived species of
molluscs and echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species play
important functional roles in biogeochemical cycling the consequences
may be far-reaching.
1.2.2.2. Indirect Effects
Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results
in indirect effects such as effect of "goast fishing", trophic cascading
effects and food web-completion.
Trophic cascading effects has been observed when top-level predators
are removed resulting in indirect effects throughout the ecosystem. On
many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-dominated habitats to
habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‗urchin barrens‘, have been
linked to the over-harvesting of top predators. Perhaps the best known
example of this is the interaction between sea otters, sea urchins and
kelp. The importance of the sea otter-urchin-kelp trophic cascade was
demonstrated after sea otters were wiped out by harvesting for their fur,
allowing their prey, sea urchins, to overgraze kelps and dominate many
benthic ecosystems. After the repopulation of areas by otters, kelp and
its associated communities became much more abundant.
Ghost fishing result from fishing nets that have been left or lost in the
ocean by fishermen. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light,
can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can
entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles,
seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human
diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing
starvation, laceration and infection, and in those that need to return to
the surface to breathe suffocation.
13
1.3. ADVANTAGES OF AQUACULTURE
1.3.1. Alternative food source

Fish and other seafood are good sources of protein. They also have more
nutritional value like the addition of natural oils into the diet such as
omega 3 fatty acids. Also since it offers white meat, it is better for the
blood in reducing cholesterol levels as opposed to beef‘s red meat. Fish
is also easier to keep compared to other meat producing animals as they
are able to convert more feed into protein. Therefore, its overall
conversion of pound of food to pound of protein makes it cheaper to
rear fish as they use the food more efficiently.
1.3.2. Alternative fuel source
Algae are slowly being developed into alternative fuel sources by
having them produce fuels that can replace the contemporary fossil
fuels. Algae produce lipids that if harvested can be burn as an
alternative fuel source whose only by products would be water when
burnt.
Such a breakthrough could ease the dependency of the world on drilled
fossil fuels as well as reduce the price of energy by having it grown
instead of drilling petroleum. Moreover, algae fuel is cleaner and
farmable source of energy, which means it can revolutionize the energy
sector and create a more stable economy that avoids the boom-bust
nature of oil and replaces it with a more abundant fuel source.
1.3.3. Increase Jobs in the market
Aquaculture increases the number of possible jobs in the market as it
provides both new products for a market and create job opportunities
because of the labor required to maintain the pools and harvest the
organisms grown. The increase in jobs is mostly realized in third world
countries as aquaculture provides both a food source and an extra source
of income to supplement those who live in these regions.
Aquaculture also saves fishermen time as they do not have to spend
their days at sea fishing. It allows them free time to pursue other
economic activities like engaging in alternative businesses. This
14
increase in entrepreneurship provides more hiring possibilities and more
jobs.
1.3.4. Reduce Sea Food Trade Deficit
The sea food trade in America is mainly based on trade from Asia and
Europe, with most of it being imported. The resultant balance places a
trade deficit on the nation. Aquaculture would provide a means for the
reduction of this deficit at a lower opportunity cost as local production
would mean that the sea food would be fresher. It would also be cheaper
due to reduce transport costs.
1.3.5. Environmental advantages
1.3.5.1. Creates Barrier against pollution with mollusc and sea weed
Molluscs are filter feeders while seaweed acts a lot like the grass of the
sea. Both these organisms sift the water that flows through them as
brought in by the current and clean the water. This provides a buffer
region that protects the rest of the sea from pollution from the land,
specifically from activities that disturb the sea bed and raise dust.
Also, the economic benefits of molluscs and sea weed can create more
pressure from governments to protect their habitats as they serve an
economic importance. The financial benefits realised provides incentive
for the government to protect the seas in order to protect sea food
revenue.
1.3.5.2. Reduces fishing pressure on wild stock
The practice of aquaculture allow for alternative sources of food instead
of fishing the same species in their natural habitats. Population numbers
of some wild stocks of some species are in danger of being depleted due
to overfishing.
Aquaculture provides an alternative by allowing farmers to breed those
same species in captivity and allow the wild populations to revitalize.
The incentive of less labor for more gains pushes fishers to convert to
fish farmers and make even more profit that before. It also allows them
control of the supply of the fish in the market giving them the ability to
create surplus stock or reduce their production to reap the best profits
available.
15
1.3.5.3. Sustainable use of sea resources
Aquaculture provides alternatives for fishing from the sea. Increase in
demand for food sources and increase in globalization has led to
increase in fishing. Yet, this has led fishermen to become selfish and
overfish the desired or high-demand species. Through aquaculture, it
provides both an alternative and opportunity for wild stocks to replenish
overtime.
1.3.5.4. Conservation of Biodiversity
Aquacultures also protect biodiversity by reducing the fishing activities
on wild stock in their ecosystems. By providing alternatives to fishing,
there is reduced attack on the wild populations of the various species in
the sea. Reduced action of fishing saves the diversity of the aquatic
ecosystem from extinction due to overfishing.
1.3.5.5. Increased Efficiency, more resources for less effort
Fish convert feed into body protein more efficiently than cattle or
chicken production. It is much more efficient meaning that the fish
companies make more food for less feed. Such an efficiency means that
less food and energy is used to produce food, meaning that the
production process is cheaper as well. It saves resources and even
allows for more food to be produced leading to secure reserves and less
stress on the environment.
1.3.5.6. Reduced Environmental Disturbance
By increasing aquaculture, fish farming in specific, there is a reduced
need for the fishing of the wild stock. As an outcome, it puts less stress
on the ecosystem and equally reduces human interference. Actions of
motor boats and other human influences such as the removal of viable
breeding adult fish are all stresses put on the aquatic ecosystems and
their discontinuation allows the ecosystem to flourish and find their
natural balance.
16
1.4. AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION TRENDS
1.4.1. IN THE WORD

The total world fish production was recorded about 142 million
tones in 2008 from both capture fisheries and aquaculture. Of this, 115
million tonnes was used as human food, with a capita consumption of
about 17 kgs. In the total fish production 46 percent was contributed
through aquaculture, representing a continuing increase from 43 percent
in 2006. The global fish production through aquaculture was 52.5
million tonnes in 2008. Aquaculture sector maintained an average
annual growth rate of 8.3 percent worldwide between 1970 and 2008.
Globally, fish provides more than 1.5 billion people with almost 20
percent of their average per capita intake of animal protein, and 3.0
billion people with at least 15 percent of such protein. Among all fish
producing countries China remains the largest fish-producer, with
production of 47.5 million tonnes in 2008 (32.7 and 14.8 million tonnes
from aquaculture and capture fisheries, respectively). Asia has retained
its progressively dominant position in world aquaculture production.
Asia accounted for 88.8 percent of world aquaculture production by
quantity and 78.7 percent by value in 2008, while China alone
accounted for 62.3 percent of world aquaculture production by quantity
and 51.4 percent by value in the same year . Totally 44.9 million people
were directly employed and engaged, in capture fisheries or in
aquaculture, of this at least 12 percent of these were women. The
primary and secondary fisheries sectors support the livelihoods of a total
of about 540 million people, or 8.0 percent of the total world population.
India is an important aquaculture country in the world. The fish

production in India has registered excellent growth in past half a century
from 0.75 million tons in1950s to around 7.5 million tons in 2008. To
the fisheries sector of India, capture fisheries contributes around 4.1
million tons and aquaculture contributes around 3.4 million tons. In
aquaculture, production of carp from freshwater and shrimps from
17
brackishwater form the major aquaculture activity. The three Indian
major carps, namely catla ( Catla catla ), rohu ( Labeo rohita ) and
mrigal ( Cirrhinus mrigala ) contribute the bulk of production with over
1.8 million tonnes (FAO, 2003); followed by silver carp, grass carp and
common carp.
1.4.2. IN INDIA
Aquaculture may simply be referred as ‗Underwater Agriculture‘. Over
the years, the enormous increase in the growth rate of aquaculture has
been in response to declines in commercial harvests of wild stocks of
fish and shellfish. Top aquaculture producers In 2008 were China with
62 percent of world aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans and
molluscs (32.7 million tonnes). Other countries producing over one
million tonnes in the same year are India (3.5 million tonnes), Vietnam
(2.5 million tonnes), Indonesia (1.7 million tonnes), Thailand (1.4
million tonnes) and Bangladesh (1 million tonnes). Carps are the most
cultured species in the world with 39 percent of production by volume.
Other major groups cultured include shellfishes (oysters, clams, mussels
and scallops), other freshwater fish includes tilapias, followed by
shrimps, prawns and salmons. At single species value level, white leg
shrimp generated the highest value (USD 9 billion) in 2008, followed by
Atlantic salmon (USD 7.2 billion), grass carp (USD 4.8 billion), silver
carp (USD 4.8 billion).
India is a major maritime state and an important aquaculture country in
the world. It is also home for more than 10% of global fish biodiversity.
India has achieved considerable production increases in aquaculture,
especially in the production of freshwater fishes and shrimps. While
progress in research and development of new technologies have already
made in mollusk culture, seaweed culture, and in culture of certain
marine fishes like seabass these have not yet taken off on commercial
scale. The production gap in aquaculture between China and India or
other important Asian countries are very wide, so effective utilization of
the diversity of our marine living resources for aquaculture, in the long
coastline will increase Indian aquaculture production.
18
1.5. BASIC FISH FARM DESIGN
1.5.1. Site selection
Appropriate site selection is one of the most important factors that
determine the success of the fish farm. Before construction of the pond,
the water retention capacity of the soil and the soil fertility has to be
taken care of because these factors influence the response to the organic
and inorganic fertilization in the farm pond. The selected site should
have adequate water supply round the year for pond filling and other
uses. The pond construction has to be based on the topographic area. In
swampy and marshy areas, bunds should have a greater accumulation of
soil to build the pond of a preferable size. Self-draining ponds are ideal
for higher elevation areas. The site should be easily accessible by road
or any form of transport to reach the market for easy fish disposal. In
addition to this, the accessibility of inputs such as feed, seed, fertilizer
and the construction material should also be available nearby the site.
The site should be free from pollution, industrial waste, domestic waste
and any other harmful activities.
For, site selection the following ecological, biological and social factors
need to be considered.
1.5.2. Ecological factors
In site selection for a pond, the ecological factors to be considered
include soil, water, topography and climate.
1.5.2.1. Soil
The soil quality influences the pond productivity and water quality and
determines the dyke construction. The properties of soil texture and soil
permeability are determined to decide the suitability of a site. Pond
bottom should have the ability to hold the water. Loamy, clay loamy
and silt clay soil types are most suitable for pond construction. A good
quality gravel should not exceed 10 percent. Thus the rocky, sandy,
gravel and limestone soil types are to be avoided.
1.5.2.1.1. Evaluation of soil suitability
Soil suitability can be evaluated by three methods.
19
 In squeeze method, take the soil in wet hand and squeeze the soil
by closing your hand firmly. If it holds its shape even after
opening the palm of your hand, soil is suitable for pond
construction.
 The ground water test is the best method to evaluate the soil
suitability. Dig a pit of one-meter depth and cover it with leaves
for a night. If the pit is filled with ground water in the next day
morning then a pond could be built. However, in such soils,
drainage may require more time due to the availability of
sufficient groundwater. If the pit is empty the next morning, the
site is suitable for pond construction, but the water permeability
has to be tested.
 The third method is the water permeability test. Pour the water
into the pit and cover with leaves. If no water is found in the pit
on the next day morning then there is seepage. To confirm this,
once again pour the water into the pit and cover it with leaves. If
the water availability is high then the site is suitable for
construction. But if the water is drained, the site is not suitable
for pond construction. However, the site can be used through
use of plastic or heavy clay to cover pond bottom.
1.5.2.2. Water
An adequate amount of water is required to build the fish farm because
water depth needs to be adjusted at regular intervals. Natural water
bodies such as reservoir, river, and lakes have stable water quality
parameters (Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity and
water hardness) when compared to borewell and well water. The site
should be away from the flood area. Water should not be acidic or
alkaline and if found to be so, suitable correction is to be done by
applying lime or organic manure respectively.
The ideal water temperature is 20 – 300C for a fish farm. Water Salinity
is the amount of salt dissolved in water. A few freshwater fishes such as
tilapia and catfishes grow even in salt water, but the carps can withstand
only in freshwater.
20
1.5.2.3. Topography
Type of pond construction is determined by the land topography.
Normally, flood prone areas and poor rainfall areas need to be avoided.
Areas such as industrial zones, fields with underground oil pipelines,
irregular land area, fields with high electricity poles and radio masts and
highly rooted vegetation area are also not recommended for pond
construction.
1.5.3. Biological factors
Biological factors include the species to be cultured, seed source and
culture type and they need to be considered before site selection of farm.
1.5.4. Social and economic factors
The ecological and biological factors are a prerequisite for good
practices in aquaculture site selection and site management. It is also
important to get to know the social and economic background of the
area and understand the culture and traditions, particularly ideas and
beliefs locally associated with aquaculture practices. The social fabric,
market, and its structure, services directly or indirectly linked with
aquaculture sector such as transportation, storage, wholesale market
aspects etc are to be considered. The land identified for farm should be
without legal issues and fish farming should be accepted by the local
people. Other factors include availability of labour, electricity, medical
facilities, and transportation.
1.6. POND CONSTRUCTION
An intelligent design and layout is a prerequisite for an efficient pond
construction. The excavated earth should be used to construct the dyke
and with a plodding slope towards the outlet for the proper draining
facility. Preferably construction of pond has to be completed during
summer so that the pond can be used for stocking.
1.6.1. Steps in pond construction
Normally, the pond construction includes the following steps.
Step 1: Prepare the site by removing unwanted things such as the trees,
bushes, and rock
21
Step 2 : Construction of seepage-free and secure dyke by using the clay
core
Step 3 : Digging the pond and construction of dyke over the clay core
Step 4 : Inlet and outlet construction
Step 5 : Pond dyke covered with soil and plant grass species (avoid long
rooted plants such as Rhodes grass and star grass)
Step 6 : Pond should be fenced to avoid theft and entry of predatory
animals
1.6.2. Site preparation
The place is cleared of ropes, cables and other items. Trees and bushes
and other obstacles that hinder movement of heavy equipment around
the site are to be removed - manually / animal power /using machinery.
All vegetation including wood are to be cleared in the area (inclusive of
2 to 3 m beyond the dyke for workspace). Trees within 10 meters
surrounding, tree slumps, large stones, are also to be removed. The
surface soil which has the highest concentration of roots and organic
material is not suitable for pond construction. Hence, about 30 cm of
surface soil has to be removed.
1.6.3. Construction of dyke
Dykes should be compact, solid and leak free. A desirable dyke is
constructed using 15 - 30 percent of silt, 45 - 55 percent of sand and 30 -
35 percent of clay. A sufficient width of the berm (not less than 1 m) is
required to stabilize slope. The embankment slope in horizontal to
vertical should be 2:1 in good quality clay soil and 3:1 for loamy silt or
sandy soils. To raise the dyke, the clay buddle (1:2 sand and clay) is
deposited as 10 - 15 cm thick layer and it can be formed at centre or
inside the waterside of the pond. The crest of the dyke should be
sufficient to help allied farm activities and the top of embankment
should be above 1 m. Extra outlet is essential on the embankment as a
safety measure to avoid damage due to excess raise in the water level.
1.6.3.1. Digging the pond and construction of dyke
1.6.3.1.1. Types of pond
Specific kinds of ponds are required for specific life stage development
of fishes - such as nursery, rearing, stocking, treatment and broodstock
22
pond. The rectangular pond is preferred than round shaped corners as it
prevents the fish escape during harvest. An ideal length and breadth
ratio of the pond is 3:1 is ideal, with breadth not more than 30 - 50 m.
The total farm area can be divided as - nursery - 5 % of total farm area,
rearing pond - 20 %, stocking pond - 70 %, and bio pond or treatment
pond - 5 % of the total farm area.
 Nursery pond - The size of the nursery pond is about 0.01 to
0.05 ha with a depth of 1.0 – 1.5 m. The spawn (3 days old) are
stocked in nursery pond, reared for a maximum of 30 days (to
attain 2 – 3 cm length).
 Rearing tank - a tank where the fry are reared into fingerlings
(to attain a size of 10 – 15 cm) and the culture duration is 2 – 3
months. The size of pond varies from 0.05 – 0.1 ha with water
depth of 1.5 – 2.0 m.
 Stocking pond - In stocking pond, the fingerlings (TL 10 – 15
cm) are reared into marketable size. The culture duration varies
from 8 – 10 months. The stocking density varies according to the
target fish production. The stocking pond is used as broodstock
pond and breeding pond as per the requirement. However, the
pond area ranges from 1 – 2 ha with a greater water depth of 2.5
– 3.0 m. There are no hard rules regarding the size of the ponds.
 Bio pond or treatment ponds - these are large settling tanks,
where the water used for fishponds is purified biologically. They
may also be used as stocking pond. However, an even flat
bottom is recommended for easy netting operation.
A productive farm should use its higher altitude area for construction of
nursery pond followed by the rearing pond. The lowest area of the farm
should be used to build the stocking pond, which will help in reducing
the cost of construction and increase ease of farm management.
a) Designing
 The first step while designing fish ponds should be to
study the soil type, topography and water supply.
23
 In designing the fish farm, it should be decided as to
where and how many nursery, rearing and stocking
ponds are to be constructed.
 In case of a fish farm constructed solely for the purpose
of seed production, only nursery and rearing ponds may
be constructed, with a nominal area for the brood stock
ponds.
 In case of grow-out farm, more stocking ponds will be
constructed to produce table size fish after stocking
fingerlings.
 For a composite fish farm all three types of ponds are
required and their number should be based on the
intended stocking density.
 Fish ponds should be at least one surface acre in size.
Ponds smaller than one acre seldom support a
satisfactory fish population over many years. They
usually require much more intensive fish management
and may not justify the costs.
 It is important to know the exact size, maximum depth,
average depth, and water volume of the pond. This
information becomes useful in calculating the amount of
herbicide needed for weed control and the number of fish
fingerlings needed for stocking.
 The site should be cleared before the construction.
 All the bushes and small plants, etc. should be cut and
removed along with their roots. The roots should be
totally removed; otherwise the leakage problem will arise
later on.
 If there are any trees near the construction site, it is better
to cut the branches overhanging the ponds, so that the
sunlight is not blocked and the leaves do not fall in the
water.
 It is better to have trees near the ponds, but only 5m
away from the pond.
24
b) Mark out the ponds
 When the pond area is cleaned, it is necessary to mark
the outlines of ponds and dykes.
 Mark out the main wall or dyke and other walls with
stakes. The walls should be wide.
 Plan the depth of the pond and height of walls.
 The walls should always be at least 30 cm higher than the
water level for a small pond, and at least 50 cm higher
for a larger pond.
c) Excavation of the pond
 It can be carried out either by manual labour or by dozers
(JCBs).
 The sides and bottom of ponds should be properly
finished and trimmed until a good slope for drainage is
made.
 The pond bottom should usually have a slope of 2-5%.
Fig. 1.3.
 The most important feature is to have the pond bottom

slope such that the pond can be drained.
 If the pond site has a natural slope, the dyke or main wall
should be constructed at the low level side.
25
Fig. 1.4.
 When the pond walls are constructed, the excavated soil

can be placed on the top and planted with grass.
 This fertile top soil will root grass easily and this will
help keep the walls from eroding.
 The pond bottom must be cleared by removing small
rocks, roots, and stumps to prevent the nets from getting
caught and torn during harvesting.
Fig. 1.5.
26
Fig. 1.6.
 If grass is found in the pond bottom, it need not be

removed, because after filling up the pond with water the
grass will die and add nutrients to the water.
 When the stakes have been established for construction
of dykes, about 2' top soil should be removed as it
consists of large amounts of roots and other organic
material.
 The core trench is cut immediately after the removal of
the top soil. If the soil is porous, the seepage problem
may arise at a later stage. It would be essential to provide
a clay core in order to prevent seepage.
 A soil which is a mixture of sand and clay is best.
 Pure clay soil will crack and leak.
 If pure clay is to be used, it must be mixed with other soil
before it can be used.
Fig. 1.7.
27
Pond construction types: The ponds are constructed by two types
namely, dug out and embankment pond.
The dug out pond is constructed by digging the soil and is most suitable
to construct ponds in plain areas. It is to be scientifically constructed
maintaining shape, size, depth and other factors.
Embankment pond is more appropriate for hilly areas. Dykes may be
erected on 1 or 2 sides based on need. This pond is economically viable
but not ideal for fish culture because the size, shape and depth of pond
cannot be fixed as per scientific fish culture specifications.
Inlet and outlet construction: Feeder canals are constructed to provide
sufficient amount of quality water to the ponds except in ponds which
are filled by rainwater. Inlets are provided at top of the pond and screens
are used to filter the pumped water to avoid entry of unwanted particles
to the culture system. The inlet pipe size has to be designed is such a
way that it should not take more than 1 or 2 days to fill the pond.
The outlet pipe is set up at bottom of the pond. It is used to dewater the
pond during harvest and partial draining for pond water exchange to
maintain the water quality of the pond during the culture period. The
outlet is constructed prior to pond dyke construction.
Soil and vegetation coverage of Dyke: To reduce the soil erosion,
creeping grass can be grown on the top and sides of dyke. The banana
and coconut trees can be planted in the embankment. The slope of the
embankment can be planted with grasses such as Hybrid Napier, gunny
grass and elephant grass to supply feed to the grass carps reared in the
ponds.
28
Fig. 1.8.
Pond fencing: The ponds are fenced to protect from theft. Live fences
also serve as windbreak, increase farm diversity, provide privacy to
farm and improve the appearance of the fish farm. There are several
ways to make fences. These include live fence, piled fence, woven
fence, post and rail fence, wire fence, wire netting fence and stone wall.
Each type of fence has its own advantages and disadvantages. Wired net
fence is primarily used in fish farms to stop intruders and protect the
fish stock.
d) Construction of dyke
 The filling of earth should be done in layers not
exceeding 20 cm in height and consolidate each layer by
watering and ramming.
 The earth work for the dykes should be thoroughly
compacted so that even minor seepage can be checked.
 If the fish farmer is economically sound, he can go for
stone pitched dykes.
 The dykes of a pond should be strong enough to
withstand weather action.
 In big ponds erosion of dykes is a problem which
requires regular attention.
29
 Brick or stone pitching may be provided to arrest erosion of
dykes.
 Earthen dykes can be protected from erosions with bamboo
piling.
 Holes should be closed immediately with stiff clay mixed
with lime and cementing material and should be compacted
properly.
 By using concrete blocks, stones or bricks the earthen dykes
will be protected more permanently from crab or rat holes.
 Side slopes of embankments depend upon the nature of
material used for construction. The slopes should be flatter
than the angle.
 Soil with a lot of clay in it can have a greater slope on the
outside wall than on the inside wall.
 A typical embankment is built with an outside slope of 1:1
and an inside slope of 1:2.
 A slope of 1:2 means that for every increase in 2m width
there is a change of 1 m in height.
 Once the embankment is constructed, it is better to plant
grass on it.
 The grass roots help to hold the wall together and prevent
erosion of the soil.
Fig. 1.9.
30
e) Drainage system
 A drainage system is used to empty the pond.
 It consists of the outlet system for letting water out of the
pond and the drainage ditches which carry the water
away from the pond.
Fig. 1.10.
f) Drainage of the pond water
Fig. 1.11.
g) Drainage of the pond water
 The best and easiest way to have a good drainage system

is to build the pond in a place which provides a good
slope.
31
 The drainage system must be built before the pond
embankment because some drainage devices go through
the walls.
 One of the easiest ways to drain the pond is to place a
bamboo or plastic pipe through the base of the wall into
the middle of the pond.
 The end of the pipe, which is inside the pond, should
have a screen over it to keep fish from entering the pipe.
The other end of the pipe is plugged with wood or clay.
To drain the pond during harvest time, the plug is pulled
out.
SUMMARY
In this block, we have discussed about the importance of aquaculture, over
exploitation of wild fish stocks, advantages of aquaculture, aquaculture
production trends in the word and in India, scope for aquaculture in India,
basic fish farm design, selection of fish site, grow – out and nursery ponds.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. List out the importance of aquaculture
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Describe the over exploitation of wild fish stock
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
32
3. Explain the scope of aquaculture
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Draw the model fish farm.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Write about factors affecting the aquaculture?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
33
BLOCK -II
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
2.1. CULTIVABLE SPECIES OF FISHES
2.1.1. Introduction
2.1.2. Cultivable fishes
2.1.3. Cultivable Crustaceans
2.1.4. Cultivable Crabs
2.2. CULTIVABLE MOLLUSCS
2.2.1. Introduction
2.2.2. Pila
2.2.3. Unio
2.3. CULTIVABLE ALGAE
2.3.1. Introduction
2.4. CULTURE SYSTEM
2.4.1. Introduction
2.4.2. Polyculture/ Composite Fish Culture
2.4.3. Integrated fish farming
2.4.4. Monoculture
Summary
Learning Activity
34
OVERVIEW:
Although a large number of fish species grow successfully in
ponds, only a restricted number of species are usually cultivated on
commercial scale. Reasons for this restricted choice is obvious.
Commercial pond culture basically aims at achieving maximum
possible rate of fish production and profit through optimum utilization
of the natural food and the supplementary feed which drastically limits
the choice of fish species for pond cultivation. In this block, we are
going to discuss about the cultivable species of fish, crustaceans,
molluscs and algae, culture system of extensive, intensive and semi-
intensive, composite fish culture, integrated farming, advances of
polyculture, monoculture and monosex.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the general characteristics of cultivable species.
 Understand the culture techniques of intensive and extensive
 Discuss the integrated fish farming.
 Describe the polyculture and monoculture.
2.1. CULTIVABLE SPECIES OF FISHES
2.1.1. Introduction
All the different kinds of fishes are not cultivable as they have different
feeding habits. Some of the fish feeds on only plant origin food, so they
are called herbivorous while other fish feeds on insects and its larvae are
called insectivorous. Some other fish feed on only fish, they are called
carnivorous and while some other fish feed on anything available in the
pond ecosystem and are called omnivorous. The different kinds of fish
besides carnivorous can be cultured with other kinds of fish as they
coexist together without competing with other fish for food. But the
carnivorous fish feeds on the other fish and thus it lowers down the fish
production. Therefore carnivorous fish is never included together with
35
other fish in culture practice. The carnivorous fish if cultured in mono
species system with supplementary feed. Due to supplementary feed, the
production of carnivorous fish turns out expensive and again it remains
beyond the capacity of the mass of the people. But the herbivorous and
omnivorous fishes are easily cultured together and these fishes are
mostly of carp family and are called Cyprinids. In culture practice
mostly fish of Carp family are cultured as they do not disturb the others,
grow fast and give good production. Therefore, they are called
cultivable fishes.
2.1.2. Cultivable fishes
Carps form the largest fish family in the world. They have large scales
on the body and lack teeth. These are the main characteristics of the
carps. Many carps have a pair of barbels (small hair like processes on
the jaw or on the head) while a few have more than two pairs. Several
species of carps are found in the Indian waters. Among them catla, rohu
and mrigal are the commonly recommended Indian major carps. Their
characteristics and identification marks are briefly described here.
a) Catla
Catla (Catla catla) is found naturally in the major rivers of North
India. It is characterized by its big head, high back, heavy body,
heavy lower jaw and the mouth opening upward. There are no
hair like processes on the jaws. The back of the fish is gray
while the sides are white in colour. But according to the
environmental situation catla may be darkish in colour. Catla
generally attains maturity during the second year. They mostly
feed on the macro fauna though decaying type of micro flora are
also consumed. The mouth being open upwards they collect their
food from the upper surface of the water. Hence it is known as a
surface feeding fish. If plenty of feed is available and in less
crowded situation catla species may grow maximum 5 kg per
year. However in a commercially growing condition they attain
an average weight ranging between 800 to 1000 grams per year.
36
b) Rohu
Rohu (Labeo rohita) is also found commonly in the north Indian
rivers. Thebody is long and round; the head is small and slightly
pointed; the back is bentand slopping down both towards the
front and back. The upper and lower lipshave fold or frills. On
the upper lip there may be two hair like structures. Ingeneral
rohu has slightly reddish gray scales; however the scales on the
backhave dark brownish colour while those on the underneath
and lower sides haveless white scales. One of the easily
identifying marks is that it has reddish fins(wings).Rohu mainly
gathers its feed from the middle layers of water column
andhence they are known as middle feeders. This is in
confirmation to the directionof the opening of the mouth which
is situated at the mid point opening forward(as opposed to up
ward or downward opening) making it easy for them together
the feed at the middle layers of water. When they are young they
feed on the micro fauna but as they grow up they start feeding on
the micro flora like algae and decayed organic materials. Besides
they also feed on small worms, shell fishes and other lower
forms of aquatic life.
Though rohu can grow up to 3.5 kg weight within a year in the
commercialcomposite fish culture they are found to grow up to
only an average weightranging between 600 to 1090 grams per
year. However it is to be mentionedhere that among the
recommended carps for commercial growing, rohu is tastierthan
others. Rohu matures in the second year of its life.
c) Mrigal
Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) also like catla and rohu is commonly
found in theNorth Indian rivers. The body of mrigal is longer
and less thicker than rohu. The head is small and pointed,,- The
mouth opens downwards; the lower lip has no folds or frills like
the rohu. But the upper lip has two hair like structures called
barbels. In general the scales are yellowish white in colour
37
though the. scales at the back have a greyish look. Mrigal
matures in the second year of its life.
Mrigal gather feed mainly from the bottom layers of the water
column. When they are young they feed on micro fauna like
crustaceans and rotifers; butas they grow bigger they feed mostly
on the decaying plant materials. They also eat on the algae and
other small plants. Like rohu the average live weight gained in
one year is between 600 to 1000 grams though it has the
capacity to grow upto 3 to 3.5 kg per year under sufficient feed
availability and less crowded growing conditions. Exotic Carps.
Three exotic carps silver carp, grass carp and common carp with
feeding habits respectively to the Indian carps catla, rohu and
mrigal are introduced into India and are recommended for the
composite fish culture. They are briefly described here so that
the ordinary farmer may be able to identify them for themselves.
d) Silver carp
Silver carp (Hypophthalmicthy molitrix) though native of China
wasintroduced into .India from Japan in 1959 and is now a well
established fish among the fish farmers. .Its exact origin is the
mid China and the Amoor river basin in Russia. .It has a flat
body, round mouth opening upward, slightly protruding lower
jaws, small eyes. The scales are comparatively smaller and white
in colour.
Silver carp gathers feed from the top layers of water column and
hence like the Indian carp catla is a surface feeder. When they
are young they feed mainly on the micro fauna but later they
mostly feed on the micro and small plants. Though they have the
capacity to grow up to 5.5 kg per year under the composite
growing conditions they are found to attain an average weight
between 1 to 2.5kg per year. This also matures in the second
year of its life.
38
e) Grass carp
Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) was originally found in

the big rivers of China and Russia. But it was brought to India
from Hongkong. It has flat head, short and round face; lower lips
are longer than the upper one; the mouthis round. The back is
dark gray and the lower region and abdomen are white.They
mature by the end of the 2nd year.Grass carp feeds mainly on
micro fauna till they are about 1.7 to 1.8 cmlong. Thereafter they
feed mostly on all types of aquatic plants. They are
voraciouseaters and can consume grass and other leaves as
n1uch as eight times its bodyweight per day and attains weight
up to eight kilogram per year. This fish can beextensively grown
to control the aquatic weeds in canals, ponds and lakes.Besides
aquatic plants grass carp also can eat green fodder grasses. But
in thecomposite fish culture people do not bother to feed
sufficient- ly the grass carpand hence the weight gain may be
less than the optimum. It can also grow inslightly saline alkaline
water.
f) Common carp
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is originally from Russia and
China buthas been introduced to India in 1939 through Sri
Lanka. There are three typesof common carps: (a) common carps
with small scales covered allover the bodycalled scale carp, (b)
those with shining 3;fid big scales covered all over thebody
called mirror carp and (c) those with only few scales on the body
calledleather carp. However the scale and mirror carps have
become popular in Indjadue to its ability to survive in hot
climate. The colour varies from gray to orange.From the physical
shape of view two types of common I carps are noticed:one with
big stomach and other with long body. The body is flat on both
sides.The mouth can be extended forward as it opens up. The
lips are thin and smooth.There are four barbels (hair like
structures) on the upper lips with one pairslightly bigger than the
39
other pair. The thorns of the dorsal fin are like the teeth
ofsaw.When they are young they mostly feed on the micro fauna
but as they growbig they begin to feed on the lower plants and
decaying organic matter. Like the Indian carp mrigal they are
bottom layer feeders. It can make use of thosefeeds which the
mrigal is not able to make use of. They are voracious
feeders.With the extendible mouth they suck in all the decaying
materials and the microorganisms along with the clay from the
bottom of the pond and take in the feedand expel the clay and
other non edible portions. They also eat up all kinds ofmicro
organisms, worms and small aquatic creatures found at the
bottom of thepond. They do have the habit of making holes on
the sides and at the bottom ofthe pond and thereby affect the
stability of the pond or the trees that may begrowing on the bank
of the pond.
g) Murrels
Channa Marulius ( Poo menu, pedda murrel)It is highly

predacious fish. It is also cannabalistic in nature. It is the
largestone among murrels. It grows to a size of about four kilo
grams. It thrives well inlarge rivers lakes, reservoirs and swamps
and also grows in irrigation wells. Itbreeds from April to June.
Channa Straitus (Korra menu or korra matta-murrel)It is an
excellent table fish. It is very popular in Telangana regaion and
ishighly priced live fish with more demand than carps. The
fingerlings are used inadministering of medicine for Asthma
especially in Hyderabad. Channa striatusis the most common
species of Channa. Channa is a highly predatory fish. Earlyfry of
Murrel largely feed on zoo-plankton and the fingerlings feed on
insectlarvae and young fish. Channa striatus breeds immediately
preceding and during the mansoon month. The floating eggs are
laid in nests which are made by clearing shallow, marginal
weeds. Both the male and female guard the nest.
40
Chanos Chanos (Milk fish or Pala Bontha) It grows to about four
feet in length. It is extensively cultivated in Philippines. In India,
Chanos fry are collected and stocked. The Chanos is plankton
feeder and feeds mainly on filamentous green algae. Lakhs of fry
are caught in tidal creeks with peak period of availability in
April, May and June. The chanos grow quicker in fresh water
(25 inches) than in brackish water (19 inches).
Mugil Cephalus (Grey Mullet)It is widely distributed in brackish
waters. It has distinct greenish colour of the body with shrimp
culture becoming popular, the culture of mullets and chanoes
was effected. It feeds on filamentous and planktonic algae,
vegetable debris and mud at the bottom in shallow waters. It
grows to about three feet in length.
6. Cat Fishes (a) Clarias batrachus
1. Common name: Cat Fish
Vernacular name : Tamil : Kelaru
2. It lives in freshwater and brackish water
3. Its head and tail are vertically compressed.
4. The head is covered with bony plates dorsally and
ventrally.
5. Scales are absent
6. The head bears 4 pairs of barbels around the mouth. The
barbels functions as
feelers.
7. The eyes are reduced in size
8. The dorsal fin is long and spineless and fin is long but not
confluent with caudal
fin.
9. Caudal fin is rounded.
10. The pectoral fins are provided with spines. Hence it is a
poisonous fish.
11. It contains an air bladder and accessory respiratory.
12. It can travel from swamp to swamp along damp grass
land.
41
13. It is highly nourishing food fish and often prescribed for
patients recovering
from illness.
14. It can lives for a long time outside water. Hence it is
called a live fish.
Seccobranchus Fossilis
1. Common name; Cat fish
2. Vernacular name; Tamil: Thyli meen
3. It is freshwater bony fish.
4. Its head is dorsoventrally flattened and the tail is laterally
compressed.
5. The head bears eight barbells.
6. The dorsal fin is small.
7. The pectoral fin is provided with a spine. Hence
poisonous.
8. The pelvic fin is small.
9. The caudal fin is rounded.
10. Maxillary barbes long and reach the base of the pelvic.
11. The accessory respiratory organ is present in the form of
extra-branchial divericulum.
12. It remains alive for a long time outside water. Hence it is
called as ―live fish‖.
13. It is highly nourishing and often prescribed for patients
recovering from illness.
2.1.3. Cultivable Crustaceans
2.1.3.1. Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Freshwater Prawns)
Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Figure 2.1.) can be distinguished from
other species in the genus by the following characteristics (the
morphological terms used below are explained in the glossary Annex
11):
 It has a very long rostrum, with 11-14 dorsal teeth and 8-10
ventral teeth (the ventral characteristics are especially
important);
42
 The tip of its telson reaches distinctly beyond the posterior
spines of the telson;
 The adult male has very long second chelipeds in which all
segments are elongate and have blunt spines;
 The movable finger of the second chelipeds of the adult male is
covered by a dense velvet-like fur (except the extreme tip) but
this fur is absent from the fixed finger and the rest of the
cheliped; and
 It is the largest known of all Macrobrachium species, adult males
having been reported with a total body length of up to 33 cm,
and adult females of up to 29 cm.
2.1.3.1. Macrobrachium malcolmsonii

Palaemon inhabits freshwater streams, rivers, lakes and ponds. It is a
nocturnal creature and lies hidden at the bottom during the day and
comes to the surface during night in search of food. It prefers slow
moving clean water and feeds on algae, mosses and other weeds, small
insects and the debris, i.e., omnivorous.
It walks slowly at the bottom with the help of walking legs and swims
actively at the surface with the help of swimmerets (pleopods). P.
malcolmsonii breeds in May, June and July and the females carry eggs
attached to their pleopods (abdominal appendages).
43
2.1.3.2. Penaeus monodan:
It is commonly known as tiger prawn. It grows very quickly to a size of

40 to 60 grams in cultural ponds within 4 to 5 months. In the sea, it
grows to a size of 350 mm. Weighting upto 250 grams. In culture ponds,
they move at the bottom and feed on detritus and insect larvae.
Normally they mature and spawn in the sea away from shore, where the
larvae also develop metamorphosis into post larvae. The post larvae
drifts towards the coast into the backwaters and estuaries. The adult
shrimp migrate back into the sea for gonadial maturation and spawning.
Normally, the females do not attain maturity in the brackish water
environment though males mature.
Fig. 2.3. Penaeus monodan:
44
2.1.3.3. Panaeus indicus
It is commonly called as white prawn. It grows to a size to 20 to 40
grams in about 4 months in culture ponds and in the open sea grows to a
size of 150 to 200 grams. They move at the bottom of pond water and
feed on detritus, insect larvae, lab-lab, etc., Just like a tiger prawn. The
seed of white prawn is identified.
Fig. 2.4. Penaeus monodan:
2.1.3.4. Cultivable Lobster
Lobsters are sexed by examining the first set of appendages behind the
walkers. The male (gonopeds) are bony while the same appendages on
the female are feathery. In both cases, you have to look closely because
sometimes they are folded up tightly under the body. With a little
practice, you can also tell by looking at the tail. On females the tail is
relatively broad compared to the male‘s to accommodate the egg mass
Lobster blood is a clear fluid. When the animal is boiled, the blood turns
to an opaque whitish gel. It has no discernible flavour and is perfectly
safe to eat.
If a wounded lobster is hauled to the surface, it may start to bleed.
Returning it to the sea bottom is the best recourse since the water
pressure will help stop the bleeding. If the animal is of legal size, it can
be placed back in the trap and the trap reset, to be hauled again at a later
date.
45
Fig. 2.5. Lobster
2.1.4. Cultivable Crabs
Crabs are among the most common marine invertebrates, and also
among the most common introduced and invasive species. Several
introduced species already occur in one or more of the Nordic countries,
and several more introduced species may be spreading from
neighbouring countries. The introduced crabs vary enormously in size
as well as impact, from the small (< 2cm) American mud crab,
Rhithropanopeus harrisii, to the more than 20 cm anomuran king crab,
Paralithodes camtschaticus. The introduced species also show great
differences in tolerance of temperature and salinity, and their
reproductive potential and life history show differences related to their
size and origin.
2.1.4.1. Scylla transquibarica

Carpus of chelipeds with two obvious spines on distal half of outer
margin. Frontal lobe spines of moderate height (mean height c. 0.04
times frontal width measured between medial orbital sutures), blunted
with rounded interspaces; antero-lateral carapace spines broad, with
outer margin convex. Polygonal patterning weak on chelipeds and first
two pairs of legs; last two pairs of legs with stronger patterning for both
sexes; patterning variable on abdomen of female, absent on male.
46
Fig. 2.6. Scylla transquibarica
Frontal lobe spines of moderate height (mean height c. 0.04 times
frontal width measured between medial orbital sutures), blunted with
rounded interspaces. Antero-lateral carapace spines broad, with outer
margin convex. Carpus of chelipeds with two obvious spines on distal
half of outer margin, palm of cheliped with a pair of distinct spines on
dorsal margin behind insertion of the dactyl. Polygonal patterning weak
on chelipeds and first two pairs of legs; last two pairs of legs with
stronger patterning for both sexes; patterning variable on abdomen of
female, absent on male. Colour variable, similar to Scylla serrata.
2.1.4.2. Scylla serrata (Mandapeetha)
The serrated swimming crab, Scylla serrata, is a non-native species in
Floriad whose current status in the state is uncertain. It is a robust crab
belonging to the family of swimming crabs (Portunidae) to which the
familiar blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, also belongs.
The carapace has four blunt frontal teeth and each anterolateral margin
has nine similarly sized broad teeth. The chilipeds (claws) are robust
with several well developed spines and the rear legs are flattened into
swimming appendages as is typical of members of the portunid family.
Individuals are grayish green to purple-brown and variable in color with
small irregular white spots on the carapace and swimming legs.
47
Fig. 2.7. Scylla serrata
2.2. CULTIVABLE MOLLUSCS

2.2.1. Introduction
Mussels seem to have nothing in common with other molluscs.
Compared to a snail crawling its way, but especially to a squid shooting
through the water like an arrow, mussels seem to have stopped at a low
point of evolution. Taking a closer look at a living mussel it becomes
obvious, though, that what seems like inability to move anywhere is the
result of an evolution towards not necessarily having to. Mussels, in
contrary to all other molluscs live exclusively on filtration. From the
surrounding water they not only take oxygen to breathe, but also food.
This nutrition method proved to be so successful that mussels not only
managed to distribute into almost all parts of the sea, no matter in which
climate zone, but also into the ever changing salt-less waters of rivers
and ponds on the continents.
2.2.2. Pila
Shell : The shell is globose with an oval opening. In contrast with Pila
ampullacea, Pila globosa has a large and deep umbilicus. The colour
varies from olive green to grey green with a tinge of red. A large
number of variations are known. The interior of the shell is dull reddish
with very faint spiral bands visible, white at the columella.
Operculum : The operculum is calcified at the inside (part attached to
the snail).
48
Eggs : The calcareous, white eggs of Pila globosa are deposited above
the waterline in a natural depression or snail made pit in the ground. The
size of the eggs vary from 4 to 7 mm diameter. Hatching occurs after 2 -
3 weeks depending on the temperature.
Fig. 2.8. Pila globosa
2.2.3. Unio
Soft bodied animal is completely enclosed within a calcareous shell
which represents its exoskeleton. Shell measures about 10 cm in length
and 5 cm in width. It consists of two similar more or less oval, convex
valves that are joined at their dorsal margin or huge line by a strong
hinge ligament. Shell valves are similar in shape and size, i.e. they are
equivalve. This ligament is elastic and causes the shell to gape ventrally.
Dorsally and somewhat enteriorly, each shell valve has a slightly raised
part, called the umbo. It represents the oldest part of the shell and
concentric lines around it are the lines of shell growth, representing
intervals between successive growth stages. Anterior end of the shell is
somewhat rounded and through its antero-ventral margin may be
protruded the muscular foot for ploughing into the mud or sand.
Posterior end is tapering and projecting, behind it can be seen two short
tubes or siphons, one for the entry and other for exit of water current.
49
Fig. 2.9. Unio
2.3. CULTIVABLE ALGAE

2.3.1. Introduction
Seaweeds or marine algae are primitive plants and they constitute one of
the commercially important marine living resources. They grow in the
littoral and sub-littoral region upto 20-25 m depth in the sea and also in
the estuaries and back water areas. They belong to four groups namely
green, brown, red, blue green algae based on the kind of pigments
present in them and morphological and anatomical characters.
The brown colour of these algae results from the dominance of the
xanthophyll pigment fucoxanthin, which masks the other pigments,
Chlorophyll a and c (there is no Chlorophyll b), beta-carotene and other
xanthophylls. Food reserves are typically complex polysaccharides,
sugars and higher alcohols. The principal carbohydrate reserve is
laminaran, and true starch is absent (compare with the green algae). The
walls are made of cellulose and alginic acid, a long chained
heteropolysaccharide.
There are no known unicellular or colonial representatives; the simplest
plant form is a branched, filamentous thallus. The kelps are the largest
(up to 70m long) and perhaps the most complex brown algae, and they
are the only algae known to have internal tissue differentiation into
conducting tissue; there is, however, no true xylem tissue as found in
the ‗higher‘ plants.
50
Fig. 2.10
About 16,000 tonnes of Ascophyllum nodosum (above, Feamainn bhuí
in Irish, referring to the yellow colour in summer) are harvested each
year in Ireland, dried and milled in factories at Arramara Teo., Cill
Chiaráin (Kilkerrin), Co. Galway; and some 3,000 t of the resulting
seaweed meal is exported and processed in Scotland for the production
of alginic acid. Laminaria hyperborean stipes (sea rods) are harvested in
Norway and used to be collected in drift in Scotland and Ireland. The
rods are used for the manufacture of high-grade alginates. Other brown
algae are used for the extraction of agricultural sprays (‗liquid seaweed
extracts‘). These extracts are used at low concentrations on crops and
their hormone-like activities are thought to be due to betaines,
cytokinenins, etc. In some areas, like the west of Ireland and Scotland,
kelps and other brown algae are gathered as a fertiliser for land.
2.3.1.1. Sargassum
Sargassum is a freefloating seaweed found offshore in mats throughout
the South Atlantic region. These mats of vegetation provide crucial
habitat for a wide variety of marine animals in the open ocean, including
economically important pelagic species such as tuna, dolphin, wahoo
and billfish as well as sea turtles and marine birds. The final Fishery
Management Plan for Pelagic Sargassum Habitat in the South Atlantic
Region was approved in 2003 and implemented strict restrictions on
commercial harvest of this important fish habitat. A North Carolina
51
company had been harvesting Sargassum for use in the feed supplement
industry.
Fig. 2.11
2.3.1.2. Chlorophyta: green algae
Examples: Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Ulva. Green
seaweeds.
Characteristics: Green colour from chlorophyll a and b in the same
proportions as the ‗higher‘ plants; beta-carotene (a yellow pigment); and
various characteristic xanthophylls (yellowish or brownish pigments).
Food reserves are starch, some fats or oils like higher plants. Green
algae are thought to have the progenitors of the higher green plants but
there is currently some debate on this point.
Fig. 2.12.
52
Green algae may be unicellular (one cell), multicellular (many cells),
colonial (living as a loose aggregation of cells) or coenocytic (composed
of one large cell without cross-walls; the cell may be uninucleate or
multinucleate). They have membrane-bound chloroplasts and nuclei.
Most green are aquatic and are found commonly in freshwater (mainly
charophytes) and marine habitats (mostly chlorophytes); some are
terrestrial, growing on soil, trees, or rocks (mostly trebouxiophytes).
Some are symbiotic with fungi giving lichens. Others are symbiotic with
animals, e.g. the freshwater coelentrate Hydra has a symbiotic species of
Chlorella as does Paramecium bursaria, a protozoan. A number of
freshwater green algae (charophytes, desmids and Spirogyra) are now
included in the Charophyta (charophytes), a phylum of predominantly
freshwater and terrestrial algae, which are more closely related to the
higher plants than the marine green algae belonging to the Chlorophyta
(known as chlorophytes). Other green algae from mostly terrestrial
habitats are included in the Trebouxiophyceae, a class of green algae
with some very unusual features.
Fig. 2.13
Asexual reproduction may be by fission (splitting), budding,

fragmentation or by zoospores (motile spores). Sexual reproduction is
very common and may be isogamous (gametes both motile and same
size); anisogamous (both motile and different sizes - female bigger) or
oogamous (female non-motile and egglike; male motile). Many green
53
algae have an alternation of haploid and diploid phases. The haploid
phases form gametangia (sexual reproductive organs) and the diploid
phases form zoospores by reduction division (meiosis). Some do not
have an alternation of generations, meiosis occurring in the zygote. Life
was indeed very simple when all green-coloured algae were included in
a single class, the Chlrophyceae. Increasingly, it has become clear that
the green algae are very diverse in their relationships and are now
included in two phyla (Chlrophyta and Charophyta) and at least 17
classes! Progress has been so rapid that text-books are out of date
almost as soon as they are printed. Upto- date numbers for each of these
classes and their relationships with the Rhodophyta are given by
AlgaeBase.
AlgaeBase dynamic species counts shows that there are about 4,500
species of Chlorophyta including about 550 species of
Trebouxiophyceae (mostly subaerial and freshwater), 2,500
Chlorophyceae (mostly freshwater), 800 species of Bryopsidophyceae
(seaweeds), 50 species of Dasycladophyceae (seaweeds), 400
Siphoncladophyceae (seaweeds), and 250 marine Ulvophyceae
(seaweeds). The Charophyta is entirely freshwater and includes 3,500
species currently allocated to 5 classes.
Commercial uses: Organic beta-carotene is produced in Australia from
the hypersaline (growing in high salinity water often known as brine)
green alga Dunaliella salina grown in huge ponds. Carotene has been
shown to be very effective in preventing some cancers, including lung
cancer. Caulerpa, a marine tropical to warm-temperate genus, is very
popular in aquaria. Unfortunately, this has led to the introduction of a
number of Caulerpa species around the world, the best-known example
being the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia.
54
Fig. 2.14
Chlorella, a genus of freshwater and terrestrial unicellular green alga
with about 100 species, is grown like yeast in bioreactors, where it has
a very rapid life history. It may be taken in the form of tablets or
capsules, or added to foods such as pasta or cookies. Taken in any form,
it is said improve the nutritional quality of a daily diet. According to the
Taiwan Chlorella Manufacturing Company the increase in processed
and refined foods in the diet of modern man make Chlorella an
important food supplement for anyone interested in better health. Ulva:
Ulva is a genus of algae that includes species that look like bright green
sheets and live primarily in marine environments. They can also be
found in brackish water, particularly estuaries. They live attached to
rocks in the middle to low intertidal zone, and as deep as 10 meters in
calm, protected harbors. Ulva are usually seen in dense groups.
Commonly known as the sea lettuce or the green laver, Ulva species can
be eaten in soups and salads, and used as a substitute for nori
(Porphyra), the popular seaweed in sushi. Ten species of Ulva exist
worldwide, all of which have representation on the coast of California.
The shapes of Ulva are quite varied- circular to oval to long and narrow,
ranging in size from microscopic to 65 cm. They have fine, silky
55
textures with waved or ruffled margins. The delicate blades of Ulva are
usually only 40 microns thick.
Fig. 2.15
2.3.1.3. Rhodophyta: Red algae
Examples : Palmaria, Delesseria, Chondrus, Coralline algae
Characteristics: The red colour of these algae results from the
pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin; this masks the other
pigments, Chlorophyll a (no Chlorophyll b), beta-carotene and a number
of unique xanthophylls. The main reserves are typically floridean starch,
and floridoside; true starch like that of higher plants and green algae is
absent. The walls are made of cellulose and agars and carrageenans,
both long-chained polysaccharide in widespread commercial use. There
are some unicellular representatives of diverse origin; more complex
thalli are built up of filaments.
Fig. 2.16
56
A very important group of red algae is the coralline algae, which secrete
calcium carbonate onto the surface of their cells. Some of these
corallines are articulated (right, Corallina, with flexible erect branches;
others are crustose (below). These corallines have been used in bone-
replacement therapies. Coralline algae were used in ancient times as
vermifuges, thus the binomial Corallina officinalis.
Several red algae are eaten: best known amongst these is dulse
(Palmaria palmata above) and Carrageen Moss (Chondrus crispus and
Mastocarpus stellatus). However, Nori, popularised by the Japanese is
the single most valubable marine crop grown by aquaculture with a
value in excess of US$1 billion. More information on aquaculture.
The red algae Kappaphycusand Betaphycus are now the most important
sources of carrageenan, a commonly used ingredient in food, particuarly
yoghurts, chocolate milk and repared puddings. Gracilaria, Gelidium,
Pterocladia and other red algae are used in the manufacture of the all-
important agar, used widely as a growth medium for microorganisms
and for biotechnological applications.
AlgaeBase dynamic species counts shows that there are about 9,300
species of seaweeds, of which about 6,000 are red algae (Rhodophyta),
the vast majority of which are marine. These are found in the intertidal
and in the subtidal to depths of up to 40, or occasionally, 250 m. The
main biomass of red algae worldwide is provided by the Corallinaceae
and Gigartinaceae.
2.3.1.4. Graciallaria
Thalli consist of solid, brittle, cylindrical to compressed branches, 2 - 5
mm in diameter. Axes 3 - 18 cm long and 1.5 mm broad, with branches
usually irregularly arranged. Both axes and branches are regularly or
irregularly constricted or continuous, with both conditions occurring on
the same plant or neighboring plants. Plants often prostrate and
overlapping, with lateral branches running along substrate, spreading in
mats to 30 cm or broader, with rocks and pebbles between branches, or
erect with an inconspicuous discoid holdfast and occasional secondary
attachments. Gracilaria spp. are extremely variable in Hawaiian waters.
57
Although normally cylindrical, the branches are frequently found
flattened, and sometimes plants are compressed throughout.
Fig. 2.17
2.3.1.5. AZOLLA
Azolla spp. are heterosporous free-floating freshwater ferns that live
symbiotically with Anabaena azollae, a nitrogen-fixing blue-green
algae. These plants have been of particular interest to botanists and
Asian agronomists because of their association with blue-green algae
and their rapid growth in nitrogen deficient habitats (Islam and Haque,
1986). The genus Azolla includes six species distributed widely
throughout temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world. It
is not clear whether the symbiont is the same in the various Azolla
species.
Azolla spp. consists of a main stem growing at the surface of the water,
with alternate leaves and adventitious roots at regular intervals along the
stem. Secondary stems develop at the axil of certain leaves. Azolla
fronds are triangular or polygonal and float on the water surface
individually or in mats. At first glance, their gross appearance is little
like what are conventionally thought of as ferns; indeed, one common
name for them is duckweed ferns.
58
Fig. 2.18. Azolla
a. Habit and Habitat
Azolla is a free-floating aquatic fern. It belongs to the family
Azollaceae. It
is hetero sporous fern, which means having two kinds of spores such as
male
and female gametophytic generations in the plant for generation of its
own race.
The family Azollaceae includes seven living and twenty extinct species.
Based
on the morphology of reproductive organs, the living species are
grouped into
two sub-genera. They are euazolla and Azolla.
b. Types
The sub-group Azolla includes
1. Azolla corolinianaa
2. A. filiculoides
3. A. microphylla
4. A. Mexicana
5. A. rubra
6. A. pinnata and
7. A. nilotica
59
c. Culture
The development of Azolla is basically through the methods. One is
by means of vegetative propagation and other is sexual reproduction,
which occurs during temporary adverse environmental conditions
with the production of both microsporocarp and megasporocarp.
d. Significance of Azolla
Azolla is capable of absorbing nitrogen from its environment. But in
association of Anabeena known as ―Azolla. Anabaena association‖
meets the entire nitrogen requirement.
e. Physico-chemical parameters required for culture
The average daily nitrogen fixing rates of a developed Azolla mat are
in the range of 1.0 to 2.6 kgs per hectare. When it is compared with
the industrial production of nitrogenous fertilizer carried out by the
enzyme nitrogenous operates with maximum efficiency at 300c and
200 – 1000 atm respectively. The normal doubling time of Azolla
plant is three days and are kilogram of phosphorus applied result in
4-5 kilograms of nitrogen through Azolla i.e., about 1.5 to 2.0 tones
of fresh biomass. Azolla can survive in a wider range of Ph of 3.5 to
10.00 with an optimum of 4.5-7.0 and with stand salinity upto 10PPt.
Azolla with a dry weight range of 4.8-7.1 percent among different
species.
Nitrogen - 1.96 to 5.30
Carbon - 41.50 to 45.30
Crude proten - 13.0 to 30.0
Crude fat - 4.4 – 6.3
Cellulose - 5.6 – 15.2
Hemicellulose - 9.8 – 17.9
Lignin - 9.3 – 34.8
Ash - 9.7 – 23.8
The percentage ranges of chemical composition are:
Phosphorus - 0.10 – 1.59
Potassium - 0.31 – 5.97
Calcium - 0.45 – 1.70
60
Magnesium - 0.22 – 0.66
Sulphur - 0.22 – 0.73
In addition to the above, its high rates of decomposition with mean daily
loss rates of 1.36 – 4.57 percent. All these make Azolla a potential
biofertilizer in aquaculture.
f. Culture method of Azolla
Azolla is grown as a green manure before paddy transplantation or as a
dual crop in agriculture. It is necessary to cultivate Azolla separately for
Aquaculture as the Azolla has to be applied in Aquaculture ponds as
green manure. Azolla can be cultured in puddles, drainage and shallow
water stretches, at the outlets of ponds and tanks. There is no need to
utilize prime agriculture land for this purpose. For culture of Azolla a
number of earthen race ways are formed continuously, each with a size
of 10.0 x 1.5 x 0.3 meters with a facilities for water supply and
drainage. A shallow earthern bunds are raised to retain the water to
avoid crab menace. For raceway is initially inoculated with Azolla about
6 kilograms, phosphate fertilizer about 50 grams of single super
phosphate and pesticide of carbofuron dip for inoculam at 1-2 ppm. The
depth of water to be maintained is 5-10 cms. Then allow Azolla to grow.
About a weeks time. Azolla grows to 18 to 24 kgs. Then remove the
superficial earth layrs with organic accumulation for and apply to fish
pond. It is done periodically. The maintenance of raceways include dyke
maintenance, application of bleaching powder for crab menace and
algae brooms periodic removal of superficial earth layers with organic
accumulation, etc. A unit of 0.1 hectare area can be formed about 50
raceways is suitable for a single family to be taken up as cottage
industry.
g. Uses of Azolla as green manure in Aquaculture
Azolla is useful in aquaculture farming primarily as a nitrogenous bio-
fertilizer. Its high decomposition rates make it a suitable substrate for
enriching the detritus food chain. It is useful for microbial processing
such as composting prior to application in ponds/tanks. Further it can
serve as an ingredient of supplementary feeds and as forage for grass
carp fish.
61
Azolla bio-fertilization studies have shown that the nutrient
requirements of composite fish culture could be met through application
of Azolla alone at the rate of 40 tonnes per hectare providing over 100
kgs of nitrogen, 25 kgs of Phosphorous and 90 kgs of Potassium in
addition to about 1500 kgs of organic manure. It amounts to total
substitution of chemical fertilizers along with environmental upkeep
through organic manures.
h. Experimental studies conducted at CIFA
The central Institute of Fisheries Aquaculture has made studies on
Azolla culture over a period of three years. It is observed that about one
tonne of Azolla biomass could be harvested every week from a water
spread area of 650 square meters, with a phosphorus input – Nitrogen
output ratio of 1 : 480. The approximate water to land ratio of 1:5.0 and
total requirement of land for Azolla farm is 0.1 hectare. For fertilizing
one hectare water area at the above suggested rate of 40 tonnes per
hectare per year, about 550 square meteres of water spread is required
(1.5 kgs/m2/week; 42 tonnes per year) with the total area of 800 square
meters which accounts for 8 percent of the area to be fertilizer.
2.3.1.6. Spirulina
Spirulina is 100% natural and a highly nutritious micro salt water plant.
It was discovered in South American and Africa in natural alkaline
lakes. This spiral shaped algae is a rich food source. For a long time
(centuries) this algae has constituted a significant part of the diet of
many communities. Since the 1970‘s, Spirulina has been well known
and widely used as a dietary supplement in some countries. Spirulina
contains rich vegetable protein (60~ 63 %, 3~4 times higher than fish or
beef ), multi Vitamins (Vitamin B 12 is 3~4 times higher than animal
liver), which is particularly lacking in a vegetarian diet. It contains a
wide range of minerals (including Iron, Potassium, Magnesium Sodium,
Phosphorus, Calcium etc.), a high volume of Beta- carotene which
protects cells (5 time more than carrots, 40 time more than spinach),
high volumes of gamma-Linolein acid (which can reduce cholesterol
and prevent heart disease). Further, Spirulina contains Phycocyanin
which can only be found in Spirulina.
62
In USA, NASA have chosen to use it for astronauts food in space, and
even plan to grow and harvest it in space stations in the near future.
How does Spirulina grow?
There are four major conditions for growing Spirulina.
1. Tropical weather
2. Strong sunshine
3. Pure water resource
4. Pollution free environment
It is not possible to grow Commercial Spirulina culture in a cold or
temperate area. Spirulina needs consistent high temperature which
helps it‘s growth. Spirulina will not grow anywhere that has constant
low temperature (under 25 degrees). Under 20c degrees Spirulina will
stop reproducing and die in a short time.
Spirulina absorbs sunshine and then creates a reaction in it‘s cells.
When this reaction starts, Spirulina will produce the nutrients in the cell
and will convert carbon dioxide into oxygen. Strong sunshine helps
Spirulina produce more nutrients.
Spirulina grows in alkaline saline water. Because Spirulina easily
absorbs nutrients from water, if the water contains pollution or heavy
metals, these will be highly concentrated in the Spirulina cell. If this
happens, then this kind of Spirulina is no longer suitable for human
consumption.
What does Spirulina contain?
With over 100 nutrients, Spirulina is often described as the most
complete food source in the world. The American National Aeronautical
and Space Agency includes it in their astronauts diet and plans to grow
Spirulina in it‘s space station.
It’s easy to see why.
Japan has some good examples of some Japanese seniors who have only
relied on Spirulina and water for more than 20 years showing how good
is Spirulina for the human body.
63
How should Spirulina be stored?
High temperature, moisture or pollution will reduce the beneficial
effects of
Spirulina.
1. Buy and keep no more than 6 months worth.
2. After open the packaging we strongly recommend you use the
product within three months.
3. After usage , ensure you reseal the packing as soon as possible.
4. Keep the product away from any possible heat source.
5. Keep the product away from sun or any exposure to strong light.
Who should take Spirulina?
1. Children who don‘t like or get enough vegetables and or have an
imbalanced food intake.
2. Teenagers during their rapid growing period need a sufficient
injection of nutrients. Spirulina is ideal for this.
3. Pregnant mums who need extra nutrients.
4. Seniors who have difficulty in having reasonable average 3 meals per
day.
5. Sport lovers or athletics who need extra nutrients to keep their energy
levels up.
6. Modern busy people who don‘t have the time to eat good meals.
7. Patients or people who need high volumes of nutrients to assist

recovery
8. Vegetarians who require extra nutrient sources
Who shouldn’t take too much Spirulina?
1. People with hyperparathyroidism
2. People who have serious allergies to seafood or seaweed.
3. Patients current experiencing high fever.
How much Spirulina should be taken?
We suggest 5~10 tablets a day for adults, 3~5 tablets for children under
12 years old. If you have special requirements for extra nutrients, please
consult your chemist or your health practitioner.
64
How should Spirulina be taken?
1. Take only with cold or warm water, (not juice, soft drinks, coffee or
tea)
2. After taking Spirulina, avoid alcohol, soft drinks or coffee for 30
minutes as these drinks can destroy some of the Spirulina nutrients and
enzymes
3. Take at least an extra half litre of water a day
4. It doesn‘t matter if you take it once a day or twice a day, so long as
you take enough for a day. Recommend dosage for adults is 5 ~ 10
tablets a day, children under 12
should take 3 - 5 tablets a day.
What are the Spirulina side effects?
Spirulina is a totally natural product and will not normally cause any
problems to the body. Even if too much is taken, there will be no harm
to the body, but doing this is a waste. However some people may
experience some of the following symptoms after taking Spirulina;
1. Slight fever due to the body‘s need to burn the extra protein from
Spirulina
2. Slight dizziness. If this occurs, take less of the product. If the
symptom does not improve please stop taking Spirulina
3. Thirst and constipation. After taking a high volume of Spirulina we
recommend at least an extra 1/2 litre of water per day to help our body
absorb the Spirulina
4. Stomach ache
5. Skin itch or slight body rash
Spirulina: a food ? or a medicine?
As we all know, some of our illnesses are caused by having insufficient
nutrients in our body. These illnesses are just the symptoms to show us
that we may be lacking in some nutrients. If we replenish these nutrients
in time, the symptoms usually disappear. If not, we can lower the
function of our immune system causing further problems. In most cases
people will go to consult their doctor and may be prescribed some
medicine.
65
Spirulina is not a medicine, but when used as a good source of
supplementary food, you can avoid nutrient deficiencies causing illness
In most cases people will go to consult their doctor and may be
prescribed some medicine. The topic of Spirulina is currently quite hot
for it‘s therapeutic applications. Medical research has already shown
that Spirulina can provide benefits to our body.
Spirulina can help you to have reasonable levels of nutrients in your
body, which will in turn give you less of the chance to get sick.
Spirulina Vegetable protein vs animal protein
Spirulina contains more than 60% vegetable protein, which is much
higher than fish, pork, or beef (which contains about 15 ~20 %).Animal
protein is a much bigger molecule than vegetable protein, and is much
harder to for our system to digest. Most modern people overindulge in
animal protein, by eating fish, beef, pork etc. When too much animal
protein is eaten, it is deposited in our body as fat. Too much fat will
cause high cholesterol levels and may impact our heart and blood
vessels.
Vegetable protein is water soluble, and is much smaller than animal
protein. If you eat too much vegetable protein, it is simply discharged
by your system as waste and not stored as fat.
Animal protein is a much bigger molecule than vegetable protein, and is
much harder to for our system to digest. Most modern people
overindulge in animal protein, by eating fish, beef,
pork etc. When too much animal protein is eaten, it is deposited in our
body as fat. Too much fat will cause high cholesterol levels and may
impact our heart and blood vessels. Vegetable protein is water soluble,
and is much smaller than animal protein. If you eat too much vegetable
protein, it is simply discharged by your system as
waste and not stored as fat.
Spirulina & Heavy metals contains
Spirulina easily absorbs the nutrients from any possible source. Like
putting a dry sponge in water, Spirulina will take just about everything
from the water and store it in their cells. So, take Spirulina from
66
polluted area may result some negative result as Spirulina has been
highly concentrate all the heavy metals from growing environment.
Pollution sources are;
1. Air
2. Water
3. Dirt or dust
4. Feed
Air pollution will bring lead, mercury etc. All commercial Spirulina is
grown in open areas,for maximum production yield. Water pollution is
another issue. Most Spirulina production sites need plenty of water to
compensate for high evaporation. If the water contains any heavy
metal which will accumulate in the growing system, then Spirulina will
absorb it. Water pollution is a big issue as even the water pumped from
the sea or surface can contain certain amounts of possible pollutants
which will eventually accumulate in Spirulina. This is why some other
brands suggested that infants or pregnant women should not take
Spirulina.
2.4. CULTURE SYSTEM
2.4.1. Introduction
Intensity of aquaculture describes the various densities of organisms per
unit volume or per unit area. It is meaningful in comparisons between
the levels of culture of a species or related species. It is, however,
meaningless in terms of comparisons of densities of organisms from
different groups. For instance, culture of tilapia at 100 kg/m3of water in
a re-circulating system is considered to be intensive culture; culture of
shrimp at 50 individuals per m2(1–2 kg/m3) in ponds is considered to
be intensive culture. Intensity of culture will broadly consider the inputs
into the system to maintain adequate growth of the cultured organisms.
It comes under the term ‗intensity‘ because the greater the intensity (or
density) of cultured organisms the greater the requirement for inputs
into the system. The goal of intensification is to obtain higher yield from
the same or a smaller area, water and labour inputs. These systems
based on the following principles.
67
1. Pond aeration of the pond and increase water flow as a
means of enriching the pond with oxygen.
2. Feeding with protein rich pellets.
3. Increasing the stocking density of various fish species.
2.4.1.1. Extensive (conventional) system:
Extensive aquaculture differs markedly, largely being part of a natural
ecosystem and depending upon it for maintenance of water quality and
most of the animal's food and other requirements. An extensive
aquaculture system, therefore, has limited inputs to maintain fish growth
and survival, i.e. it may have some basic organic fertilizers, but no
aeration, etc. These systems usually have a low stocking density, (<500
kg/ha), and the natural productivity of feed (plants and animals) within
the system and natural gas exchange is sufficient to support the cultured
organisms. Low intensity aquaculture yielding only moderate increase
over the natural productivity. Fish feed only the natural food available
in the pond.
2.4.1.2. Intensive system:
High intensity aquaculture yielding a far excess over the conventional
culture. The stocking rate is much higher, at least about 50% of the pond
area must be covered with aeration facilities. Fish feeding depends only
on the complete diets (protein-rich diets). Intensive systems may be in:
 ponds (e.g. for shrimp in tropical/subtropical regions);
 cages (e.g. for marine fish culture in temperate waters);
 raceways (e.g. for trout species in temperate regions);
 tanks (e.g. for eels in Japan).
The peak stocking density achieved in each case depends upon being
able to maintain the water quality conditions required by the cultured
organism. Generally, stocking densities are lowest in ponds, followed
by cages and with greatest densities achieved for raceways and tanks.
Intensive aquaculture systems are a complete contrast to natural
systems. They are characterized by:
 very simple food chains: feed → cultured organisms;
 low energy losses from feed input, with high food conversion
ratios from specialized artificial feeds;
68
 no recycling of energy and totally non-self-supporting;
 the requirement for high inputs of energy (e.g. feed, nutrients,
aeration, filtration, pumping); •high yields per unit area or
volume.
Water quality is usually maintained by high water exchange rates and,

in some cases, by mechanical means. In intensive culture in indoor
tanks, particulate waste removal, gas exchange and oxygen production
are all undertaken by mechanical means. In outdoor intensive systems
with a soil substrate and phytoplankton there is settlement of particulate
wastes, decomposition by bacteria and gas exchange enhanced by
mechanical aeration. Stocking density (mass of culture stock per volume
or area of water, expressed as kg/m3or kg/ha) in intensive systems
varies greatly with the type of system and the cultured organism, but is
always relatively high.
2.4.1.3. Semi-intensive system:
Semi-intensive culture is almost exclusive to ponds and allows for an

increase in the stocking density within the pond. With moderate
intensity, fish culture where 11the stocking rate may be 2-3 times as that
of the conventional ponds. addition of inorganic or organic fertilizers to
improve natural productivity, addition of aeration to maintain dissolved
oxygen levels and thee aerated area must cover about 10-15% of the
pond area. Supplementary feed must be added beside the natural food
available in the pond. The semi-intensive culture of tilapias is
particularly ideal in developing countries because it provides a wide
variety of options in management and capital investments. Management
strategies in lower levels of intensification involves the use of fertilizers
to encourage natural productivity and to improve the levels of dissolved
oxygen. The stocking rate is ranged between 5-10 fish m3. Fish yields
from such techniques have been found to be higher than those from
natural unfertilized systems.
69
A comparison of coast and returns from the three systems:
1. In conventional system the maximum yield reach about 0.5-1
ton/feddan were not economic.
2. The semi-intensive system gives moderate net profits.
3. Intensive system is not economic unless the yields exceed 10
tones/feddan due to the very high cost input for construction.
2.4.2. Polyculture / Composite Fish Culture
The most important consideration in polyculture is the
probability of increasing fish production by better utilization of natural
foods. Species successfully stocked together are differ in their feeding
habits and occupy different trophic niches in the pond. Tilapia species,
common carp, sliver carp and grey mullet are different in their feeding
habits. Polyculture of common carp with all-male tilapia, and sometimes
also with silver carp is a common practice in Egypt. Both tilapias and
silver carp graze on algae, and thus help to maintain a balanced
biological environment in which algal blooms are rare. All-male tilapia
in polyculture with marine and/or fresh-water prawns (Macrobrachium
rosenberghii), also produce a more balanced biological environment in
ponds than monoculture of prawns alone.
Advantages:
1.Improving of pond oxygen regime occurs, as in case of silver
carp and tilapia. Silver carp consumes excess algae and this improves
the balance between production and consumption of oxygen. Tilapia
feed on the organic ooze of the pond bottom, this ooze increase oxygen
consumption when decomposed by bacteria thus tilapia improves
oxygen in the pond.2.Some fish feed on the excreta of other fish, as
tilapia feed on the excreta of common carp, which feed on the excreta of
silver carp. The latter do not digest all algae which feed and the larger
algae become available to common carp, which cannot consume all free
algae in the water. In general terms tilapia represents 65%, common
carp 23%, grey mullet, 7% and silver carp 5%.
Disadvantages:
1.Not all the cultured fish species reach the marketable size at the same
time.
70
2.Sorting of the different species after harvesting is difficult and
expensive.
2.4.3. Integrated fish farming
Integrated fish farming is a system of producing fish in combination
with other agricultural/livestock farming operations centered around the
fish pond. The farming sub-systems e.g. fish, crop and livestock are
linked to each other in such a way that the byproducts/wastes from one
sub-system become the valuable inputs to another sub-system and thus
ensures total utilization of land and water resources of the farm resulting
in maximum farm output with minimum financial and labour costs. Ex.
Rice-Fish Farming.
2.4.4. Monoculture
Monoculture, the culture of individual of one specie from the
same age, monoculture is the only method of culture used in running
water system, re-circulating system and in cages where the supply of
natural food is limited. Under the conditions of pond culture with
fertilization monoculture of single fish specie, thenatural food available
in the water column is not fully consumed by fish, therefore a
combination of fish species differ in their feeding habits is preferred.
The following are the drawbacks:
1. Common carp fry depend mainly on the natural food, thus
in high densities the natural food is not enough and reduces
fish growth.
2. The problem of filamentous algae in tilapia can be
overcome by introducing about 29% percent of carp in
tilapia culturing farms.
3. Also, in carp monoculture, it is recommended to
introduce a number of tilapia as tilapia consumes part of
accumulated organic matters and thus maintain the oxygen
balance in the pond.
4. So some described the monoculture as a bi-culture
system.
71
SUMMARY
In this block, we have discussed about the about the cultivable species of
fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae, culture system of extensive,
intensive and semi- intensive, composite fish culture, integrated
farming, advances of polyculture, monoculture and monosex.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. Explain the general characteristics of cultivable fishes
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Describe the aquaculture system
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Write about the composite fish culture?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Define the polyculture.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Explain the integrated fish farm with suitable example
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
72
BLOCK -III
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
3.1. CULTURE OF CARP SPECIES
3.1.1. Introduction
3.1.2. Indian Major Carps
3.1.3. Exotic Carps
3.1.4. Steps in Carp Culture
3.2. OYSTER CULTURE
3.2.1. Introduction
3.2.2. Seed Collection
3.2.3. Farming methods
3.2.4. Harvest of oysters
3.2.5. Post-Harvest
3.3. SHRIMP CULTURE
3.3.1. Shrimp species and their suitability
3.3.2. Site Selection
3.3.3. Topography and Climatic Condition
3.3.4. Infrastructure
3.3.5. Soil Conditions
3.3.6. Pond Design and Construction
3.3.7. Culture systems
3.3.8. Pond Management
3.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM
OF SHRIMP CULTURE
3.4.1. Introduction
3.4.2. Environmental problems
3.4.3. Freshwater Prawn Culture
3.5. ORNAMENTAL FISH
3.5.2. Commercially Important Species
Summary
Learning Activity
73
OVERVIEW:
The Cyprinidae is the family of freshwater fishes, which
includes the carps and their relatives. This family is commonly known
as "carp family". Cyprinidae is the largest known fish family and the
largest vertebrate animal family. The family name is derived from the
Ancient Greek word carp. Carps have been the backbone of aquaculture
practice in India and it is the three Indian major carps viz., Catla, Rohu
and Mrigal together with three other exotic carps viz., silver carp, grass
carp and common carp contribute over 85% of the aquaculture
production of the country. In this block, we are going to discuss about the
culture of carp species, oyster culture, pearl oyster, prawn culture, the
problems in penaeid prawn culture due to socio-economic and environmental
problems, freshwater prawn culture, potential for ornamental fish and common
species for ornamental fish culture.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the culture of carp species.
 Discuss the potential of ornamental fish culture.
 Describe the oyster culture.
 Understand the problems of prawn culture.
3.1. CULTURE OF CARP SPECIES
3.1.1. INTRODUCTION
Carps have been the mainstay of culture practice in India and it is the
three Indian major carps viz., catla, rohu and mrigal together with three
other exotic carps viz., silver carp, grass carp and common carp
contribute over 85% of the aquaculture production of the country.
The technological interventions during last three decades have led to
increase the mean national production levels in ponds and tanks from
about 600 kg/ha to over 2,000 kg/ha. Higher production levels of 6-8
tonnes/ha/year are being achieved by several farmers and entrepreneurs
in states like Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana.
Several combinations of culture practices have been evolved in the
country to suit the fish species, water resources, availability of fertilizer,
74
feed resources, etc. and also the investment potentials of the farmers.
Carp culture is shown to be highly compatible with other farming
practices and also possesses high potential for recycling of organic
wastes.
3.1.1.1. Distinguishing characters of carps
The distinguishing characters of carps which make it most suitable for
culture are,
 Eat low on the food chain.
 Tolerate poor water quality.
 Adapt to both alkaline and acidic water.
3.1.1.2. Characters of cultivable fish
The following criteria should be considered before selecting a fish for
farming purpose.
Rate of growth: Fish which grow to a larger size in shorter period are
suitable for culture. Eg. Carps.
Adaptation to climate: The cultured species of fish should be able to
adapt to the local climatic conditions of the farm.
Tolerance: The fish should have the capacity to tolerate wide
fluctuations in the physic-chemical conditions such as oxygen, salinity
and temperature etc of the water.
Acceptance of artificial feed: When more number of fish is to be
accommodated in a limited space, there is the need for supplementary
feeding on compounded diets. The fish should show ready preference
for these feeds.
Resistance: It is desirable that the cultured fish is hard enough to resist
the common diseases and attack of parasites.
Amiability and compatibility: The fishes proposed to be cultured
together should be able to live together without interfering or attacking
the other.
Conversion efficiency: The species of fish which give more edible
flesh per unit of food consumed is preferred.
Consumer’s preference: Food preference of people varies with the
geographic regions. Hence, the species cultured should be easily
marketable locally or to the targeted consumers.
75
3.1.2. INDIAN MAJOR CARPS (IMC)
3.1.2.1. CATLA
Catla is the fastest growing Indian major carp species and
widely distributed throughout India, Nepal, Pakistan, Burma and
Bangladesh (Fig. 3.1.). It inhabits the surface layer of water and feeds
upon plankton. Adult stages are predominantly zooplankton feeder,
occasionally taking in decaying macrovegetation, phytoplankton and
smaller molluscs. It attains maturity in the second year of life and carry
over 70 000 eggs per kg body weight (Jhingran, 1966). It naturally
breeds in rivers during monsoon season and under control conditions in
bundhs as well. It does not breed in ponds. However, it responds well to
hypophysation techniques. Seeds are easily reared in undrainable ponds
of relatively smaller size. Under composite fish culture in ponds it
usually grows to over 1 kg in one year.
3.1.2.2. ROHU
Rohu is the natural inhabitant of river systems of India, Nepal,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma (Fig. 20). In recent years it has been
transplanted to many countries of the world including Sri Lanka,
Mauritius, USSR, Japan, Philippines, Laos, Malaysia and Thailand.
Normally it occupies the column region of the aquatic ecosystem and
feeds mostly on vegetable matter including higher plants, detritus, etc.
Like catla it naturally breeds in rivers and under special conditions in
bundhs. Except by hypophysation to which it responds quickly, it never
breeds in ponds. It attains sexual maturity during the second year.
However, certain percentages of pond-reared specimens mature within
one year. Fecundity varies from 226 000 to about 2 800 000 depending
upon the size (Khan and Jhingran, 1975). Rohu spawns during the
monsoon (April—September). Seeds collected from rivers or produced
by bundh breeding or induced breeding are reared with ease in seasonal
or perennial undrainable ponds. Under pond culture conditions it grows
upto 900 g within one year.
76
3.1.2.3. MRIGAL
Mrigal inhabits all the major river systems of India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Burma (Fig.3.4). The adult fish feeds upon filamentous
green algae, diatoms, pieces of higher plants, decayed vegetable, mud
and detritus. It is basically a bottom feeder and hence suitable for
cultivation with column and surface feeder carps in ponds. Mrigal
usually attains maturity within 1 or 2 years depending upon the
agroclimatic conditions of the location. Fecundity ranges between 124
000 to over 1 900 000 depending upon size. Spawning season is linked
with the onset and duration of the southwest monsoon. It does not breed
in ponds, but can be easily bred in bundhs and by hypophysation. It is
now being induced to breed twice within the same spawning season.
Rearing of seed is usually undertaken in seasonal or perennial
undrainable ponds. Under pond culture conditions it grows to over 1 kg
in one year.
Fig.3.1. Catla (Catla catla)
77
Fig. 3.2. Rohu (Labeo rohita)
Fig, 3.4. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mriqala)
3.1.3. EXOTIC CARPS

3.1.3.1. SILVER CARP
Silver carp is basically inhabitant of major river systems of
South and Central China and in the Amur Basin of USSR from where it
has been transplanted throughout the Indo-Pacific region including
India. It is a surface dweller feeding mainly upon zooplankton during its
early stages and gradually becomes predominantly a phytoplankton
78
feeder. Its relatively longer branchiospines provide a fine filter capable
of retaining planktonic organisms. It readily accepts supplementary feed
like oil cakes and rice bran mixture in pond culture systems. It does not
breed in pond condition. However, through the technique of
hypophysation they are induced to breed in ponds during the monsoon
season. Fecundity varies greatly with the size and agroclimatic
condition. A fecundity range of 145 000 to 2 044 000 has been found
from silver carp (Alikunhi, Sukumaran and Parameswaran, 1963). It
takes about 2–6 years to mature in China, whereas in India it matures
very early, within 2 years. Males mature earlier than the females. In
composite fish culture ponds it usually attains over 1.5 kg within one
year of rearing. Seed rearing is done in smaller seasonal or perennial
undrainable ponds with a high rate of survival.
Fig. 3.5. Silver Carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)

3.1.3.2. GRASS CARP
Grass carp is a native of the river systems of South-Central and North
China, and the Amur river of USSR. Its suitability in aquaculture and
biological control of aquatic weed infestation has resulted in wide-scale
transplantation throughout the world. In early life it feeds on planktonic
organisms and gradually switches over to macrophytes. They are
voracious eaters and show distinct preference for vegetable food
materials such as grass, leaves, weeds, etc. However, they also accept
supplementary artificial feed materials. Usually only a portion of
79
ingested food is digested and the rest is voided in semidigested or
undigested form which, in turn, becomes choice food for the bottom
dweller common carp (Alikunhi, Sukumaran and Parameswaran, 1963).
In China it takes about 3–4 years to achieve maturity whereas in India it
usually takes 2 years. The total number of eggs range between 308 800
and 618 100 from the fishes weighing between 4.7 kg to 7.0 kg. The fish
does not breed under pond condition and hence seed production is
achieved through hypophysation. Growth mainly depends on the rate of
feeding. Under optimum feeding rate it can grow over 5 kg in one year
(Sinha and Gupta, 1975). Usually it grows to over 1.5 kg in composite
fish culture ponds (Fig.3.6).
Fig. 3.6 Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

3.1.3.3. COMMON CARP
Originally a native of temperate region of Asia, especially
China, the common carp is now the most domesticated and cultivated
carp species throughout the world (Fig. 3.7). It is an omnivorous bottom
dweller subsisting mainly on benthic fauna and decaying vegetable
matter. It frequently burrows the pond bottom in search of food. This
habit of digging the pond bottom helps in maintaining the productivity
of undrainable ponds and hence culture of common carp with other carp
species is of great advantage. Moreover, it also feeds directly on the
undigested excreta of grass carp. Growth mainly depends upon the
bottom biota, stocking density and the rate of supplementary feed. In
composite fish culture ponds it grows to about 1 kg within one year. In a
80
tropical climate it spawns throughout the year in the pond environment
with two peak periods, one from January to March and the other during
July and August. Eggs are small and adhesive in nature. In tropical
conditions it attains maturity within 12 months (Alikunhi, 1966).
Fig. 3.7 Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
3.1.4. STEPS IN CARP CULTURE

Carp culture is the process of growing improved variety of carp having
good taste under controlled conditions and management. This fish
culture not only produces nutritious food but also helps in generating
income and provides job opportunities to people.
The following chart shows the steps included in carp culture,
81
3.1.4.1. Preparation of pond
Proper construction, preparation and maintenance of the fish pond are
key parameters for a successful aquaculture practice. There are different
pond components like nursery ponds, rearing ponds, production ponds,
segregation ponds and breeding ponds or spawning ponds.
Nursery ponds are shallow, while the others are moderately deep. In
larger production ponds, water can be maintained at a depth of 2 to 3
meters.
82
Preparation of pond involves making the pond weed and predator free.
Also generation of adequate food to ensure the survival of good growth
of the fishes is important part of preparation of pond. This includes two
stages namely, conditioning and manuring.
Conditioning of pond: A layer of lime is spread over the bottom of the
pond for two weeks. It removes the acidity of the soil and facilitates
desirable geochemical cycles and also kills unwanted soil organisms.
Water is let in slowly after two weeks and filled to the desired depth.
The quality parameters such as temperature, oxygen content, pH,
turbidity, hardness, alkalinity and plankton growth should be checked
for optimal levels, before stocking the fish.
Manuring of pond: After conditioning of the pond, organic or chemical
manure is applied in order to develop the fish food organisms like
phytoplankton and zooplankton. Organic manure may be urine or
sewage rich in nitrogenous matter like cow dung, pig dung, poultry
manure and plant manure such as green manure, compost, oil cake etc.
Use of chemical fertilizers varies according to the concentration of
phosphorus and nitrogen in the soil.
3.1.4.2. Culturing of fish
The culturing of fish includes all the following steps,
Spawning: Spawning can be either natural or artificially induced. The
brood fish spawn naturally on the plants of the spawning pond.
Artificially the brood fish are made to breed in the hatcheries by
injecting them with the hormones.
Larval phase: In the pre-larval phase, the newly hatched fry come out
of the eggs. During the larval phase, the fry swim up and now they are
called hanging fry. These fry feed on rotifers as their first food.
Nursing phase: Carps can be generally nursed both in ponds and in
specially constructed tanks. Is there are many predators in the area of
the pond then tanks are best option. The tanks or ponds must contain
dense populations of Paramecium and rotifers. The nursed fry enters
adolescent phase and now they are called fingerlings. The fingerlings
must be fed with artificial proteins as well as natural foods.
83
Fig. 3.8. Carp culture
3.1.4.3. Management of fish pond
Feed and water qualities are the two major factors governing the
productivity of the fish culture pond. Also seed quality, stocking and
other management measures also determine the extent of fish
production. Water quality involves the regulation of Temperature at 25-
33°C, dissolved oxygen, pH around 6.5 – 9.0, hardness, alkalinity,
turbidity and plankton culture etc.
3.1.4.4. Harvesting of fish
Generally carps are reared in both undrainable and drainable ponds with
long harvesting ditches. During harvesting the must be drained slowly.
84
Since carp tend to swim towards incoming water, a small quantity of
water is flowed into the pond near the drainage site to concentrate the
fish. When a large quantity of fish is concentrated in the harvesting pits
aeration should be supplied. Finally, the fishes are harvested with drag
nets.
3.1.4.5. Handling and processing
If harvesting is carried out in warm water, the fish are pre-conditioned
by repeated stressing before netting. Harvested fish can be transferred
live in aerated tanks for 3-5 hours. The density of fish in transport tanks
and the duration of transport depend on fish size, temperature and the
amount of aeration. The majority of carps is transferred live to markets,
and is sold either live or freshly dressed.
3.2. OYSTER CULTURE
3.2.1. INTRODUCTION
The oysters are highly esteemed sea food and considered a delicacy in
USA, Europe, Japan etc. In India there is a growing demand for oyster
meat in some parts of the country. It is said that ‗oyster‘ is scientifically
the best known marine animal. It is one of the most widely cultivated
species. As early as the first century BC the Romans were the first to
develop simple methods of collecting oyster seeds and growing them for
food. The Japanese developed farming methods that yielded good
results. The awareness about the vast potentialities for development of
oyster farming in tropics is recent. Serious efforts are now being
directed in its development under tropical conditions.
The shape of the oyster is extremely variable depending on the
environment in which it is grown.
 Smooth and elongated when grown individually on soft
substrata.
 Corrugated and circular shell with lower valve deep when grown
individually on hard substratum.
 Irregular shape when grown with other oysters.
 Circular / elongated with reduced cupped nature when grown
fixed to a firm substratum
85
 The condition index of the oysters denotes the quality of the
meat and it is useful to determine the best period for harvest. It is
also helpful to assess the suitability of a locality for culture.
High condition indicates greater proportion of meat in the whole
weight of the oyster; those in prime condition are tasty when
compared to the flaccid and watery meats of oysters in poor
condition.
 The soft body of the oyster undergoes changes, which are
usually related to the reproductive cycle. During the maturation
process the gonad increases in weight resulting in increase in the
weight of soft body. Before the commencement of spawning the
condition index reaches high value and with the release of
gametes, the soft body of the oyster looses weight. The condition
factor is studied based on weight, volume of both. The
percentage of wet flesh weight in total weight gives the
condition.
 Condition Index = Weight of dry meat weight x 1000 / Volume
of shell cavity
 In C. madrasensis the condition is considered as high if it is
above 140 and poor if it is below 70.
3.2.2. Seed Collection:
Oyster seed are collected from estuaries by placing suitable
collectors called cultch in the water column at appropriate period.
During spawning seasons the spat collectors are suspended from
racks.
How to prepare a cultch?
Cultch is the term used for spat / seed collector. For suspended method
of oyster culture cutch made of oyster shells have been found to be
ideal. Empty oyster shells are cleaned manually to remove the foulers
and then washed to remove silt. A small hole is made on the shell and
these are strung on 3mm dia nylon rope with a spacing of 15 to 20 cm
between each shell (5 shells per meter rope). Such strings are called ren.
The spaced rens can be used as such for grow out system. For seed
collection purposes the shells are strung continuously without spacers (
86
10 to 15 shells per meter) and after the attachment of seed they shells
can be removed and restrung at the rate of 5 shells per meter which is
the ideal density for grow out. If the oysters are to be grown by the tray
method then empty shells or lime coated tiles can be placed in the trays
for seed collection. Lime coated tiles gave encouraging results and on a
single tile, as many as 120 larvae are known to settle.
When to place the cultch for seed collection?
One of the main factors that determine the success of the farming
operation is the period when the clutches are placed for seed collection.
If they are laid in advance of spatfall, they may be covered with silt or
settlement of foulers, making them unsuitable for the oyster larvae to
settle. The larval period in C. madrasensis is 15-20 days. The ideal time
for laying the spat collectors in the water is about 7 -10 days after peak
spawning (as determined by gonad examination and abundance of early
larval stages in the plankton). Strong currents interfere with larval
settlement and may result in poor spat collection.
Selection of farm site: For site selection several factors are to be
considered
Methodology for determination of
Parameter Range
the parameter
Salinity
1 10 to 38 By titration or refractometer
(ppt)
2 Depth ( m ) 1.5 – 4 By sounding or manual
Temperature
3 o
23- 34 Using thermometer
C
Dissolved
4 3–5 Winkler method or by using probe
oxygen mg/l
5 pH 6.5 – 8.5 pH meter or pH paper
Turbulence
6 due to wave < 0.5 to 1 By observation and local enquiry
( m)
7 Water 1–5 Current meter or from literature
87
Methodology for determination of
Parameter Range
the parameter
current m /
second
8 Clarity (m) 0.5 –1.5 By Sechii disc
Availability
9 Within 100 m By enquiry / observation
of seed
Local
10 Average to good By enquiry / observation
market
Faecal
Industrial
If free from
Agriculture
11 various By enquiry /observation
Sewage
pollution
like Retting
Oil
Sheltered areas offering protection from strong wave action are
preferred. From intertidal region to areas extending upto about 5 m
depth can be considered for adopting suitable culture method. Similarly
the culture technique is adopted depending upon the type of substratum.
On-bottom culture method is substrate-specific while off-bottom
method has little to do with the nature of substratum. Large-scale
moralities have been reported in salinities below 10 and above 40 ppt
when the natural oyster populations of C. madrasensis were exposed for
prolonged periods. The natural populations occur at a temperature range
of 21 to 31oC.
3.2.3. Farming methods:
They are broadly grouped as bottom (on bottom) culture and off-bottom
culture. Raft, rack, long-line and stake are used in the various off-bottom
culture practices. The off-bottom culture methods are advantageous over the
bottom culture in the following respects.
1. Relatively rapid growth and good meat yield.
2. Facilities three-dimensional utilization of the culture area.
88
3. The biological functions of the oyster such as filtration feeding
etc. are carried out independent of the tidal flow,
4. Silting and predatory problems are negligible.
On bottom culture: The oysters are grown either in the intertidal or
subtidal area directly on hard substratum. For intertidal culture a
minimum of 16 hours submergence is suggested to ensure adequate
food supply. Oyster seed attached to the collectors are planted on the
bottom and allowed to grow for the market. The disadvantages of this
method are increased exposure to benthic predation, siltation and low
production. In U.S.A. the production is estimated at 5 t/ha/year and in
France 7.5 t/ha/year. This method is yet to be experimented in India.
Rack and Ren Method: It is also called ren method. The racks are
constructed in 1 to 2.5 m, depth There are several variations in the types
of racks. The single beam rack consists of a beam placed and secured to
the top of posts driven into the bottom. A series of single beams are
placed in a row. The crossbeam rack is constructed by placing cross bar
on top of single posts and two long beams are secured on the end of
cross beams. In the farm, the shell strings are suspended from racks. The
mortality (including those fallen) is about 45%.
Rack and Tray Method
The nursery-reared single spat (cultch-free) measuring about 25 mm are
transferred to trays of size 40 x 40 x 10 cm at a density of 150 to 200
oysterlings/ tray. The tray is knitted with 2 mm synthetic twine of
appropriate mesh and is suspended from rack. Once the oysters reach 50
mm length they are segregated and transferred to rectangular tray of size
90 x 60 x 15 cm these trays are placed on the racks. Each tray holds 150
to 200 oysters. The average growth rate of the oyster is 7 mm/month
and at the end of 12 months the oysters attain an average length of 85
mm in Tuticorin. The production is estimated at 120 t/ha/year.
Compared to the string method, this method gives production but the
production cost is high.
Stake culture: A stake is driven into the substratum and on the top end
one nail and on the sides two nails are fixed. The nail holds in position a
shell with spat attached. The stakes are placed 60 cm apart. In this
89
method, the nursery rearing of spat is carried on the same stake . For
about two months the spat on the top end of the stake are covered by a
piece of velon screen. Once the oysters attain 25-30 mm the velon
screen is removed and in another 10 months they reach the marketable
size. The growth rate of the oysters in this method is the same as that of
the oysters raised by the string method. The production is estimated at
20 t/ha/year.
Farm Management: Periodic checking of the farms is essential. The

main points to be checked are replacement of broken farm structure and
re suspending loosened rens which touch the estuarine bottom. High
mortality rates have been observed when the rens fall on the ground. To
tide over these problems periodic checking is essential.
Predaters and foulers are also a menace to oyster farmers. Crabs, fishes,
starfishes, polychaetes and gastropods are the predators of oysters.
Barnacles are fouler that settles on the wooden structures, trays and
oysters. It competes for food with the oysters. It also increases the
weight of the ren causing damage to the farm structure.
Large scale moralities of oysters due to the diseases caused by the
fungus Perkinsus marinus, and the protozoan parasite Minchinia
nelsoni, have been reported from temperate countries.oysters in the
natural bed at Tuticorin have been observed to be infected by
P.marinus.
3.2.4. Harvest of oysters
The oysters are harvested when the condition is high. Along Kerala
harvest is ideal during May in Vembanad and Chettuva estuary and
during August – October in Ashtamudi Lake. Generally high condition
index is obtained when the gonad is ripe prior to spawning. Harvesting
is done manually.
Depuration
Oysters, like other filter-feeding bivalves, accumulate pathogenic
organisms in their body. Members of the Salmonella group cause
typhoid fever, while coliforms and vibrios cause gastroenteritis. By
depuration the bacterial load is brought down to permissible levels, also
90
faeces, sand particles and silt are removed from the alimentary canal of
oysters.
The oysters are placed for 24 hours in cleaning tanks under a flow of
filtered seawater. About 10-20% of the seawater is continuously
replaced. At the end of 12 hours the water in the tank is drained and
oysters are cleaned by a strong jet of water to remove the accumulated
faeces. The tanks are again filled with filtered seawater and the flow is
maintained for another 12 hours. Then the tanks are drained and flushed
with a jet of filtered sea water. The oysters are held for about one hour
in 3 ppm chlorinated seawater, and then washed once again in filtered
seawater before marketing.
Transport and storage: Oysters kept under moist and cool conditions
survive for several days. However it is desirable that they reach the
consumer within three days of harvest. Studies indicate that oysters
packed in wet gunny bags are safely transported for 25-30 hours without
mortality and in good condition.
Shucking: The removal of the meat from the oyster is called shucking.
A stainless steel knife is used for the purpose. To render shucking easy,
oysters are subjected to a wide range of treatments such as exposure to
week hydrochloric acid, heat cold, vacuum, microwaves and lasers.
Freezing the oysters, or immersing them in hot water are the two
methods commonly followed. However in India steaming the oysters for
5 to 8 minutes has been found to be ideal to make the oysters open the
valves.
Processing: Oysters are eaten in fresh condition in the half shell in many
countries. The oysters are processed in several ways.
Frozen oysters: After depuration whole oysters (shell-on) are frozen by

spreading them in a single layer of trays in an air blast freezer with
polypropylene film stretched over each tray. Frozen whole oysters
packed in polythene bags remain in good condition for six months in
cold storage at 25oC. The liquid within the shell acts as a glaze to
protect the meat from dehydration.
91
Canned oysters:
Oyster meat is chilled, washed and blanched in 3% brine containing
0.1% citric acid for 4 to 5 minutes. The balanced meat is packed in cans,
and hot 2% brine with 0.1% citric acid is added to the cans. The cans are
seamed, sterilized at 115o C for 25 minutes and immediately chilled and
stored
Smoked oysters:
The meat is washed, treated with 5% brine for 5 minutes, drained,
dipped in edible oil, spread in a single layer on a nylon wire mesh,
drained again and loaded into a smoking chamber. The meat is held in
dense smoke and maintained at a temperature of 40 o C for 30 minutes
and later at 70 o C for 90 minutes. The smoked oysters are filled in cans
with hot refined oil. The cans are seamed, sterilized at 115 oC for 25
minutes and immediately chilled and stored.
Oyster stew:
Oyster which are too large or badly cut while shucking or those in low
condition, are prepared as for canning but are chopped into small pieces
and added to milk and spices.
3.2.5. POST-HARVEST
3.2.5.1. By-products and utilization
The two shell valves constitute about 85% of the total weight of oyster
and contain 52-55% calcium oxide. They are used in the manufacture of
calcium carbide, lime, fertilizers and cement. They are useful spat
collectors in oyster culture. The shells are broken to pieces and used as
poultry grit.
3.2.5.2. Quality of Oyster Meat and Shell
Oyster meat is relished in most nations. The proximate composition of
the oyster meat and the medicinal values attributed to it are given below.
 Oyster meat consists of 52% protein, 14% glycogen and 11 %
fat
 Oyster powder contains wide range of minerals and vitamins and
the amino acid taurine, which has complex medical properties.
92
 Oyster powder has shown good results in skin care, numerous
heart ailments, blood pressure, liver problems, arthritis and
rheumatism, diabetes, water retention, premenstrual tension etc.
93
3.3. SHRIMP CULTURE
3.3.1. Shrimp species and their suitability

Many factors must be considered when a farmer is deciding which
species of shrimp he should culture. Due to its large size and high price,
Penaeus monodon and P. indicus are generally considered for farming.
It has also been seen that both these species are suitable for farming in
Kerala's environment. Apart from these candidate species other
commercially important species such as Metapenaeus ensis, M.
monoceros, M. brevicornis, Penaeus semisulcatus and P. merguiensis
are also potential species that can be grown in India. Another potential
candidate species that is flooding international market is the White leg
shrimp, Penaeus vannamei. Although the Government of India has not
yet given sanctions to culture it in the country, many Asian countries
have already started to culture this species.
3.3.2. Site Selection
Selection for a suitable site is a critical activity and must be carefully
determined before establishing of a shrimp farm. Site evaluation is not
only undertaken to determine if a site is suitable for shrimp farming. It
is also valuable in determining what modifications are needed
concerning layout, engineering, and management practices to make
shrimp farming possible at a given site. No site will have all the
desirable characteristics, so a number of judgements have to be made
for every site.
There are several factors involved during site selection.
3.3.3. Topography and Climatic Condition
Topographically, the best areas for shrimp culture are those with
average natural ground elevations of about 1-3 m above mean sea level
or at least 1 m above the highest high tide level to allow drainage and
harvesting. The cost of pumping increases in highly elevated sites. The
sites should have minimum vegetative cover, be near the sea or other
94
natural waterways such as rivers and streams, have easy access to roads,
a sparse population and be nearly square or rectangular in shape.
3.3.4. Infrastructure
Accessibility: The farm must have good accessibility either by road or
water, and communication systems throughout the year in order to
facilitate supervision and transport of materials and products.
Availability of relatively cheap and reliable power source is a major
consideration in site selection.
Water Supply; Site should have good pollution free water supply of
both freshwater and brackish water. Water quality parameters required
for maximum feed efficiency and maximum growth of Penaeus
monodon are given below:
Water Parameters Optimum level
Dissolved Oxygen 3.5-4 ppm
Salinity 10-25 ppt
Water Temperature 26-32 (°C)
pH 6.8-8.7
Total nitrite nitrogen 1.0 ppm
Total ammonia (less than) 1.0 ppm
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 10 ppm
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 70 ppm
Transparency 35 cm
Carbon dioxide (less than) 10 ppm
Sulphide (less than) 0.003 ppm
Water from polluted areas containing high concentrations of suspended
solids and organic wastes such as effluent water from industry; urban
areas, agricultural and other farm locales should be avoided. A settling
pond or a large reservoir should be used in such areas for sedimentation
and treatment. In saline areas, a source of freshwater is useful for
adjusting the salinity in the ponds and for domestic use by farm staff.
The freshwater should be good enough for use and adequate throughout
the year.
95
3.3.5. Soil Conditions
The type of soil is the most critical in site selection, since the shrimp
will spend most of their time on the pond bottom during the culture
period. Usually, clay or loam-based soil containing more than 90% clay
and pH between 6.5-8.5 is preferable. Sites with sandy or silty soil
should be avoided due to their porous nature that may lead to erosion,
seepage of water and easy infiltration of waste into the soil. Prior to
construction of ponds, samples of soil should be taken randomly from 5-
10 spots at the surface and at 1 meter deep and sent to a laboratory for
the analysis of soil texture and pH. Such data will be useful during pond
construction and preparation.
3.3.6. Pond Design and Construction:
A shrimp pond should be designed according to the characteristics of
the selected site and the culture system. There is no unique design, but
optimum and functional farm layout plan and design should be based on
the physical and economic conditions prevailing in the locality.
3.3.7. Culture systems:
There are three types of shrimp culture being practiced in most
countries.
3.3.7.1. Traditional/Extensive Cultures
The ponds have irregular shapes and sizes, mostly 1.5 ha and bigger
with a peripheral ditch or canal of 4-10 m wide and 40-80 cm deep. The
pond bottom may not be properly leveled, but tree stumps are usually
removed, although this is not required. Ponds are normally filled with
gravity flow water during the high tide period with natural seeds and left
for 60-90 days, without additional seed stocking and feeding. Stocking
density in this type of culture is 0.5-5.0 pcs/m2. These ponds are
normally partially harvested.
3.3.7.2. Semi-Intensive Culture
Ponds of 1-1.5 ha in size and are constructed with dikes to hold the
water 1-1.5 m deep. PL are stocked into the pond at 10-15 PL/m2 and
fed with commercial diets and/or fresh diets. The shrimp are harvested
at 90-120 days after stocking.
96
3.3.7.3. Intensive Culture
The ponds are usually of 0.5-1 ha in size and are designed to keep the
water at 1.5-2.0 m deep. A reservoir of at least 30 % of the pond area is
usually required. High stocking density of 25-60 PL/m2 with feeding
rate of 4-6 times daily and strong aeration is maintained.
3.3.7.4. Open System
This system requires a high supply of good quality water because it
needs a water, exchange of more than 20% of the total pond volume at
one time, in order to reduce pond wastes and the density of the plankton.
Seed can be stocked up to 60 PL/m2 and will grow to 25-35 grams
within 120 days. The open system has recently become less favorable to
farmers since the environmental conditions, especially the quality of
water, tend to deteriorate with time.
3.3.7.5. Farm Design
An extensive shrimp farm should be of the size 0.4 - 0.5 ha and
preferably drainable from the management point of view. The ponds
generally should have concrete dikes, elevated concrete supply canal
with separate drain gates and adequate life supporting devices like
generators and aerators. The design, elevation and orientation of the
water canals must be related to the elevation of the area with particular
reference to the mean range of tidal fluctuation. The layout of the canals
and dikes may be fitted as closely as technically possible to existing
land slopes and undulation for minimizing the cost of construction.
Water Supply System: A shrimp pond is filled with water mostly by
pumping. The pumps should be installed at locations where they can
obtain water from the middle of the water column with least
sedimentation and pollution. The pumps and inlet canal should be large
enough to allow the ponds or the reservoir to be filled within 4-6 hrs. A
screen should be installed at the inlet canal prior to the pumps to prevent
clogging at the inlets.
Reservoir: A reservoir is important for the control of pond environment
and storage of water supply when the water quality is inconsistent or the
supply is intermittent. It is recommended that the area of a reservoir
within a farm should be about 30% of the total farm area in order to
97
hold a sufficient volume of the water supply. Some farms may use part
of the reservoir for sedimentation purpose where biological filter
feeding organisms are stocked. The reservoir must have an outlet that
can allow total drainage.
Supply Canals: An intensive shrimp farm should have a water supply
canal to convey the water from the reservoir to the ponds by gravity or
pumping. The size of the supply canal will depend on the size of the
culture pond, the efficiency of the pump and the required water
exchange rate.
Ponds: A well-designed pond will facilitate the management of water
exchange, harvesting of the product, waste collection and elimination,
and feeding.
(i) Shape: The shapes of pond that are found to be effective for shrimp
culture are rectangular, square and circular.
(ii) Size: Smaller ponds are easier to manage but the construction and
operation can be costly. Ponds of 0.5-1.0 ha. are commonly used in
intensive culture and 1-2 ha for semi-intensive culture.
Dikes: Earthen dikes, with or without lining, are found to be the most
economical. Dikes should be designed to impound higher than 1 m
depth of water and must be high enough to prevent flooding during the
rainy seasons and the highest high tide. The slope of the dike depends
on the nature of the soil. A slope of not less than 1:1.5 is normally used
in the sandy soil area to avoid erosion and 1:1 is used for clay soils. One
must be aware that shallow slopes will encourage the growth of benthic
algae which will impair the quality of the water in the pond. Some dikes
in a farm may be wider than the others to provide space for the access
road, storage, electricity and aerators.
Pond Lining: Lining materials are used in pond where the soil contains
a high percentage of sand, and organic matter and is acidic in nature.
Lining can reduce erosion, water seepage, waste accumulation in the
soil and the leaching of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, acidic compounds,
iron and other potentially stressful compounds into the ponds. The
lining also allows easy removal of wastes from the feeding areas,
reducing the time and costs to clean the ponds between cycles. Several
98
lining materials are currently available. The economic life of liners
varies according to the maintenance and the duration of exposure to
sunlight.
Gates for Inlet and Outlet: Each shrimp pond should have at least one
gate for filling and draining water. However, a typical pond of 0.5-1 ha
usually consists of two gates having similar structure for the inlet and
outlet gates.
3.3.8. Pond Management
3.3.8.1. Pond Preparation:
Before a pond can be stocked for a new crop, the excessive wastes,
which accumulate in the pond during the previous crop, must be
removed and the soil and water conditioned. Growing of shrimp in an
improperly prepared pond may lead to difficulty in pond management
during the culture period, which could result in a decrease in production
capacity of the pond.
Pond Cleaning: The cleaning of a pond or removal of the wastes,
especially the organic and phosphatic wastes that have accumulated in
the pond bottom could be, accomplished by drying, liming and
ploughing. However, these methods could still leave an adverse effect
on the water and soil quality in the pond, which could result in a
decrease in the production capacity of the pond.
Eradication of Predators: After liming, the pond should be filled to
the maximum depth through a screen with fine mesh to prevent the
predators and competitors from entering the pond. These animals,
including fish, crustaceans and some invertebrates, may compete for
food, prey on the shrimp or carry diseases and parasites.
Fertilization: The pond must be fertilized with either organic or
inorganic fertilizer to stimulate the plankton bloom in order to provide
shade to the pond bottom and utilize the nitrogenous and phosphate
wastes within the pond. The shade will also prevent the growth of
harmful benthic algae. The sun dried chicken manure is the most
common organic fertilizer to be used in the amount of 200-300 kg/ha.
The manure must be soaked in water for 24 hours before it is spread
over the surface of the water.
99
Inorganic fertilizers, such as urea (46% N) and compound fertilizers
like, ammonium phosphate (16:20:0) or those with N:P:K combination
of (16:16:16) can be used at 20-30 kg./ha. The fertilizer must be
dissolved in water before it is spread over the water surface to avoid
precipitation of the fertilizer onto the pond bottom, which will enrich
the soil and accelerate the growth of benthic algae.
After fertilization, the plankton should bloom within a few days and the
colour of the water becomes slightly green. The fertilizer, either the
organic or inorganic, should be applied daily in the pond at 5-10 % of
the initial amount to maintain the plankton bloom.
Aeration: A 0.5-1.0 ha pond would require, four aerators installed at
the corners of the pond, approximately 3-5 m from the bottom of the
dike and positioned at an angle that will encourage the maximum water
flow within the pond.
Fig. 3.9.3
100
3.3.8.2. Stocking
The most suitable species for culture in India are the Indian white prawn
Penaeus indicus and tiger prawn P. monodon. The stocking density
varies with the type of system adopted and the species selected for the
culture. As per the directives of Supreme Court only traditional and
improved traditional shrimp farming can be undertaken within the
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) with a production range of 1 to 1.5
t/ha/crop with stocking density of 40,000 to 60,000/ha/crop. Outside
CRZ extensive shrimp farming with a production range of 2.5 to 3
t/ha/crop with stocking density of 1,00,000/ha/crop may be allowed.
Seed selection: Selection of good quality seed for stocking into a pond
is the first important step of the shrimp grow-out management. The
farmer must ensure that he or she gets healthy seed by purchasing them
from reliable hatchery or hatcheries. It may not always be possible to
obtain the desired shrimp seed due to limitations in availability and
quantity.
The following parameters should be taken into consideration in
purchasing shrimp seed for stocking.
(i) Size
(ii) Morphology
(iii) Colour
(iv) Behavior
(v) External Fouling
(vi) Pathogen Free
3.3.8.3. Stocking Density
When a farm is ready for operation, the optimum stocking density of PL
in a pond should be determined in accordance with the production
capacity of the farm and the culture system, which include the soil and
water quality, food availability, seasonal variations, target production,
and farmer's experience. It is recommended that farmers should start a
new crop with a low stocking density to access the production capacity
of the pond. If production is successful, then the stocking density could
be increased for subsequent crops. Overstocking should be avoided
101
since it may result in management problems and loss of entire
production.
The stocking density between 10-20 PL/m2 is usually practiced in a
semi-intensive culture. In an intensive culture, a well-managed pond
with consistent good water quality can stock up to 25-30 PL/m2 at 1.2
m water depth and up to 40-50 PL/m2 at 1.5 m water depth or deeper.
However, it must be emphasized that intensive cultures involve high
densities and can only be sustained in well-managed farms under an
experienced farmer.
Technique of Stocking: Proper stocking techniques will prevent
unnecessary mortality of seed. The following methods have shown
excellent results.
(i) Transportation
Seed are normally transported in plastic bags. The bags are usually
filled up to 1/3 with water, oxygenated and then placed inside styrofoam
boxes. If the transportation is longer than 6 hours, small bags of ice
should be added into the boxes to reduce the water temperature and
maintain it at 20-22oC. The densities of PL in a bag are 1,000-2,000
seed/l for PL 15 and 500-1,000 PL/l for PL 20. The ideal time for
transportation is in the early morning or evening to avoid excessively
high temperatures during the day, unless a covered vehicle is used.
(ii) Acclimation
To eliminate stress, the seed should be maintained in water of constant
salinity for at least 1-week prior to transfer. The adjustment of salinity
by about 3 ppt daily is advisable. Acclimation of seed to the water pH
and temperature of the pond must be rendered upon arrival.
3.3.8.4. Feed and Feeding
Cost of feed constitutes a major part of the production cost and accounts
for 50% to 70% of the total variable cost. The use of feeds will improve
shrimp production and increase profits. The availability of nutrients
from feeds depends on the type and quality of the raw material used, the
formulation, the feed processing, feed storage conditions and the
feeding management. Therefore, feed and feeding practices for semi-
102
intensive or intensive shrimp farming require a basic understanding of
nutrition and feed requirements.
Shrimp diets may be supplementary or complete. In a extensive system
the shrimps need a complete diet. Although natural food items have
good conversion values but they are difficult to procure in large
quantities and maintain a continuous supply. At present most of the
aquaculture farms depend on imported feed with a FCR (Food
Conversion Ratio) of 1:1.5 - 1.8. The feeding could be done by using
automatic feed dispensers, or by broadcasting all over the pond. If
feeding trays are employed in selected pockets in the pond wastage in
feed can be reduced.
Fig. 3.10.
3.3.8.5. Nutrient Requirements
Shrimp requires approximately 40 essential nutrients. These nutrients
are provided in various amounts by natural food and supplemental
feeds. Although the nutrition principles are similar for all animals, the
quality and quantity of nutrient requirements vary from species to
species. The recommended levels of nutrients and dietary components
for black tiger shrimp are listed in table below.
103
Recommended nutrient levels for shrimp feed on percentage fed
basis
Shrimp
Protein Fat Fiber Ash Moisture Calcium Phosphorus
size
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
(gm)
0.0-0.5 45 7.5 Max.4 Max.15 Max.12 Max.2.3 Min. 1.5
0.5-3.0 40 6.7 Max.4 Max.15 Max.12 Max.2.3 Min. 1.5
3.0-
38 6.3 Max.4 Max.15 Max.12 Max.2.3 Min. 1.5
15.0
15.0-
36 6.0 Max.4 Max.15 Max.12 Max.2.3 Min. 1.5
40.0
(Source : Lin, 1994)
Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): An ideal FCR always results in model
growth rate, healthy shrimp and clean pond bottom conditions. Only the
superior quality of feed can achieve an FCR of 1.2. According to recent
data, an FCR as low as 1.2 has been achieved, but many farmers are still
obtaining FCRs of higher than 2.2. Therefore, besides the feeding
management, the FCR is also closely related to the quality of feed.
Attractability : The model quality shrimp feed must be highly
palatable.
Good Water Stability : Since shrimp are a slow feeder animal, the
water stability of suitable feed should be over 2 hours for Penaeus
monodon.
Feeding Management: A high FCR or high amount of feed required to
produce unit weight gain indicates overfeeding, and consequently, a
poor FCR is usually associated with poor growth rate, low weight gain,
stressed shrimp, mediocre water quality and adverse pond bottom
conditions. Therefore, the proper amount of feed is the most critical
factor of feeding management.
104
Recommended Feeding Rate for Shrimp Based on Body Weight
Shrimp Live Body Recommended Feeding Rate
Weight (g) (% body weight/day)
2–3 8.0 - 7.0
3–5 7.0 - 5.5
5 – 10 5.5 - 4.5
10 – 15 4.5 - 3.8
15 – 20 3.8 - 3.2
20 – 25 3.2 - 2.9
25 – 30 2.9 - 2.5
30 – 35 2.5 - 2.3
35 – 40 2.3 - 2.1
(Source : Lin, 1991)
3.3.8.6. Water Quality Management
Water conditions in the rearing pond deteriorate through the production
cycle due to uneaten food, animal's excretion, etc. Generally, shrimp
farmers use dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, ammonia, water color and
water odor as indicators to judge the water quality of the pond. These
parameters are observed regularly by using either scientific equipment
or the farmer's experience in order to control them within the optimum
range.
Optimum water quality for P. monodon pond
Parameter Value
Dissolved Oxygen 4 (mg/l)
pH 7.5 - 8.5
Ammonia <0.1 (mg/l)
Transparency 30 - 45 (cm)
Water Exchange: Mass shrimp mortality in a pond associated with
deteriorating environmental conditions has occurred frequently during
the last 5 years. Shrimp farmers have tried to solve this problem by
changing the culture system to a low water exchange system, including
105
partial water re-circulation, full water re-circulation and a closed
system.
Partial water re-circulation shrimp farming system is practiced where a
supply of good quality water may only be available for short periods of
time. Normally, the farm area is divided into 4 portions: culture area
(60-70%), effluent settlement (10%), mixing reservoir (5-10%), and
inlet reservoir (15-20%).
In the full water re-circulation shrimp farming system, where seawater
can be treated and re-circulated, the farm area is divided into the culture
area (40-50%), inlet water treatment (15%), seawater storage reservoir
(20-25%) and effluent settlement pond (15-20%).
In the close shrimp culture system or zero-water discharge system, no
pond water exchange is needed. However, the aeration in the pond must
be adequate for shrimp respiration and oxidation of organic waste.
Additional seawater may be required to make up for losses in the
system. The technique provides disease-free seawater with no effluent
being discharged. Shrimp may grow slowly and furnish lower
production than those of an open or water circulation system.
3.3.8.7. Harvesting and Handling
Successful harvesting can be achieved if the shrimp can be harvested in
good condition within a short period of time. The harvesting technique
should not damage or excessively contaminate the shrimp with waste.
Rapid harvesting will reduce the risk of bacterial contamination and the
shrimp will still be fresh when reaching the processor.
Complete harvesting can be carried out by draining the pond water
through a bag net and hand picking. The average culture period required
is around 120-150 days during which time the prawns will grow to 20-
30 gm size (depending on the species). It is possible to get two crops in
a year. Harvested shrimps can be kept between layers of crushed ice
before transporting the consignment to market.
3.3.8.8. Disease, Prevention and Treatment
Cultured shrimps suffer from various diseases due to infectious and
non-infectious causes. Infectious diseases are caused by viruses,
bacteria, fungi and certain parasites. Treatment cannot be carried out
106
effectively when shrimp diseases occur in a pond. The best way to get
rid of diseases is by practicing good farm management or prevention. In
this regard, information on various kinds of diseases and their
prevention procedures are useful.
Infectious Diseases
A. Virus Infection
(i) Monodon Baculovirus Disease (MBV)
Clinical Signs: Lethargy, anorexia, poor feeding, dark colouration and
reduced growth rate. Infected shrimps are often associated with fouling
of gills and appendages by ciliates such as Zoothamnium spp. and
Vorticella spp. Acute infection leads to loss of epithelial cells of
hepatopancreas.
Prevention and Control: There is little information on prevention and
control of the MBV infection in shrimp pond culture. The prevention
method for the MBV infection is possibly through avoidance by
screening the PL's before stocking shrimp in the pond.
(ii) Hepatopancreatic Parvo-like Virus (HPV) Disease
Clinical Signs: Reduced feeding, poor growth rate, body surface and
gill fouling with ciliates and occassional opacity of abdominal muscles.
Severe infections may include a whitish and atrophied hepatopancrease,
anorexia and reduced preening activity. Losses may be occur due to the
increased occurance of surface and gill fouling organisms and secondary
infections by the opportunistic Vibrio spp.
Prevention and Control: No information is available on the prevention
and control procedures for HPV infection. However, screening the PLs
before stocking shrimp by routine histology or the Giemsa-impression
smear method is recommended.
(iii) Yellow-head Disease (YHD)
Clinical Signs: The affected shrimp shows a marked reduction in food
consumption. Following this, a few moribund shrimp will appear
swimming slowly near the surface of the pond dike and remain
motionless. The animals have pale bodies, a swollen cephalothorax with
a light yellow to yellowish hepatopancreas and gills. A high mortality
107
rate may reach 100% of affected populations within 3-5 days from the
onset of disease.
Prevention and Control: The reliable method to prevent the
occurrence of YHD is possibly through avoidance, such as careful
selection of post larvae, reduction or elimination of horizontal
transmission including carriers, disinfection of contaminated ponds or
equipment with 30 ppm; and chlorine, providing shrimp with good
waterquality and proper nutrition.
(iv) White Spot Disease (WSD)
Etiological Agent:The disease is caused by the dsDNA virus, Systemic
Ectodermal and Mesodernal Baculovirus (SEMBV).
Clinical Signs: Clinically affected shrimp were first seen to swim to the
water surface and congregate at the pond dikes. Typical clinical signs
include white spots or patches, 1-2 mm in diameter, on the inside of the
shell and carapace, accompanied by reddish discoloration of the body.
SEMBV is able to cause acute epizootics of 5-10 days duration with
mortality rate from 40% to 100%.
Diagnosis Procedure: The diagnosis procedure of SEMBV infection is
based on the appearance of the intranuclear hypertrophy in stained
histological sections and the presence of virus particles in the nucleus of
the infected cells observed under the electron microscope. PCR
technique is recently used to detect SEMBV in shrimp larval and other
stages, including broodstock and subclinical virus carriers.
Prevention and Control: Prevention practices through avoidance are
strongly recommended for the farmers, involving the combinations of
efficient pond management, use of proper feed, selection of good
quality of PL, reduction of possible carriers, avoidance of introduction
of contaminated water into the pond, and disinfection of all equipment
and utensils.
108
Fig.. 3.11. (Source: FAO technical paper)
(v) Infectious Hepatopancreatic and Lymphoid Organ Necrosis
(IHLN)
Clinical Signs:Light pinkish to yellowish discolouration of the
cephalothorax region. Often fouling by ciliate protozoan Zoothamnium
seen. Blackened and necrotic hepatopancreas. Secondary bacterial
infection from bacteria such as Vibrio alginolyticus seen.
Prevention and Control:Keep the physico-chemical condition of pond
environment within acceptable levels. To avoid bacterial and viral
pathogen entering from outside, closed culture could be useful in
prevention of IHLN disease.
B. Bacterial Infection
(i) Luminous Vibriosis (Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio vulnificus)
Clinical Signs:High mortality rate in young juvenile shrimp (one month
syndrome). Moribund shrimp hypoxic often come to the pond surface
and edges of pond. Vertical swimming behavior immediately before
onset of acute mortality. Presence of luminescent shrimp in ponds.
Prevention and Control: Proper pond and water management.
Utilization of reservoir for intake water.
(ii) Vibriosis
Clinical Signs:High mortality rates, particularly in young juvenile
shrimp. Moribund shrimp with corkscrew swimming behavior appear at
edge of pond. Reddish discoloration of juvenile shrimp.
Prevention and Control: Proper pond and water management and
utilization of reservoir for intake water.
109
C. Fungal Infestation
(i) Larval Mycosis
Clinical Signs: Eggs and larve are weak and appear whitish. Moratlities
may reach 100% within two days. Fungal mycelium replaces the larval
tissues and ramifies into all parts of the body and protrudes out of the
body and develops into sporangia.
Prevention and Control: General hatchery management practices such
as use of UV sterilised and filtered seawater, adequate water exchange
etc., must be strictly followed.
D. Protozoan and Parasitic Infestation
(i) Black Gill Disease
Clinical Signs: Brownish to blackish discoloration on the gills of
juvenile shrimp.
Prevention and Control : No information on prevention and control.
However, good management of the pond bottom and prevention of the
entry of wild crustaceans into the pond, which may carry pathogen, can
be effective control practices.
110
3.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM OF SHRIMP CULTURE
3.4.1. Introduction
Aquaculture has emerged as a means of alternative food security,
employment generation and source of providing nutrition to the poorer
section of the society especially in the developing world. Empirical
records show that World aquaculture production has increased by 11%
in quantitative terms and by almost 50% in value terms over the time
period 1988 to 1997. Asian region occupies a major share in world
aquaculture. The region provides 91 percent of global aquaculture
production, where the top 10 Asian aquaculture producers are China,
India, Japan etc.
In most parts of Asia, the aquaculture have been developed as a
commercial activity. The possibility of higher yield has attracted higher
private sector participation and the potential of this sector to act as a
means of alternative employment generation, food security and rural
development has encouraged state patronage towards this sector. The
promotion of aquaculture has got a new dimension in the recent years.
That is the sustainability issues related to this sector. The concept of
sustainable development has emerged as one of the most discussed issue
after the Brundland commission. ‗Sustainability ‘is considered to be the
long term and difficult to achieve goal of reaching an environmentally
socially and economically sustainable state. The processes by which this
goal is approached are encompassed by the term ‗sustainable
development. Like any other economic activities aquaculture also has
several negative and positive environmental and social impacts which
demand attention towards sustainable development of that sector.
The economic benefits from shrimp industry can be manifold both for
the national and local economy. At the national level the foreign
exchange earnings and employment generation is much important. But
at the local and regional level the socio-economic impacts together are
the matters of concern. To understand the impacts on employment, we
need to look into the sectoral components of this industry and the
111
stakeholders associated with the industry. Though it varies across
countries and farming practices, in general the sector consists of the
sub-sectors and stakeholders.
The world wide commercial shrimp culture employs about one person
per ton of produce i.e.,
approximately one million persons. But this is the direct employment.
The employment effect will be larger if multiplier effect is added. In
many countries this multiplier effect has been calculated.
The farmers have reported increased landlessness and vulnerability due
to the repeated crop failures and encroachment of the land by large
farmers. They identified two kinds of conflicts between the outsiders
and local people.
 conflict between local and outsider shrimp farmers
 conflict between local self employed and hired labourers
 conflict between local and outsider labourers
3.4.2. Environmental problems
The shrimp culture intervenes in the issue of maintenance of ecological
sustainability (the effects of
which are economically important) mainly in two ways. First, by the
destruction of mangrove ecosystems due to conversion of these areas
into shrimp farming and the problems related to degradation of land and
water. Among them the non-availability of potable water for irrigation
and drinking purposes due to over pumping of ground water and the
pollution of the water bodies due to the effluent discharge by intensive
shrimp farming practices are important.
3.4.3. FRESHWATER PRAWN CULTURE
Fresh Water Prawn (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii), the second largest
fast-growing prawn occurs commonly in Indian rivers, draining into
Bay of Bengal. They are cultivated under monoculture as well as
polyculture systems. Under monoculture systems production levels of
750-1,500 kg prawns/ha/ 8 months are achieved. Further, it is a
compatible species for polyculture along with Indian Major Carps and
Chinese carps, which may yield 400 kg prawns and 3000 kg carps/ha/yr.
Since the seed requirement for the commercial farming of this species is
112
not met from the natural resources, large-scale seed production under
controlled conditions for year-round supply is extremely important. The
technologies of large-scale seed production and grow-out culture have
led to increased awareness of the farmers and entrepreneurs for
diversification of their culture practice.
3.4.3.1. Broodstock Management
Broodstock and berried females are essential component for continuous
operation for seed production. The gonadal maturation of the species
differs greatly in nature depending on the agro-climatic conditions. In
the Ganga, the Hooghly and the Mahanadi river systems, the maturation
and breeding start from May and continue till the end of October,
whereas in the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery systems it
commences from April and continue till November. Under pond
conditions, sexual maturity generally occur after attaining a maximum
size of 60-70 mm. Berried females are recorded year-round in most of
the ponds. The ratio of berried females in total population is found to be
higher during August-September and during this period they carry good
quantity of eggs (8000-80,000). Prawns breed 3-4 times in a season.
Successful community breeding and year-round seed production under
captive conditions is possible by employing air-lift bio-filter re-
circulatory system.
Spawning and Larval Rearing: Mating takes place immediately after
pre-mating moult in matured female and spawning occurs few hours
after mating. Incubation period of eggs lasts between 10-15 days
depending upon the water temperature of 28-30°C. However, at lower
temperature, the incubation period is prolonged to more than 21 days.
Hatching of fully developed 1st zoea takes place through the body
stretching of the zoea, which breaks the eggshell and comes out from
the egg and starts swimming as plankton.
Different larval rearing technologies viz., static, flow-through, clear or
green water, closed or semi-closed, with or without circulation systems
of larval rearing of prawn species under hatchery conditions have been
developed with varying degrees of success. The green water technique
has been claimed to increase the post-larval production by 10-20% over
113
other techniques and provide a quality seed. But higher mortalities are
generally encountered due to rise in pH and uncontrolled algal bloom.
Further, increase in numbers of adult Artemia, due to abundance of feed
in green water, contributes to accumulation of ammonia in the culture
medium. The production of post-larvae (PL) in large numbers is
possible following airlift bio-filter re-circulatory system. The larvae
passed through 11 zoeal stages before attaining PL within a period of
39-60 days at salinity and temperature ranging from 18-20‰ and 28-
31°C, respectively, with the production density of 10-20 PL/l.
Bio-filter equipped with air-lift re-circulation has shown promising
results in maintaining favorable water quality in different rearing media
with enhanced rate of post-larval production. The water quality
parameter generally influences the growth, survival and metamorphosis
of the developing larvae and it should be maintained optimally for
getting better survival
Parameter Range
Temperature : 28-30°C,
pH : 7.8-8.2,
Dissolved Oxygen : 4.4 to 5.2,
Total hardness : 3000-4500 ppm
Total alkalinity : 80-150 ppm
Salinity : 18-20‰
Ammonical nitrogen : 0.02-0.12 ppm
3.4.3.2. Larval Feeding
Various feed items viz., Artemia nauplii, zooplankton especially
cladocerans, copepods, rotifers, flesh of prawn and fish, molluscan
meat, earthworms, tubificid worm, egg custard and cut pieces of
goat/hen viscera are used during larval rearing. Among these Artemia
nauplii have been recognized as an excellent larval food for the prawn
larvae. At the beginning, freshly hatched Artemia nauplii are provided
to the 1st stage zoea at 1 g/30,000 larvae twice daily up to 15 days or till
114
they attain stage VI. Thereafter, the feed is given once daily along with
egg custard and mussel meat/tubificid worm four times daily.
3.4.3.3. Harvesting of Post-larvae

Harvesting of post-larvae of prawn is rather difficult due to their
crawling habit. Therefore, both turn-down and drain siphoning of water
are commonly used for harvesting. But due to longer duration for
attaining post-larval stage the above methods are neither useful nor safe.
Further, the presence of post-larvae in the larval tank affects the growth
and survival of advanced larvae due to competition for food and
cannibalism. Hence, the need for an ideal device for regular harvest of
post-larvae from the rearing unit is very much essential. String shell is
therefore devised and is successfully used for phase wise harvest of
post-larvae during larval rearing. Post-larval survival and production
rates, following air-left bio-filter re-circulatory system, are in the range
of 10-20 PL/l.
3.4.3.4. Post-larval Rearing

Optimum growth, production and survival of prawns can be achieved in
grow-out ponds on stocking the nursery reared juveniles rather than
stocking directly with the freshly metamorphosed post-larvae. Post-
larvae slowly adopt themselves to freshwater. Optimum growth and
survival of healthy juveniles during post-larval rearing is achieved at
salinity of 10parts per thousand.
Post-larval rearing can be done both in well-prepared earthen ponds
with adequate aeration facility and inside the hatchery following bio-
filter re-circulatory system. Stocking density, feed and water quality
management play the major role in raising healthy juveniles during
rearing. Stocking density between 10-15 PL/l is ideal. Among various
feed items, egg custard along with chopped freshwater mussel meat
have been established to be more effective in maintaining good
growth. Water quality parameters, viz., water temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen and dissolved ammonia in the ranges of 27.5-30ºC, 7.8-8.3, 4.4-
5.2 ppm and 0.02-0.03 ppm, respectively are considered to be favorable
for better survival.
115
3.4.3.5. Grow-out Culture
Grow-out system of prawn is normally comparable to that of freshwater
fish farms. As the prawns can migrate from one pond to other due to its
crawling habit, it is necessary to have the pond embankment 0.5 m
higher from the water level. Sandy-clay pond bottom is considered to be
favourable for better growth. Undrainable ponds may be treated with
conventional piscicides for eradication of predatory and weed fishes.
Stocking density of 30,000 to 50,000/ha is recommended for semi-
intensive monoculture farming. Ponds with the facility of water
exchange and aeration can be used for intensive farming where stocking
density could be increased to 1 lakh/ha. Temperature is the most
important factor which directly controls the growth and survival of
prawns. Temperatures above 35°C or below 14°C are generally reported
to be lethal and 29-31°C is optimal.
Male prawns grow faster than females. Mixture of groundnut oil cake
and fish meal in the proportion 1:1 is used as supplementary feed. A
production of 750-1200 kg/ha in six months of rearing are achieved
under monoculture with the stocking density of 30,000-50,000. In
polyculture, M. malcolmsonii at a stocking density of 10,000-20,000/ha
along with carps at density of 2,500-3,500 nos/ha, a production of 300-
400 kg prawn and 2000-3000 kg carps can also be raised.
3.4.3.6. Disease Management
Health, Predation and Disease
Continuous exchange of a small proportion of the water is the normal
way of maintaining good water quality. However, some farmers change
water more suddenly every two weeks, and in much larger proportions,
because this tends to make the prawns moult. The more that moult (and
are therefore soft-shelled) at the same time, the less potential losses
there may be due to cannibalism. Low dissolved oxygen should be
suspected if prawns begin to crawl out of the ponds or congregate at the
edges of the pond in daylight. If this problem occurs, flush the pond.
Very high pH levels in freshwater prawn ponds can cause prawn
mortalities, both because of the direct effect of the pH itself and because
116
of the greater solubility of waste ammonia at high pH. High pH is often
caused by dense phytoplankton blooms.
Major problems that may arise during culture are mortality of the stock
due to low dissolved oxygen in the pond water. Heavy plankton bloom,
very low water level and lack of water exchange leads to low dissolved
oxygen levels. Continuous rainy/cloudy days precipitate this problem.
Immediate water exchange or aeration of ponds during night hours
prevents this problem. Development of bottom algae due to high
transparency of water is another problem during monoculture of prawns.
To avoid this problem always maintain transparency in 30-40 cm range
by frequent fertilization. Predation is one of the greatest problems for
any aquaculture enterprise, including freshwater prawn farming.
Predation is caused mainly by other aquatic species, birds, snakes and
humans. Normally, insects (mainly dragonfly nymphs), carnivorous fish
and birds are the most serious predators in freshwater prawn farming.
Major diseases known to affect freshwater prawns, and their

symptoms
Bacterial and Rickettsial

Virus Diseases Fungal Diseases
Diseases
Macrobrachium Black spot (sometimes Lagenidium infection
hepatopancreatic parvo- called brown spot or shell
like virus(MHPV) disease) Affects larvae: an
extensive mycelial
None , Not associated with One or many melanized network can be seen
significant morbidity or lesions on the cuticle; often through the
mortality. caused by opportunistic exoskeleton; can
bacteria which enter decimate hatchery
following physical populations within 24
damage; problem may hours.
disappear at the following
moult but sometimes
develops into deep
spreading lesions; reduces
marketable value of
harvested prawns.
Macrobrachium muscle Appendage necrosis Infections by
virus (MMV) Fusarium and
Larval appendages become Saprolegnia Cause
Muscle tissues become necrotic and melanized; necrosis and
117
opaque, followed by affected larvae do not eat melanization; follow
necrosis; occurs within 10 and may become bluish in physical damage.
days of stocking PL and colour; may be associated
may cause upto 50% with a heavy surface
mortality. burden of the filamentous
bacterium Leucothrix.
White spot syndrome Internal infections Caused Yeast infections
baculovirus (WSBV) by a variety of Gram
negative bacteria such as Muscles appear
Targets the cuticular Vibrio spp. and Aeromonas yellowish, bluish or
epidermis, stomach, gills spp.; feeding discontinues; grey; causes heavy
and hepatopancreas; discolouration of the body mortalities in grow-out
important disease in (usually pale and white) ponds; particularly
marine shrimp; occurs; animals listless; prevalent when
Macrobrachium is known infections by luminous temperatures are lower
to be a carrier but it is not vibrios are usually serious. than optimal and
yet certain whether WSBV organic matter is
causes mortalities in it. allowed to accumulate
and eutrophication
occurs.
Nodavirus (M R NV) Bacterial infection caused
Opaque whitish by Enterococcus
appearance of the
abdomen, followed by Necrosis in muscles and
severe mortalities. hepatopancreas; begins in
the head portion and
proceeds to the tail; animal
appears opaque;
exacerbated in high
temperature (33-34°C) and
high pH (8.8-9.5)
conditions.
Rickettsial disease
Larvae become white

throughout their bodies and
generally inactive before
death; infected populations
experience significant
mortalities.
(Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2002)
118
Prevention and Treatment of freshwater prawn diseases
Disease Prevention and Treatment

Macrobrachium
hepatopancreatic Obtain and maintain disease-free stock; good
parvo-like virus management. No treatment reported.
(MHPV)
Macrobrachium Obtain and maintain disease-free stock; good
muscle virus (MMV) management. No treatment reported.
White spot syndrome Obtain and maintain disease-free stock; good
baculovirus (WSBV) management. No treatment reported.
Obtain and maintain disease-free stock; good
Nodavirus (M R NV)
management. No treatment reported.
Good management, especially maintaining good
water quality and avoiding physical damage by
Black spot
handling (by transfer, sampling) or by other
(sometimes called
prawns (may be caused by overstocking, poor
brown spot or shell
feeding, etc.). Treatment by immersion in 10 ppm
disease)
oxolinic acid for 1 hour, or 2 ppm nifurpirinol for
96 hours reported.
water quality and avoiding physical damage by
handling (by transfer, sampling) or by other
prawns (may be caused by overstocking, poor
Appendage necrosis
feeding, etc.). Treatment by 0.65-1.0 ppm
erythromycin or 2 ppm of a penicillin-
streptomycin mixture, or 1.5 ppm
chloramphenicol reported.
Good management, especially good filtration
and/or treatment of incoming hatchery water.
Internal infections
Treatment by 2 ppm chloramphenicol combined
with 2 ppm furazolidone for 5-7 days reported.
Good management, especially by avoiding
Bacterial infection
constructing farms in areas where (or operating
caused by
farms at times when) temperature and pH are too
Enterococcus
high. No treatment reported.
Obtain and maintain disease-free stock; good
management; treatment of tanks and equipment
Rickettsial disease with lime (CaO) before stocking. Treatment by
application of 10 ppm oxytetracycline combined
with 10 ppm furazolidone reported.
Lagenidium Good management. Treatment by maintaining 10-
119
infection 100 ppb trifluralin in hatchery tanks, or treatment
with 20 ppm of Merthiolate ® has been reported.
Infections by water quality and avoiding physical damage by
Fusarium and handling (by transfer, sampling) or by other
Saprolegnia prawns (may be caused by overstocking, poor
feeding, etc.). No treatment reported.
Good management, especially the avoidance of
lower than optimal water temperatures, the
accumulation of organic matter and
Yeast infections
eutrophication; use better water exchange,
aeration and circulation and lower feeding rates.
No treatment reported.
(Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2002)
120
3.5. ORNAMENTAL FISH
3.5.1. INTRODUCTION:
Ornamental fishes usually mean attractive colourful fishes of

various characteristics, which are kept as pets in confined space
of an aquarium or a garden pool for fun and fancy. Ornamental
fishes are usually kept in glass aquarium and hence popularly
known as ‗‘Aquarium Fishes‘‘. These living jewels need not
always have bright colours; as sometimes their peculiar
characteristics such as body colour, morphology, mode of taking
food etc. may also add to their attractiveness.
The northeast region of India is blessed with rich biodiversity and

fisheries resources. With more than 90% of population being fish
eaters, there is heavy demand for fish but a wide gap exists
between supply and demand. The region produces over 0.214
million tons of fish annually, with almost 50% coming from
aquaculture. Aquaculture development in the region is taking
place at a rapid rate. However, efforts are necessary to increase
the present level of production through both horizontal and
vertical expansion. The region has rivers, coldwater streams,
floodplain wet lands, reservoirs, lakes, ponds, paddy fields, and
mini-barrages to support large-scale aquaculture activities, which
can not only produce fish to meet regional requirements, but also
export the surplus.
3.5.2. COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT SPECIES:

Ornamental fish keeping and its propagation has been an
important activity for many which provide not only aesthetic
pleasure but also financial openings. About 600 ornamental fish
species have been reported worldwide from various aquatic
environments. Already 217 fish species belonging to 136 genera
has been identified in north Eastern Region, of which about 150
species have been reported to be of ornamental value and in case
121
of more than 50 species, overseas demand has been established.
Some of the commercially important species are Chitala,
Notopterus, Gonialosa manmina, Gudusia chapra, chela cachius,
C. laubuca, Salmostoma bacaila, Brachydanio rerio, Danio
aequipinnatus, D. devario, D. dangila, D. regina, Esomus
danricus, Aspidoparia morar, Amblypharyngodon mola, Puntius
chola, P. conchonius, P. gelius, P. phutunio, P. sophore, P. terio,
P. ticto, Osteobrama cotio, Rasbora, Barilius barila, B.
bendelisis, Acanthocobitis botia, Botia histrionica, B. berdmorei,
B. derio, Lepidocephalus guntea, Mystus vittatus, Mystus
cavasius, Rita rita, Gagata cenia, Hara, Ailia coila, A. punatata,
Pseudotropius atherinoides, Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes
fossilis, Chaca, Xenontodon cancila,Aplocheilus panchax,
Monopterus cuchia, Chanda nama, Pseudambassis ranga, P.
lalia, P. baculis, Badis badis, Nandus, Glossogobius giuris,
Anabas testudineus, Colisa fasciatus, C. lalia, C. sota, Ctenops
nobilis, C. stewarti, Channa orientalis, C. punctatus, C. barca,
Macrognathus aral, M. pancalus, Mastacembelus armatus,
Tetraodon cutcutia etc.
MARKETING POTENTIAL:
Keeping of aquarium has emerged as the second most popular
hobby in recent years, next to photography. The ever-increasing
demand for aquarium fishes gradually paved the avenue towards
global trade of ornamental fishes. India‘s overall trade presently
is over Rs. 150 million. About 80% of ornamental fishes from
India to International market are exported via Kolkata Airport, of
which the lion‘s share is contributed from North Eastern Region.
North Eastern Region is blessed by the presence of mild climate
and abundance of ornamental fishes in nature and contributes the
lion‘s share of total ichthyo species in North Eastern region of
India. Presence of diverse natural water bodies is also an added
advantage. However, there is vast unexplored potential for
indigenous ornamental fishes in this region. Scientific and
122
systematic exploration of this potential will definitely ensure a
significant place for our Region in this sphere, besides
employment generation and earning of foreign exchange.
SUMMARY
In this block, we have discussed the culture of carp species, oyster culture,
pearl oyster, prawn culture, the problems in penaeid prawn culture due to
socio-economic and environmental problems, freshwater prawn culture,
potential for ornamental fish, common species for ornamental fish culture.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. What are the general characteristic features of carp?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Define the pearl oyster?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Write about the socio-economic problems of shrimp farming?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Explain freshwater prawn culture
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. List out the common species for ornamental fish culture.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
123
BLOCK -IV
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
4.1. FISH DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT
4.1.1. Introduction
4.1.2.. Bacterial Diseases of Fishes
4.2. FUNGAL DISEASES OF FISHES
4.3. PARASITIC DISEASES OF FISHES
4.4. PROTOZOAN DISEASES IN FISH
4.4.1. Non-Infectious Maladies in Fishes
4.4.2. Miscellaneous Diseases in Fishes
4.5. VIRAL DISEASE IN FISHES
4.5.1. Water Quality Maintenance
4.5.2. Composition of Feeds
Summary
Learning Activity
124
OVERVIEW:
Analysing water parameters, replenishment of water, aeration,
regular feeding and observation for mortality and disease symptoms
should be checked routinely in the management of aquaculture ponds.
Diseases can be of viral or fungal or bacterial origin or may be due to
ectoparasites and endoparasites. In this block, we are going to discuss
about the fish disease management, common bacterial, viral fungal,
protozoan and crustacean diseases, their symptoms and treatment, water
quality maintenance and composition of feed.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the common types of fish diseases.
 Differentiate the ectoparasites and endoparasites.
 Discuss the fish feed and their compositions.
 Describe the wet and dry feed.
4.1. FISH DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT
4.1.1. Introduction
There are two broad categories of disease that affect fish, infectious and
non-infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic
organisms present in the environment or carried by other fish. They are
contagious diseases, and some type of treatment may be necessary to
control the disease outbreak. In contrast, non-infectious diseases are
caused by environmental problems, nutritional deficiencies, or genetic
anomalies; they are not contagious and usually cannot be cured by
medications.
125
4.1.2.. Bacterial Diseases of Fishes:
Bacterial diseases are usually characterized by red streaks or spots
and/or swelling of the abdomen or eye.
i. Red Pest:
Symptoms:
Bloody streaks on body, fins and/or tail appear, so it is called red pest.
In severe infection these streaks could lead to ulceration and possibly
followed by fin and tail rot with the tail and/or fins falling off.
Treatment:
External treatments are usually not effective as the disease is internal.
At the appearance of disease:
1. Treat the tank with a disinfectant and clean the tank as best as
possible.
2. To disinfect, use acriflavine (trypaflavine) or monacrin (mono-amino-
acridine) using a 0.2% solution at the rate of 1 ml per litre. Both
disinfectants will colour the water, but the colour disappears as the
disinfectants dissipate.
3. Do not feed a lot while the fish is being treated.
4. If the fish do not appear to respond favorably, discontinue
disinfecting. Then add an antibiotic to the food. 1% of antibiotic may be
carefully mixed with flake food. If you keep the fish hungry they should
eagerly eat the mixture before the antibiotic dissipates.
126
Antibiotics usually available in 250 mg capsules. If added to 25 grams
of flake food, one capsule should be enough to treat dozens of fishes. A
good antibiotic are Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol) and use
tetracycline.
ii. Mouth Fungus:
Symptoms:
White cottony patches around the mouth. It looks like a fungus attack of
the mouth, so it is called mouth fungus. It is actually caused from the
bacterium Chondrococcus columnaris. In the beginning a grey or white
line appear around the lips and later short tufts arise from the mouth like
fungus. This disease may be fatal due to production of toxins and the
inability to eat. Hence treatment at an early stage is essential.
Treatment:
Penicillin at 10000 units per litre is a very effective treatment. Second
dose should be given in two days, or use Chloromycetin, 10 to 20 mg
per litre, with a second dose in two days.
iii. Tuberculosis:
Symptoms:
Emaciation, hollow belly, possibly sores. Tuberculosis is caused by the
Bacterium Mycobacterium piscium. Fish infected with tuberculosis may
become hollow bellied, pale, show skin ulcers and frayed fins, and loss
of appetite. Yellowish or darker nodules may appear on the body or
eyes. The main cause for this disease appears to be over-crowding in un-
kept conditions.
Treatment:
There is no known and effective treatment for this disease. The best
thing to do is to destroy the infected fish and, if un-kept conditions or
overcrowding is the suspected cause, it is required to take necessary
measures.
127
iv. Dropsy:
Symptoms:
Bloating of the body, protruding scales. Dropsy is caused from a
bacterial infection (acromonas) of the kidneys, causing fluid
accumulation or renal failure. The fluids in the body build up and cause
the fish to bloat up and the scales to protrude.
Treatment:
An effective treatment is to add an antibiotic to the food. With flake
food, use about 1% of antibiotic and carefully mix it. Antibiotics in 250
mg capsules if added to 25 grams of flake food will be sufficient to treat
dozens of fishes. A good antibiotic is Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol),
or use tetracycline.
v. Scale Protrusion:
Symptoms:
Protruding scales without body bloat. Bacterial infection of the scales
and/or body causes scale protrusion. An effective treatment is to add an
antibiotic to the food. With flake food, use about 1% of antibiotic like
Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol), or tetracycline.
vi. Tail Rot & Fin Rot:
Symptoms:
Disintegrating fins that may be reduced to stumps, exposed fin rays,
blood on edges of fins, reddened areas at base of fins, skin ulcers with
grey or red margins, cloudy eyes. It is caused by the bacteria
Aeromonas. If tank conditions are not good an infection can be caused
from a simple injury to the fins/tail. Tuberculosis can lead to tail and fin
rot. Basically, the tail and/or fins become frayed or lose colour.
Treatment:
Treat the water or fish with antibiotics. A good antibiotic is
Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol) or tetracycline. Treatment of 1%
CuSO4 is also effective.
128
vii. Ulcer:
Symptoms:
Loss of appetite and slow body movements. It is caused by baceria,
haemophilus.
Treatment:
Give dip treatment in 1% CUSO4 for one minute for a period of 3 to 4
days. Antibiotics oxytetracycline and chloramphenicol may be useful in
acute infection.
4.1.2.1. Precautions during Treatment of Bacterial Diseases:
Bacterial diseases are best treated by antibiotics such as penicillin,
amoxicillin, or erythromycin. The most common parasitic disease called
―Ich‖ can be treated most effectively with copper or malachite green in
the right dosage.
Most medications contain copper as an ingredient. Many water
treatments like ―Aquari-Sol‖ will also contain copper as an ingredient.
The copper may be harmful to most plants and invertebrates, such as
snails. Indeed, most snail removers are copper based.
Antibiotic may disturb biological filtration in the tank. Therefore, it is
also recommended to monitor either ammonia and nitrite levels of
water, or use an ammonia remover such as ―Am-Quel‖ to be sure that
the level of ammonia does not exceeds the desired limit.
129
4.2. FUNGAL DISEASES OF FISHES:
i. Argulosis:
Symptoms:
Caused due to Argulus (Fish louse). The fish scrapes itself against
objects, clamped fins, visible parasites about 1/4 inch in diameter are
visible on the body of the fish. The fish louse is a flattened mite-like
crustacean about 5 mm long that attaches itself to the body of fish. They
irritate the host fish which may have clamped fins, become restless, and
may show inflamed areas where the lice have been.
Treatment:
With larger fish and light infestations, the lice can be picked off with a
pair of forceps. Other cases can best be done with a 10 to 30 minute
bath in 10 mg per litre of potassium permanganate or treat the whole
tank with 2 mg per liter, but this method is messy and dyes the water.
ii. Ichthyosporidium:
Symptoms:
Sluggishness, loss of balance, hollow belly, external cysts and sores.
Ichthyosporidium is a fungus, but it manifests itself internally. It
primarily attacks the liver and kidneys, but it spread everywhere else.
The symptoms vary. The fish may become sluggish, loosely balanced,
show hollow bellies, and eventually show external cysts or sores. By
then it is usually too late for the fish.
Treatment:
Phenoxethol added to food as a 1% solution may be effective. Chloro-
mycetin added to the food has also been effective. But both of these
treatments, if not watched with caution, could pose a risk to your fish. It
is best, if diagnosed soon enough, to destroy the affected fish before the
disease spreads.
130
iii. Fungus (Saprolegnia):
Symptoms:
Tufts of dirty, cotton-like growth on the skin, can cover large areas of
the fish, fish eggs turn white. Fungal attacks always follow some other
health problems like parasitic attack, injury, or bacterial infection. The
symptoms are a grey or whitish growth in and on the skin and/or fins of
the fish.
Eventually, if left untreated, these growths will become cottony looking.
The fungus, if left untreated, will eventually eat away on the fish until it
finally dies.
Treatment:
Use a solution of phenoxethol at 1% in distilled water. Add 10 ml of this
solution per litre. Repeat after a few days if needed, but only once more
as three treatments could be dangerous inhabitants.
If the symptoms are severe the fish can be removed and treated with
small amount of providone iodine or mercurochrome. For attacks on
fish eggs, most breeders will use a solution of methylene blue adding 3
to 5 mg/1 as a preventive measure after the eggs are laid.
4.3. PARASITIC DISEASES OF FISHES:
i. Velvet or Rust:
Symptoms:
Yellow to light brown “dust” on body, clamped fins, respiratory
distress (breathing hard). This disease has the appearance of a golden or
brownish dust over the fins and body. The fish may show signs of
irritation, like glancing off aquarium decor, shortage of breath (fish-
wise), and clamping of the fins.
The gills are usually the first thing affected. Velvet affects different
species in different ways. Danios seem to be the most susceptible, but
often show no discomfort. The disease is highly contagious and fatal.
Treatment:
The best treatment is with copper at 0.2 mg per litre (0.2 ppm) to be
repeated once in a few days, if necessary. Acriflaving (trypaflavine)
131
may be used instead at 0.2% solution (1 ml per liter). As acriflavine can
possibly sterilize fish and copper can lead to poisoning, the water should
be gradually changed after a cure has been effected.
ii. Anchor Worm (Lernaea):

Symptoms:
The fish scrapes itself against objects, whitish-green threads hang out of
the fish‘s skin with an inflamed area at the point of attachment. Ahchor
worms are actually crustaceans.
The youngs are free swimming and borrow into the skin, go into the
muscles and develop for several months before showing. They release
eggs and die. The holes left behind are ugly and may become infected.
The anchor worm is too deeply imbedded to safely remove.
Treatment:
A 10 to 30 minute bath in 10 mg per litre of potassium permanganate, or
treat the whole tank with 2 mg per litre, but this method is messy and
dyes the water.
iii. Ergasilus:
Symptoms:
The fish scrapes itself against objects, whitish-green threads hang out of
the fish‘s gills. This parasite is like the anchor worm, but is smaller and
attacks the gills instead of the skin.
Treatment:
Treatment can best be done with a 10 to 30 minute bath in 10 mg per
litre of potassium permanganate.
iv. Flukes:
Symptoms:
The fish scrapes itself against objects, rapid till movement, mucus
covering the gills or body, the gills or fins may be eaten away, the skin
may become reddened. There are many species of flukes, which are
flatworms about 1 mm long, and several symptoms that are visible.
They infest gills and skin much like Ich, but the difference can be seen
with a hand lens.
132
You should be able to see movement and possibly eyespots, which is
not found in Ich. Gill flukes will eventually destroy the gills thus killing
the fish. Symptoms of heavy infestations are pale fish with drooping
fins, rapid respiration, glancing off aquarium decor, and/or hollow
bellies.
Treatment:
Treatment can best be done with a 10 to 30 minute bath in 10 mg per
litre of potassium permanganate. Or treat the whole tank with 2 mg per
litre, but this method is messy and dyes the water.
v. Nematoda:
Symptoms:
Worms hanging from the anus. Nematodes (threadworms) infect just
about anywhere in the body but only shows itself when they hang out of
the anus. A heavy infestation causes hollow bellies.
Treatment:
Two treatments have been suggested. First treatment: soak the food in
para-chloro-meta-xylenol and give the fish a bath or treat the aquarium
with 10 ml per litre. The bath should last for several days. Second
treatment: find special food containing thiabendazole as a nematode
(threadworm) cure and hope the fish will eat it.
vi. Leeches:
Symptoms:
Leeches are visible on the fish‘s skin. Leeches are external parasites and
affix themselves on the body, fins, or gills of the fish. Usually they
appear as heart shaped worms (they are just curled up) attached to the
fish. Since leeches are sucking and borrowing into the surface of the
fish, removal with forceps can cause great damage, if not death, to the
fish.
Treatment:
If the fish is bathed in a 2.5 percent solution of salt for 15 minutes, most
of the leeches should just fall off. Those that do not will be affected
133
enough to remove with forceps with minimal damage. Another
treatment is to add Trichlorofon at 0.25 mg/l.
4.4. PROTOZOAN DISEASES IN FISHES:
i. Costia:
Symptoms:
Milky cloudiness on skin.
Treatment:
This is a rare protozoan disease that causes a cloudiness of the skin. The
best treatment is with copper at 0.2 mg per liter (0.2 ppm) to be repeated
once in a few days, if necessary. Acriflavine (trypaflavine) may be used
instead at 0.2% solution (1 ml per litre). As acriflavine can possibly
sterilize fish, and copper can lead to poisoning, the water should be
gradually changed after a cure has been effected.
ii. Hexamita:
Symptoms:
Caused by intestinal flagellated protozoa that attack the lower intestine.
As it is a disease of the digestive tract, characterized by the loss of
appetite.
Treatment:
An effective treatment is the drug metronidazole. A combined treatment
in the food (1% in any food the fish will eat) and in the water (12 mg
per liter) is recommended. Repeat the water treatment every other day
for three treatments.
iii. Ich (Ichthyphthirious):

Symptoms:
Salt-like specks on the body fins. Excessive slime. Problems in
breathing (Ich invades the gills), clamped fins, loss of appetite. Ich,
white spot disease, whatever the name, this is the most common malady
experienced in the home aquarium. Luckily, this disease is also easily
134
cured if noticed in time. Ich is actually a protozoa called
Ichthyophthirious multifiliis.
There are three phases to the life cycle of these protozoa. Normally, to
the amateur aquarist, the life cycle is of no importance. However, since
Ich is susceptible to treatment at only one stage of the life cycle, an
awareness of the life cycle is important.
Adult Phase:
It is embedded in the skin or gills of the fish, causing irritation (with the
fish showing signs of irritation) and the appearance of small white
nodules. As the parasite grows it feeds on red blood cells and skin cells.
After a few days it bores itself out of the fish and falls to the bottom of
the aquarium.
Cyst Phase: After falling to the bottom, the adult parasite forms into a
cyst with rapid cell divisions occurring.
Free Swimming Phase: After the cyst phase, about 1000 free
swimming youngs swim upwards looking for a host. If a host is not
found within 2 to 3 days, the parasite dies. Once a host is found the
whole cycle begins a-new.
Treatment:
The drug of choice is quinine hydrochloride at 30 mg per litre (1 in
30000). Quinine sulphate can be used if the hydrochloride is not
available. The water may cloud but this will disappear. By reducing the
time (with raised temperature) of the phases, you should be able to
attack the free swimming phase effectively. Most commercial remedies
contain malachite green and /or copper, which are both effective.
iv. Neon Tetra Disease:

Symptoms:
Whitened areas deep into the fishes flesh. Muscle degeneration leading
to abnormal swimming movements. So named for the fish it was first
recognized on. It is caused by the sporozoa Plistophora
hyphessobryconis. Even though it is named after Neon Tetras, it can
appear on other fish. Whitish patches appear as if just below the skin.
135
In Neon Tetras it destroys the bright blue-green neon stripe. The
organisms form cysts which burst and release spores. The spores
penetrate further and form more cysts. Eventually, the spores migrate to
the water and are eaten by other fish in the food. These spores migrate
into the digestive tract, then the muscles, and a new infection starts.
Treatment:
There is no known cure. It is best to destroy the infected fish and clean
the aquarium.
v. Glugea and Henneguya:

Symptoms:
Similar to Lymphocytes, the fish will have nodular white swellings on
fins or body.
Treatment:
Glugea and Hnneguya and sporozoans that form large cysts on the fish‘s
body and release spores. Luckily, these diseases are very rare. The fish
bloat up, with tumour- like protrusions, and eventually die. No cure, as
of yet. It is best to destroy the infected fish before the spores spread.
vi. Chilodonella:
Symptoms:
Dulling of the colours due to excessive slime, frying of the fins,
weakness, gill damage. This disease causes a blue white cloudiness on
the skin and attacks the gills. Later the skin may be broken down and
the gills destroyed. The fish may behave as if they have irritations.
Treatment:
Acriflaving (trypaflaving) may be used at 1% solution (5 ml per litre).
As acriflavine can sterilize fish, the water should be gradually changed
after a cure has been effected. It also helps to raise the temperature to
about 80 °F.
vii. Whirling Disease:

Symptoms:
136
It is also a protozoan disease, caused by Myxosoma cerebralis.
Blakeening of tail, caudal band and deformity of anal region are
common symptoms.
Treatment:
Destroy all the diseased fishes by applying quicklime at the rate of
1kg/ha.
viii. Knot Disease:

Symptoms:
It is caused by protozoa, Myxobolus exigus. Salt konts appear on the
skin.
Treatment:
There is no effective treatment. Therefore, all infected fishes should be
removed immediately and killed.
ix. Bio-Disease:
Symptom:
It is caused by protozoa, Myxobolus pfcifferi. Large boils of varying
size of nut appear in several parts of the body.
Treatment:
Give bath in 3% common salt solution or in 1% formalin solution for 10
minutes.
x. Myxosporidisis:
Symptoms:
It is caused by infection of Myxosorida. Cysts appear on the body,
internal tissues and organs. Fish becomes weak. Scales become weak,
perforated and fall off.
Treatment:
Give dip treatment in 10% common salt solution.
4.4.1. Non-Infectious Maladies in Fishes:
i. Tumours:
Tumours can be caused by a virus or a cancer, but most tumours are
genetic. The genetic tumours may be caused from too much
137
hybridization, common amongst professional breeders. Practically all
tumours are untreatable. If the fish is in distress, it should be destroyed.
ii. Congenital Abnormalities:

Abnormalities usually occur when professional breeders are trying to
acquire certain strains in breeds.
iii. Physical Injuries:

As in the human world, accidents happen in the lives of fishes also. If
the cause of the injury is obvious, it should be remedied. Then the injury
should be treated. Then injury should be touched with 2%
mercurochrome, which is supplied commercially.
Also, depending on the fish‘s tolerance to water conditions, keeping the
fish in slightly acid- water should speed recovery (pH 6.6). Minor
injuries, if the water conditions are good, should just heal themselves.
iv. Constipation:
Some fishes are more susceptible to constipation than others. Usually
fish with more compressed bodies like angelfish and silver dollars.
Symptoms are loss of appetite and swelling of the body. The cause is
almost always diet.
Usually, with a change of diet, the condition rights itself. But in
stubborn cases try dried food that has been soaked in medicinal paraffin
oil. Glycerol or castor oil may also be used. If the diet is changed on a
regular basis and live foods offered are occasionally, this condition may
never occur.
The intensification and further development of freshwater aquaculture
in India urgently requires knowledge, research facilities and research
and expertise on fish diseases and fish health protection.
4.4.2. Miscellaneous Diseases in Fishes:
i. Head and Lateral Line Disease (also known as Hole-in-the-Head

disease):
138
Symptoms:
Begins as small pits on the head and face, usually just above the eye. If
untreated, these turn into large cavities and then the disease progresses
along the lateral line. Head and Lateral Line Disease is attributed to a
nutritional deficiency of one or more of vitamin C, vitamin D, calcium, and
phosphorous.
It is thought to be caused by a poor diet or lack of variety, lack of partial
water changes or over filtration with chemical media such as activated
carbon.
Treatment:
HLLE has been reversed by one or more of the following treatments:
1. Increase frequent water changes.
2. Add vitamins to frozen foods.
3. Add flake foods, as they are enriched with vitamins.
4. Add green, either frozen or in leaf form, to the diet.
5. Decrease the amount of beef heart as it lacks many critical nutrients.
(This disease is often confused with another disease called Hexamita,
because both these diseases are often seen simultaneously in the same
fish. Haxamita is a protozoan disease that attacks the lower intestine).
ii. Eye Problems:

Symptoms:
Cloudy cornea, opaque lens, poor eye, swelling, blindness.
1. Cloudy cornea can result from a bacterial invasion. Antibiotics may
help.
2. Opaqueness can result from poor nutrition or a metacercaria invasion
(grubs). Try foods with added vitamins and change the diet to include
variety.
3. Pop eye (exophthalmia) can result from rough handling, gas
embolism, tumours, bacterial infection, or vitamin A deficiency. Gas
bubble or bacterial infection can be treated successfully with penicillin
or amoxicillin.
139
4. Blindness can be caused by poor nutrition or excessive light.
Lowering the light level and a change of diet to include lots of variety
may help prevent it.
iii. Swim-Bladder Disease:

Symptoms:
Abnormal swimming pattern, difficulty in maintaining equilibrium.
Swim bladder problems usually indicate another problem listed here.
If you suspect swim-bladder problems in a fish, first check and treat it
for other diseases as listed below:
1. Congenitally deformed bladder.
2. Cancer or tuberculosis in organs adjacent to swim bladder.
3. Constipation
4. Poor nutrition
5. Serious parasitic and bacterial infestation.
4.5. VIRAL DISEASE IN FISHES
Lymphocytis:
Symptoms:
Nodular white swellings (cauliflower) on fins or body. Lymphocystis is
a virus and being a virus, affects the cells of the fish. It usually
manifests itself as abnormally large white lumps (cauliflower) on the
fins or other parts of the body. It can be infectious but is usually not
fatal. Unfortunately, there is no cure. Fortunately, this is a rare disease.
Treatment:
There are two suggested treatments. One treatment is to remove and
destroy the infected fish as soon as possible. The other treatment is to
simply separate the infected fish foe several months and wait for
remission, which usually does occur.
140
4.5.1. WATER QUALITY MAINTENANCE
Water quality is a critical factor when culturing any aquatic
organism. Optimal water quality varies by species and must be
monitored to ensure growth and survival. The quality of the water in the
production systems can significantly affect the organism's health and the
costs associated with getting a product to the market. Water quality
parameters that are commonly monitored in the aquaculture industry
include temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity, hardness,
ammonia, and nitrites. Depending on the culture system, carbon dioxide,
chlorides, and salinity may also be monitored. Some parameters such as
141
alkalinity and hardness are fairly stable, but others like dissolved
oxygen and pH fluctuate daily. It is important to establish a standardized
water quality testing protocol for your particular situation. Know the
tolerance range for your culture species, establish critical levels, and be
prepared to act if a problem occurs. The chart below indicates the water
quality preferences for some commonly cultured species. For more
information about a particular parameter, click one of the links below. If
you need assistance in this area, contact your local Cooperative
Extension office.
Water Quality Tolerance by Species
Dissolve
Nitrit
Tem d p Alkalinit Ammonia
Species e
p °F Oxygen H y mg/L %
mg/L
mg/L
60- 6-
Baitfish 4-10 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.6
75 8
65- 6-
Catfish/Carp 3-10 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.6
80 8
Hybrid 70- 6-
4-10 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.6
Striped Bass 85 8
Perch/Walle 50- 6-
5-10 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.6
ye 65 8
Salmon/Tro 45- 6-
5-12 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.6
ut 68 8
75- 6-
Tilapia 3-10 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.6
94 8
Tropical 68- 6-
4-10 50-250 0-0.03 0-0.5
Ornamentals 84 8
4.5.1.1. FISH FEED

In this chapter we learned that plants are able, through photosynthesis,
to utilize sunlight and simple nutrients to produce new organic material.
On the contrary, animals, including fish, cannot. Thus to survive, grow
and reproduce, fish need to feed on organic materials such as plants,
other animals, or prepared feeds containing plant and/or animal
142
material. It is therefore most important for you to ensure that your fish
get the food they require, both in quality and in quantity.
There are three types of food used in fish ponds:
 natural food;
 supplementary feeds;
 complete feeds.
1. Natural food is found naturally in the pond. It may include detritus*,
bacteria*, plankton*, worms, insects, snails, aquatic plants and fish.
Their abundance greatly depends on water quality. Liming (see Chapter
5) and fertilization (Chapter 6), in particular organic fertilization, can
help you to provide a good supply of natural food to your fish.
2. Supplementary feeds are feeds regularly distributed to the fish in the
pond. They usually consist of cheap materials locally available such as
terrestrial plants, kitchen wastes or agricultural by-products.
3. Complete feeds may also be regularly distributed. They are made
from a mixture of carefully selected ingredients to provide all the
nutrients necessary for the fish to grow well. They must be made in a
form which the fish find easy to eat and digest. These feeds are quite
difficult to make on the farm and are usually quite expensive to buy.
The system of production can be defined according to the type of food
given to the fish:
 Extensive: fish production depends entirely on natural food;
 Semi-intensive: fish production depends on both natural food and
supplementary
feed; more fish may be reared in the pond;
 Intensive: fish production depends entirely on complete feed,
and the stocking rate no longer depends on food availability but
on other factors such as water quality.
143
Why use supplementary feeding?
1. There are several reasons why you should supplement the natural
foods available within the pond with artificial feedstuffs originating
from outside the pond, for example:
i. when natural foods become insufficient to feed your fish well
and ensure good growth; and
ii. when you wish to raise more fish in your pond to produce a
higher crop and still have good growth.
2. As you make more use of supplementary feeds, you change from an
extensive system to a semi-intensive system of production.
Further supplementary feeds classified as follows;
There are two types supplementary feed, one is dry type fish feed and
another is wet type fish feed which need to be used with the steam
boiler to inject the steam when pelletizing, both them are widely used
for kinds of pets like fish, catfish, shripm, crab, prawn, dog, pig, cat, and
so on.
1. Dry type fish feed
The fish feed machine is used to make the pellet from the grain, the
soybean, the cereal, or other materials. The pellet floats on the water at
least about 12 hours. Especially for aquaculture industry such as the
fish, the shrimp tortoise, and other aquatic product. The pellet diameter
can be varied. The fish feed pellet machine can produce many kinds of
fodder for different kinds of animals. It can make poultry fodder, pet-
fodder, as well as aquaculture fodder and fishery feed. The fish feed
pellet machine is applied to the pre-treatment of the many kinds of
fishes feed, so as to reduce loss of nutrition, advance the protein ratio.
2. Wet type fish feed extruder
We can change different molds to make pellets with different diameters.
Fish feed pellets can float on the water surface without dissolution for
over 12 hours. The fish feed pellet size can be from 0.9-15mm. The
spare parts like screw, barrel of wet type will be less damaged than dry
type. The feed pellet is more smooth, with better quality and easy to
144
digest. High temperature and high pressure processes can kill the
salmonella and bacterial infections.
4.5.2. COMPOSITION OF FEEDS
The conventional supplementary feed is usually a mixture of brans and
oil cakes in 1:1 ratio by weight. In India, oil cakes such as mustard oil
cake or groundnut oil cake and rice or wheat bran are widely applied
depending on their local availability. In Bangladesh, the most common
fish feed is the mixture of mustard oil cake and rice or wheat bran. In
Nepal, farmers are advised to feed a mixture having maize, wheat or
rice bran and mustard oil cake. In certain regions, finely chopped
vegetable matter or grass are also mixed. The same feed is applied in
nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. Aquatic weeds or sometimes green
animal fodder are given to grass carp. Smaller aquatic weeds such as
wolffia, lemna, spirodela, etc., are provided in the early stages while
large macrophytes and green animal fodder to the bigger fish.
4.5.2.1. BALANCED SUPPLEMENTARY FEED
Using locally available feed materials and mixing with vitamin premix,
essential minerals and trace elements, a balanced supplementary feed
can be compounded without any significant increase in its cost which
will give better results than the conventional one. However, the
background knowledge of the nutritional requirement of carps becomes
essential for formulation of suitable balanced supplementary feed.
The quantity and quality of nutrients required by carps for attaining

optimum growth vary with the species, size and stages of the life cycle.
Essential nutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and
minerals are required as raw materials for the formation of body tissues,
production of energy and also to regulate the vital physiological
processes.
Protein: Protein requirements may be looked at the gross protein and
specific amino acid requirement levels. Protein requirement is
influenced by several factors like water quality, natural food availability
in ponds, dietary protein quality, the amount of non-protein energy in
145
the diet, stocking density, etc. Protein requirement levels of some carp
species are given in Table;
Protein requirements of certain carps
Crude protein level in
Species diet for optimal Reference
growth (g/kg)
Common Sen et al., (1978) Sin
450 – 480
carp (1973)
Rohu 450 Sen et al., (1978)
Mrigal 450 Singh et al. (unpubl.)
Grass carp 410 – 431 Dabrowski (1977)
Though dietary protein levels have been shown as optimal for fry and
fingerlings of Indian major and common carps, quality of the protein in
terms of its amino acid composition is important or else growth would
suffer even if the dietary protein level is high. Plant proteins are
deficient in certain essential amino acids like methionine. Their quality
can be improved by the addition of animal proteins such as fish meal,
bone meal, blood meal, etc.
Essential Amino Acid requirements of common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

(Adapted from National Research Council, 1983)
Requirements
% of % of
Amino acid Total protein in the diet (%)
protein diet
Arginine 4.2 1.6 38.5
Histadine 2.1 0.8 38.5
Isoleucine 2.3 0.9 38.5
Leucine 3.4 1.3 38.5
Lysine 5.7 2.2 38.5
Methionine + 3.1 1.2 38.5
Phenylalanine ++ 6.5 2.5 38.5
Threonine 3.9 1.5 38.5
Tryptophan 0.8 0.3 38.5
Valine 3.6 1.4 38.5
+ In the absence of cystine,
++ In the absence of tyrosine
Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate requirement of carp species is highly
variable ranging from 10–45%. Common carp utilizes 25%
carbohydrates effectively as energy source (Takeuchi, Watanabe and
Ogino, 1979; Sen et al., 1978), while for mrigal fingerlings it is 28% in
synthetic diets (Singh, Sinha and Kumar, (unpubl.). Although higher
146
levels of carbohydrate may be utilized by carps, diets containing over
40% dextrin results in retarded growth and lowered feed efficiency due
to lower digestibility. The most likely symptom of over supply of
carbohydrates in diet is excessive deposition of fat in the liver and
carcass. However, the protein requirements of carps can be brought
down to some extent by raising the level of dietary carbohydrates.
Lipids: The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is considered to be the
most important class of lipids as far as lipids are concerned. Carps can
derive their lipid requirement from natural feed available in the pond
since these compounds are readily available in planktonic and other
biotic communities. Lipids are also considered to be the most important
sparing compounds. By adding 5% of soyabean oil the optimum protein
requirement of young mirror carp can be brought down to 33% from
38%. The addition increases the dietary metabolized energy from 2.8 to
3.1 Kcal/g.
Vitamins: Studies on vitamin requirements of fish are very limited. The
values of quantitative requirements of vitamins in common carp and the
symptoms of their major deficiencies are presented.
Table: Dietary vitamin requirements of the common carp

(Cyprinus carpio) and related deficiency symptoms
(From National Research Council, 1983 and other sources)
Requirement Major vitamin deficiency
Vitamin
(mg/kg diet) symptoms
Nervousness and fading of body

Thiamin Na
colour.
Hemorrhages on skin, fin,
Riboflavin 7.0
mortality
Pyridoxine 5–6 Nervous disorders
Poor growth, anaemia, skin
Pantothenic acid 30–50
hemorrhages, exophthalmia
Nidcotinic acid 28 Hemorrhages on skin, mortality
Biotin 1 Poor growth
Folic acid N None detected
Vitamin B12 N None detected
Choline 4 000 Fatty liver
Inositol 440 Skin lesions
147
Ascorbic acid Na Impaired collagen formation
Faded colour, exophthalmia,
Vitamin A 10 000 IU
hemorrhages on fin and skin
Vitamin D N None detected
Vitamin E 200–300 Muscular dystrophy, mortality
Vitamin K N None detected
N = No dietary requirement demonstrated under variousenvironmental

condition.
Na = Not available
Minerals and trace elements: Like higher vertebrates, carps also have
dietary requirements of minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium and
phosphorus and trace elements such as cobalt, iodine, zinc, copper,
manganese, sulpher, fluorine, molybdenum, etc. For common carp the
minimum requirement of phosphorus in the diet is 0.6–0.7% and that of
calcium is about 0.028%. 1% dicalcium-phosphate is recommended in
the feed for adult fish in polyculture system in ponds. Trace elements
are growth stimulants and are required in traces. Sen and Chatterjee
(1976, 1979) reported that cobalt chloride and manganese at the rate of
0.01 mg/day/fish gives higher rates of survival and growth of spawn, fry
and fingerlings of Indian major carps. Rohu requires about 0.014% dry
diet of iron. In general, carps appear to be less sensitive to mineral
deficient diets than other fish possibly due to meeting their dietary
mineral requirements from natural sources under pond culture condition.
Common feedstuffs: A large number of feed stuffs are presently being
used as supplementary feed for carps in undrainable pond culture
systems. Some of them are widely available and extensively used. These
may be broadly classified into two groups: the feeds of plant origin and
the feedstuffs of animal origin.
Cakes of oil seeds such as groundnut, mustard, linseed, coconut, etc.,
are a most useful and widely used feedstuff of plant origin with high fat
and protein contents. Brans of rice, wheat and other grains are equally
popular and used in combination with oil cakes. Such meal as soya
waste after oil extraction is excellent feed for carps. Broken cereals such
as rice, wheat, maize, etc., are good but expensive feed materials. Leafy
148
feeds are suitable for grass carp. Tender leaves of various aquatic and
terrestrial plants (cassava, maioc, colocasia, banana, sweet potatoes,
maize, etc.) and green animal fodder such as berseem, napier,
paranapier, elephant grass, etc., are also used. Miscellaneous items such
as kitchen wastes, household scraps, residues of bakery, beer brewing or
rice-wine industry wastes can be profitably used as fish feed.
Dried fish meal (fish flour) is the most common and cheapest source of
animal protein and widely used in livestock and fish feeds.
Slaughterhouse offals, prawn head meal, bone meal, silkworm pupae
and items like snails, oligochaete worms, etc., are also widely used
depending on their availability and price. Nutritive values of some
commonly used feedstuffs are presented.
Digestibility and absorption greatly vary with the quality of the
feedstuffs and also from fish to fish. The values of total digestible
nutrients in common feedstuffs are given.
Table: Proximate composition of some of the common fish feed stuff

(Adopted from ADCP. (1983)
As percentage of dry matter

Digesti
Methio
ble
ine Lysi
Common name DM CP EE CF Ash NFE Ca P energy
& ne
K
czstine
cal/kg
A. Plant product
Groundnut oil cake 94.0 40.1 12.2 14.0 7.8 25.9 - - 0.52 1.44 3 018
Groundnut oil meal 89.7 37.3 0.3 6.2 3.0 35.7 0.22 0.75 0.48 1.34 2 155
Coconut oil cake 92.3 18.1 8.9 16.4 4.6 52.0 0.21 0.58 0.34 0.45 2 960
Soyabean cake 84.8 47.5 6.4 5.1 6.4 34.6 0.13 0.69 1.42 2.90 3 009
Soyabean oil meal 88.7 52.8 1.5 6.6 7.6 46.7 - - 1.58 3.22 3 060
Cotton seed oil cake 87.9 26.4 5.7 24.2 6.6 37.1 - - 0.74 1.08 2 572
Sunflower oil cake 91.0 34.2 14.3 13.2 6.6 31.8 0.30 1.30 1.36 1.19 3 394
Sunflower oil meal 90.0 42.7 4.0 16.1 7.7 29.5 - - 1.70 1.49 2 827
Linseed oil cake - 30.5 6.6 9.5 10.2 43.2 0.37 0.96 1.34 1.07 2 983
Sesame oil cake 90.0 32.2 14.4 20.3 11.1 22.0 - - 1.64 0.93 3 035
Ground maize 89.6 5.1 8.7 3.9 1.1 81.2 - - 0.10 0.12 3 326
149
Wheat bran 90.7 13.9 8.3 13.1 4.6 60.1 - - 0.42 0.53 2 995
Rice bran 91.3 13.7 5.4 20.0 18.1 48.8 - - 0.52 0.56 2 416
Rice polish 91.6 12.4 16.7 12.0 14.1 44.9 - - 0.73 0.78 3 154
Millet 88.4 12.0 4.8 11.3 5.0 66.9 0.57 3.21 0.36 0.43 2 847
Black gram bran 88.8 7.0 3.6 24.0 8.9 56.5 - - 0.12 0.51 1 684
B. Animal products
Blood meal 89.5 88.5 1.2 0.4 6.0 3.9 0.28 0.28 1.95 7.08 3 576
Bone meal 75.0 36.0 4.0 3.0 49.0 8.0 22.0 10.0 0.25 1.69 2 000
Fish meal 86.0 55.6 12.0 2.9 21.3 8.2 - - - - 3 569
Prawn meal 89.4 31.2 11.7 17.6 39.5 0.0 - - - - -
Silk worm pupae 20.0 54.2 30.3 3.9 5.2 6.4 0.1 1.1 - - 4 910
Fresh cattle manure 17.9 8.4 3.1 22.5 18.8 47.2 - - - - 1 983
DM - Dry matter; CP - Crude protein; EE - Ether extract; CF - Crude

fibre;
NFE - Nitrogen free extract; CA - Calcium; P - Total phosphorus.
Usually the crude protein level of the supplementary feed is fixed at
about 5 to 10% below the dietary protein requirement of the fish to be
fed. Vitamins, minerals and trace elements are added as required.
Table
Values of digestible nutrients in carps for some common
feedstuffs
Feedstuff Digestible nutrients (%)
Coconut oil cake 67.5 – 69.8
Ground nuts 79.3
Rice bran 79.4
Maize (Corn) 77.9
Maize (fresh) 74.9 – 75.1
Rye 75.9
Sweet potato 25.8
Radish leaves 8.2
Fresh silkworm pupae 34.3
150
Formulation of feed: Easy availability, low cost, high digestibility and
high nutrient contents are the major considerations in selecting the fish
feed ingredients for feed formulation. Feed constitute the major
operating cost in undrainable pond fish culture and therefore, our
ultimate objective is to supply essential nutrients at the minimum
possible cost. Formulated feeds may be either a complete feed with
optimum level of all the essential nutrients and energy to provide
complete nutrition or a supplementary feed - a diet basically to
supplement energy and a portion of protein and other essential nutrients.
In undrainable pond culture systems where natural feed are made
available by pond fertilization, feed is required only to supplement the
natural feed.
Using the locally available feedstuff, a diet with desired level of protein
can easily be formulated by using the square method. The same method
is also used for adjusting energy levels in a feed.
The required protein level of 30%, for example, is put in the centre of
the square. The two selected feedstuffs with their percentage of protein
content are put on the left hand corners of the square as shown below.
The value of desired protein level of the proposed feed is substracted

from each of the feedstuffs in turn and the results are placed at the
opposite corner ignoring the resultant positive or negative signs. The
two resultant figures on the right hand side of the square are then added
together (20 + 2.3 = 22.3). Now to obtain 30% crude protein level in the
proposed feed, the following formula is followed.
Thus, to obtain 30% crude protein level in 100 kg of feed we need 89.6
kg of sesame seed cake and 10.3 kg of rice bran to be mixed together.
The same method can also be used to obtain a desired dietary energy
level. It has been experienced that if the minimum dietary requirements
151
for amino acid like arginine, lysine, methionine and tryptophan are met,
the requirements of 6 other essential amino acids usually also get
satisfied. Vitamins, minerals and trace elements are added in feed
according to the requirements of the species of carps under culture.
Pelletization: Considerable wastage is expected when supplementary

feed mixtures rapidly separate into their component ingredients during
the feeding process. However, by pelletization of supplementary feed
mixture, such wastage can be minimised and further improvement in the
feed efficiency can be achieved. Feed in pellet forms are more readily
acceptable and give better results in comparison with dust feed (Kumar
et al., 1984). During pelletization, the soft and dusty feed is converted
into hard, water-stable pellets by the process of heating and
compression. Even in undrainable ponds use of supplementary feed in
pelleted form promise increased production through increased efficiency
and minimum wastage.
Fig. 4.1. Fish Feed in Dough Form
152
Fig. 4.2. Fish Feed in Pelleted Form
A generalised but practical account of nutrient specifications of

commercial warm water aquaculture feed is given table.
Nutrients specifications of commercial aquaculture

feeds
(Warm water omnivorous species)
(Adapted from ADCP, 1983)
Fry and Juveniles and Brood
Nutrients
fingerlings adults Fish
Protein (% min) 30 25 30
Lipids (% min) 8 5 5
Ca (% min) 0.8 0.5 0.8
Ca (% max) 1.5 1.8 1.5
P (% min) 0.6 0.5 0.6
P (% max) 1.0 1.0 1.0
Lysine (% min) 2.0 1.6 1.8
Digestible
Energy
(KcaL/100 g 310 280 280
min)
Vitamins
(per 100 kg)
(Supplement),
600
A (i.u.) 600 000 500 000
000
100
D (i.u.) 100 000 100 000
000
E (i.u.) 6 000 5 000 6 000
153
K (g) 1.2 1.0 1.0
C (g) 24.0 20.0 24.0
Thiamine (g) 2.4 2.0 2.4
Riboflavin (g) 2.4 2.0 2.4
Pantothenic acid
6.0 5.0 6.0
(g)
Niacin (g) 12.0 10.0 12.0
Pyridoxine (g) 2.4 2.0 2.4
Biotin (g) 0.024 0.020 0.024
Folic Acid (g) 0.6 0.5 0.6
Choline (g) 54.0 50.0 54.0
B-12 (mg) 2.4 2.0 2.4
Minerals
(per 100 kg feed)
(Supplement),
Iron (g) 5.0 5.0 5.0
Copper (g) 0.3 0.3 0.3
Manganese (g) 2.0 2.0 2.0
Zinc (g) 3.0 3.0 3.0
Iodine (mg) 10.0 10.0 10.0
Cobalt (mg) 1.0 1.0 1.0
Selenium (mg) 10.0 10.0 10.0
Based upon the nutrient specifications, a number of test diets for carp
fry, fingerling and brood fish are under extensive trials to determine
which would be the preferred formulations in terms of efficiency and
cost.
The conventional rice-bran and oil cake mixture lacks animal protein,
minerals and vitamins and rapidly separates into its component
ingredients during the feeding process. Considerable improvement is
possible if this conventional rice-bran and oil cake mixture is simply
fortified with 15–25% fish meal, 0.1% mineral mixture, 0.1% vitamin
mixture and pelletized. Although mineral and vitamin mixtures are
commercially available as common additive of animal feed, fish meal at
a reasonable price may not be easily available in rural areas.
154
SUMMARY
In this block, we have discussed about the fish disease management,

common bacterial, viral fungal, protozoan and crustacean diseases, their
symptoms and treatment, water quality maintenance and composition of
feed.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. Explain the common bacterial fish diseases.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. What are the symptoms of fungal diseases?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Discuss the water quality maintenance and their impact of fish
diseases
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What are the types of fish feed?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Explain the symptom and treatment of viral diseases
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
155
BLOCK -V
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
5.1. MARKETING OF AQUATIC PRODUCTS
5.1.1. Introduction
5.1.2. Traded aquaculture products
5.2. MARKETING OF FISH
5.2.1. Fish Marketing Practices and Structure of Markets
5.2.2. Fish-Marketing Channels
5.2.3. City or Terminal Markets
5.3. HARVESTING AND TRANSPORT
5.3.1. Sea-fishing methods
5.3.2. Harvesting machines
5.3.3. Freshwater fishing
5.4. FISH TRANSPORT
5.4.1. Introduction
5.4.2. The Main Factors and Principles Associated with Fish
Transport
5.5. QUALITY CONTROL AND NORMS OF MPEDA FOR EXPORT
FISHES
5.5.1. Introduction
5.5.2. Exporters
5.5.3. Freezing and Canning
5.5.4. Methods of canning
Summary
Learning Activity
156
OVERVIEW:
At a global level, aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food
production sectors (9.6 per cent/yr in the last decade), a fact that will
ultimately change the way that fish is perceived as food. A key element
of this observation is the change in the supply opportunities for fish and
fish products from a wild source to a cultured one. In this block, we are
going to discuss about the marketing the products, marketing the fish to
local markets and for export, harvesting and transport, quality control
norms, caning and freezing.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the marketing of aquatic products.
 Understand the local market and export.
 Discuss the quality control norms.
 Describe the caning and freezing.
5.1. MARKETING AQUATIC PRODUCTS
5.1.1. Introduction
International seafood exports reached US$48 billion in 1998
(provisional FAO data), up from US$36 billion in 1990, but down
slightly from the figures for 1996 and 1997. The share of developing
countries in seafood exports grew from 43 per cent to 49 per cent
between 1990 and 1997, giving net receipts of foreign exchange that
rose from US$10.2 billion to US$15.8 billion.
The rapid growth in aquaculture production has made the sector
important to the economy of many developing countries , and it has
become either an important source of supply, or the main supplier, in
the case of some products. For these farmed products, production
fluctuations have had a significant impact on price trends. In general,
however, aquaculture products have helped to stabilize traded supplies
and to bring down prices over the years. Furthermore, several species
that were once considered to be high-value luxury products have now
157
become more abundant through aquaculture production, lowering prices
and expanding markets.
The extent of regional and international trade in aquaculture products is
difficult to analyse because trade in many aquaculture products is not
yet well documented in all of the main producing countries.
Furthermore, because international trade statistics do not distinguish
between wild and farmed origin, the exact breakdown between fisheries
and aquaculture in international trade is open to interpretation.
This situation will change gradually, as aquaculture associations emerge
in the main producing countries and start to keep records, and in
response to various trade regulations that distinguish between farmed
and fished origin (e.g., for shrimp).
5.1.2. Traded aquaculture products
In 1998, the main internationally traded products from aquaculture were
shrimp, salmon molluscs and seaweed. Other species showing strong
growth are tilapia, seabass and seabream.
5.1.2.1. Crustaceans
Marine shrimp is the most prominent product from aquaculture in
international trade, and aquaculture has been the major force behind
increased shrimp trading during the past seven to eight years.
Shrimp is already the most traded seafood product internationally, with
about 25 percent or 800 000 mt coming from aquaculture (FAO, 1999a).
Since the late 1980s, farmed shrimp has tended to act as a stabilizing
factor for the shrimp industry. Therefore, the major crop failures in Asia
and Latin America during the past few years (caused by disease
problems) have had a significant impact on overall supply, demand,
prices and consumption trends.
The major markets are Japan, the United States of America and, to a
lesser extent, the EC, while the largest exporters of farmed shrimp are
Thailand, Ecuador, Indonesia, India, Mexico, Bangladesh and Vietnam.
Demand for shrimp is expected to increase in coming years, where
Asian markets, such as China, the Republic of Korea, Thailand and
Malaysia, will expand as local economies recover and consumers‘
demand more seafood. This trend is already reducing the availability of
158
shrimp to traditional importers and will eventually put upward pressure
on prices if supplies do not increase.
Trade in crab species has also increased with growing aquaculture
production (1997: 165 000 mt). Especially important have been the
exports of China (19,000 mt in 1998) to Hong Kong SAR China and
Japan (INFOYU, 1999).
5.1.2.3. Finfish
In terms of total aquaculture output, finfish ranks first, with 49 per cent
of the total production from aquaculture, of which the major part are
carp species, which are consumed locally in the producing countries
(mainly China and India). As opposed to shrimp, finfish aquaculture
trade appears to be split between species having a high traditional
demand and a ―quality‖ image (e.g., salmon, seabass etc.) and
convenience products (mainly fillets) of ―cheaper‖ fish species (e.g.,
tilapia). The following species are the main products that are seen as
being important in international trade:
Salmon: International trade in farmed salmon has increased from
virtually nothing to more than 600 000 mt (1999) in less than a decade.
The traded species are mainly Atlantic salmon and, to a much lesser
extent, coho salmon, which accounted for 87 per cent and 12 per cent of
1997 salmon production, respectively (FAO, 1999b). The growth seen
in trade has mirrored that of production, reflecting the fact that this
activity is concentrated in a few countries that have limited domestic
markets (Norway, Chile and the United Kingdom).
159
5.2. MARKETING OF FISH
5.2.1. Fish Marketing Practices and Structure of Markets

 To make fish available to consumers at the right time and
in the right place requires an effective marketing system.
 Fishermen catch fish by labouring overnight (from
common-property water bodies) do not usually sell fish
in retail markets.
 At the break of day, they take their catches to places
where retailers, meet them and bargain by the lot.
 At the landing point, the number of intermediaries is low.
Only one or two intermediaries may approach a
fisherman.
 Once bargaining has started, other intermediaries remain
at a distance and wait for their turn to deal, should the
first intermediary fail to obtain the fisherman's lot.
 If the first intermediary is unsuccessful, another
intermediaries steps in to bargain for the catch.
Normally, the first intermediaries do not allow this to
happen and secures the lot for him.
 No open bidding exists.
 Therefore, the poor fisherman often falls prey to the
retailer's crude exploitations
5.2.1.1. A fisherman, as a seller, cannot negotiate favourable prices
for himself:
 He cannot keep fish for a long time because the product
is highly perishable,
 He has no specific place to sit in the market to sell his
fish.
 Entry into the market is difficult for fishermen for many
reasons, mainly because of strong non-cooperation and
resistance from the retailers.
160
 A pond-farmer, who sells fish by the lot or by species,
faces one or two intermediaries in his area.
 Sometimes, intermediaries establish their own exclusive
trading areas, where other intermediaries do not interfere
or compete openly. This is particularly the case in remote
villages.
 In areas that are well connected by roads and rail, fish
farmers contact wholesalers in secondary or higher
secondary markets directly and negotiate prices and
quantities of fish with their own initiatives.
5.2.2. Fish-Marketing Channels:
 Domestic markets and distribution of fish are dominated
by a large number of intermediaries.
 All fish traded internally and for export pass through
private channels.
 Fish distribution usually involves four levels.
5.2.2.1. Primary Markets:
 Markets located in villages, district headquarters or at a
crossroads are considered primary markets.
 They are usually near areas where fish are caught.
 Fishermen bring a variety of fishes (dominated by small
fish from both open-water capture and from ponds) to the
primary markets.
5.2.2.2. Secondary Markets:
 The intermediaries take the fish bought from the
fishermen / primary markets / landing points to the
nearest Upazilla or river port markets by road, river or
rail to sell to wholesalers.
 From these secondary markets the fish distributed to
urban markets / higher secondary markets through
different channels by commissioned agents for
wholesalers or other kind of intermediaries.
161
5.2.2.3. Higher Secondary Markets:
 Markets in district headquarters can be considered as
higher secondary markets that are connected with several
secondary markets for the supply of fish.
 Serving large areas of consumer / terminal markets.
 Consist of one or more wholesale markets or centres,
where wholesalers deal in fish.
 These markets are well connected by road, river and rail.
5.2.3. City or Terminal Markets:
 Retailers buy fish from wholesaling centres of higher
secondary and secondary markets. They sell fish directly
to consumers either through fixed stalls or by vending
from head / rickshaws.
 Intermediaries operating on different levels perform
marketing functions like cleaning, sorting, boxing, icing,
re-packing and arranging of transportation, etc from the
start of the distribution channel for fish at the secondary
markets to the city or terminal markets
 At each market level, wholesalers and retailers may be
supplying fish to local consumers.
162
5.3. HARVESTING AND TRANSPORT
5.3.1. Sea-fishing methods
5.3.1.1. Pole-and-line fishing
Line fishing at sea is very popular, not only in traditional fisheries with
small boats employing a limited number of hooks but also in industrial
operations with large vessels or fleets using thousands of hooks.
Pole-and-line methods are used in tropical Pacific and Atlantic waters to
catch young bluefin and yellowfin tuna, and smaller tuna species—such
as albacore, skipjack, bonito, and little tunny. The pole, generally
bamboo, ranges in length from two to 10 metres, with a line of roughly
the same length. Hooks of various sizes are barbless to facilitate baiting
and removing the captured fish. To hold onto the pole a ―rod rest‖ is
generally used, which is made of canvas, leather, or old rubber tires.
Depending on the size of the vessel, the crew may number 30 or more.
A large crew is needed, since fishing time may be limited and the
maximum possible number of rods must be worked. If larger and
heavier fishes are sought, two, three, or even four poles may be linked
to a single hook. In this case the fishermen must cooperate closely. Also
used successfully are deck- and rail-mounted automated fishing poles
operated hydraulically and electrically. The fibreglass rods are
mechanically moved up and down, swinging the hooked fish onto the
deck and removing the hook before swinging it, unbaited, back
overboard.
The tuna is attracted and kept near the vessel by chumming, throwing
live bait overboard. The bait is kept alive on board in special tanks in
which seawater circulates constantly. Bait can be an expensive problem
for tuna fishermen; to catch one ton of tuna, roughly 100 kilograms of
live bait fish are needed. Sometimes the hooks are baited, sometimes
artificial lures are used with hooks hidden in feathers. When the tuna is
―hot‖ (very eager to take the bait), a naked hook is sufficient. Water
spraying helps to attract the tuna; it also serves to camouflage the
shadows of boat and crew.
163
Pole-and-line fishing for tuna is done in daytime from slow-moving
vessels. Since considerable space is needed for the angling crew to stand
side by side on the lee side of the vessel, Japanese vessels for pole-and-
line fishing have a long extended bow. To simplify hauling in the catch
these boats also have a low freeboard (i.e., their sides ride low above the
water). American tuna vessels hang special crew racks outside the ship
over the water.
5.3.1.2. Drifting longlines
Used for tuna—especially in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea and to a limited
extent in South Africa, Cuba, and Oceania—drifting longlines are
particularly successful in the tropical Atlantic for big fish in depths from
60 to 250 metres. More than half the fish caught in this manner are
yellowfin tuna, one-third are albacores, and the remainder bigeye and
bluefin tuna. Sharks, marlins, swordfish, and sailfish, also caught with
drifting longlines, are sometimes included in the tuna statistics. Sharks
can cause serious losses by attacking hooked tuna. Originally longlining
for tuna was a Japanese inshore fishery. At the end of the 19th century,
the Japanese were fishing 50 to 65 kilometres off their coasts. This
fishery was extended when sailing boats were replaced by motorized
craft, and by 1926 the Japanese began longlining for tuna off Taiwan,
by 1929 in the Indian Ocean, by 1930 in the South Pacific, by 1938 in
the eastern Pacific, by 1952 off the southeastern coast of Australia, and
since 1955 in the Atlantic. A longlining crew must be willing to do a
hard, though lucrative, job and remain far from home for long periods.
The gear is a line composed of 400 to 450 sections, each section with a
length of 150 to 400 metres stored in a basket. The total line can have a
stretched length of up to 180 kilometres. Each section is composed of
subsections of different length. The branch lines with the hooks are
composed of three sections that vary in number and length. From one to
12 (generally five) branch lines with hooks form one section; 2,000
hooks are considered the greatest number that can be operated in one set
by a vessel. With decreasing catches, attempts have been made to
increase the number of hooks; Korean fishermen are said to operate as
many as 3,000. The shooting of the line from the stern of the vessel
164
begins early in the morning before sunrise, when the vessel is moving at
a speed of about five knots (five nautical miles per hour) or more.
During shooting the lines have been tied together and the hooks are
baited with frozen Japanese sauries. Each section is tied with a float line
and a buoy. Depth of the gear can be regulated by the length of the float
lines and the distance of the floats. Ten to 14 men require four hours to
perform the task. Hauling from the forepart of the vessel begins in the
early afternoon with the help of a line hauler. Depending on the quantity
of the catch, hauling can take more than 10 hours with a crew of eight to
10. With preparing and sorting the catch, the usual working day of a
crew member totals some 18 hours. Because of this and the fact that
vessels stay at sea more than 200 days per year, the Japanese and
Taiwanese have experienced difficulty in procuring crews; this problem
has led to the development of new technology to simplify the work and
reduce manpower. One such improvement is the reel system, made
especially for larger vessels. The total line is set, hauled, and stored on a
drum, and the floats and branch lines are stowed on separate reels and
clipped on or removed as the main line is set or hauled. Research is
being done on a coupling apparatus to do this automatically. Another
invention is a line-winder system practicable for small vessels. In this a
single line is used, hauled and coiled by a line winder in special tanks in
the aft part of the vessel.
5.3.1.3. Bottom longlines
For centuries, line fishing for demersal fishes was carried on in coastal
waters and far at sea in the dory fishery famous today. A sailing mother
ship carried the dories from Portugal, France, Canada, and the United
States to the Grand Banks for cod. The one-man dory operated near the
carrier setting longlines and sometimes fishing with handlines. In the
evening the catch was carried back to the mother ship where each man
prepared his catch for salting. Some large-scale modern enterprises also
fish with bottom longlines, catching many species of the cod family,
including cod, haddock, coral fish, hake, and pollock, as well as rays,
and many flatfish, such as halibut. There are also longline fisheries for
groupers, hairtails, croakers, and sea breams. Bottom lines are not as
165
long as the more easily controlled drift lines. The hooks do not always
lie on the bottom but may hang above it to protect the bait against
unwanted bottom predators, such as starfish, snails, or crabs. Typically,
bottom lines are used for halibut in the northern Pacific. A relatively
heavy main line is divided into sections of approximately 90 metres.
The branch lines, each about 1.5 metres long, are tied at intervals of four
to 5.5 metres. Modern synthetics, with their greater strength and lighter
weight, have replaced natural fibres for main lines. Fishing depth
usually ranges between 80 and 270 metres, depending on the grounds
and season. The setline is anchored on both ends, marked by a floating
keg and a lighted flag buoy at night.
An automated longline system developed in Norway baits hooks when
setting, then cleans and stows them on magazine racks when hauling.
This, and a number of similar systems, has enabled more hooks to be set
by smaller crews and has thereby revolutionized the bottom longline
fisheries of Europe and North America.
5.3.1.4. Traps
There are only a few areas in the world where water or weather
conditions prohibit the use of traps. A single small vessel can operate
hundreds of traps, though lack of storage space may cause difficulties.
Thus collapsible traps of netting on a wire framework are often
preferred not only for fish but also for crustaceans. Many plastic traps
are made, especially for lobster. Some can be dismantled for easy
transportation. Water snails, such as whelk in England and other species
in Korea, are also trapped, as are cuttlefish and octopuses. As in fresh
water, fyke nets can be set in long rows or in connected systems.
Commercial sea fisheries set long rows of pots or framework traps by
the longline system; i.e., single pots are tied with a branch line to a main
line. Hauling is accomplished with small hand-operated or motor-driven
winches. More important for catching fish in commercial sea fisheries
are the big wooden corrals, or weirs, and the large pound nets. The
oldest type may be the Italian tonnara, used in the Mediterranean for
tuna from the Bosporus to the Atlantic. Very large pound nets are also
used by the Japanese on the Pacific coast, by the Danes and their
166
neighbours off the eastern coasts of the Baltic, and for salmon fishing
off the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America. The difficulty in
setting large traps lies in placing them on the bottom. If the water is not
deep and the bottom is not hard, the weirs can be held by sticks or piles.
Where the water is deeper and the ground is hard or rocky, the weirs
must be anchored.
5.3.1.5. Dragged gear
Dredges and trawls are of great importance in commercial sea fisheries.
Dredges are generally used in shallow water by small vessels, although
a deep-sea dredge is operated by research vessels at depths of up to
1,000 metres. The simplest dredges in sea fishery are hand operated.
Fitted with a stick up to five metres long, they resemble rakes combined
with a bag for collecting the catch—usually mollusks or crustaceans.
Heavier dredges with a triangular or quadrangular iron frame may be
towed along the seafloor by small vessels or pulled some distance from
the shore or from an anchored vessel and then towed back with a winch.
For digging out mollusks, some dredges have iron teeth on the lower
edge of the frame. They may also have a pressure plate on the upper part
and chains on the lower part, depending on the catch sought. The bag of
the dredge is made of wire rings that have good resistance to friction
and of hard fibre netting. Usually more than one dredge is operated by a
vessel, and they are towed with the help of outriggers. The great
disadvantage of dredging is that much of the catch is damaged, wasting
effort and needlessly killing fish.
Trawling in sea fishery can be done by small vessels or even rowboats
(as in the estuary of the Tagus River near Lisbon). More important,
however, are fleets of highly mechanized trawlers whose gross
registered tonnage may reach 5,000 and whose horsepower approaches
6,000. The trawl is a towed net bag with a wide opening at the mouth
and an end closed by a special knot. The mesh size of the opening can
be large—600 millimetres (two feet) from knot to knot—to diminish
water resistance during towing. The closed end (called the cod end) can
have meshes of six millimetres, depending upon the species of fish or
shrimp sought. The trawl is designed in a smooth funnellike shape to
167
guide the fish into the cod end. To keep the mouth of the trawl open, a
large horizontal beam may be used. The beam can measure up to 12
metres in length and is based on two guides that glide over the bottom.
The Dutch catch flatfish with beam trawls that have heavy chains, called
tickler chains, dragging on the seafloor in front of the net opening
between the two gliders to frighten the fish from the bottom into the
trawl. Additional stimulus is often provided by electrifying the tickler
chains.
Though beam trawls were the original gear of deep-sea steam trawlers,
today they are used by smaller vessels only. Beam trawls are usually
towed in pairs, one on each side of the vessel. Such an arrangement can
considerably decrease the stability of the vessel and is dangerous except
in craft specially designed for the purpose. Another method involves
two vessels stretching the horizontal opening of the trawl between them.
Two vessels have more power to tow a bigger trawl at greater speed, but
the skippers of the two vessels must cooperate very closely. The most
important method for spreading a trawl opening employs two trawl
doors, or otter boards, rectangular or oval plates that are attached to
each side of the net and caused to flare apart by the pressure of the
water.
Mid-water trawling involves dragging the trawl with one or two vessels
in the area between the ocean bottom and its surface to catch pelagic
fish. The trawl is set at the depth where fish have been observed by
varying the length of the towing warps and the speed of the towing
vessel. With longer warps and lower speed, the trawl sinks; it rises with
shorter warps and higher speed. The depth of the trawl is monitored by a
special transducer called a netsonde, which is mounted on the trawl and
transmits echograms showing the position of the net in relation to the
bottom and to the school of fish.
A special type of mid-water trawl is the semipelagic trawl, originally
invented in Iceland and now operated primarily by French fishermen. In
this technique the otter boards remain in touch with the bottom but the
trawl floats at some distance above it. Semipelagic trawls were
constructed because fish often are concentrated at a short distance from
168
the bottom outside the range of the usual bottom trawl, which has a low,
wide opening. To overcome this difficulty, a higher opening of the trawl
is needed. Though the opening of a bottom trawl can be stretched
vertically by various means, such stretching decreases the horizontal
width of opening. Some modern bottom trawls are constructed with a
high vertical and horizontal opening, and many consider them the best
available gear for bottom trawling.
5.3.1.6. Seine nets
Seine nets are often employed in beach seining, where fish shoals are
near beaches. Large beach-seining operations for sardinelike fishes and
other species are carried on in the Indian Ocean. The importance of this
method has decreased as pollution has cut the available stocks of fish in
this region and as manpower costs have risen: not all fishing methods
lend themselves to mechanization. More successful are anchor seines,
better known (because of their origin in Denmark in 1849) as Danish
seines. The gear consists of a net similar to a trawl but with a large bag
and long wings connected to long towing ropes. One of the ropes (up to
1,000 metres long) is tied to an anchored buoy. The other rope is tied to
the vessel, which steams in a wide circle, laying the ropes and returning
to the buoy. The ropes act to keep the net open and herd the fish toward
the bag. The vessel then hauls both ropes together until the net bag is
taken on board. This method is used in northern Europe for flatfish and
cod and in Japan has become the most important method of inshore
fishery for bottom fish, after two-boat trawling.
5.3.1.7. Purse seines and lamparas
The most important sea-fishing gear is the surrounding net, represented
by the older lampara nets and the more modern purse seines. Both are
typical gear for pelagic fish schooling in large and dense shoals. When
these nets are used, a shoal of fish is first surrounded with a curtain or
wall of netting that is buoyed at the surface and weighted at the bottom.
The lampara net has a large central bunt, or bagging portion, and short
wings. The buoyed float line is longer than the weighted lead line, so
that, as the lines are hauled, the wings of the net come together at the
bottom first, trapping the fish. As the net is brought in, the school of fish
169
is worked into the bunt and captured. With the purse seine, once the
school is surrounded, the bottom of the net is closed by drawing a line
through rings attached to the lead line. This pulls the net shut at the
bottom like a purse, and when the net is hauled in, the concentrated fish
are removed by a brail (dip net) or are pumped aboard the fishing
vessel.
Surrounding nets are used for tuna, herring, sardines and related species,
salmon, mackerels, and even cod (when they come to spawn in the
pelagic zone). For these nets to be successful, the fish must be in large
and dense shoals; light and bait are sometimes used as lures to produce
such shoaling.
5.3.1.8. Lift nets
Fish can also be caught, in limited quantities, by lift nets: stationary
types operated along the shoreline, movable ones from rafts and boats,
and large blanket nets held on each corner by a small boat. The Soviets
operate a large commercial lift-net fishery on the Caspian Sea to catch
sardinelike fish attracted by light. Each vessel operates two conical nets,
setting one while the other is being lifted. Another effective lift net is
the large, boxlike basnig of the Philippines, operated with a luring light
during the night beneath a single outrigged vessel; sardines, mackerels,
hairtails, squid, and other pelagic prey are caught. The Japanese have a
special kind of lift net for sauries; the fish, attracted by light, swim over
the netting lowered into the water and are caught when the netting is
hauled.
5.3.1.9. Gill nets and drift nets
Quite important in commercial sea fisheries, gill nets are sometimes
operated in large sets thousands of metres long. These generally drift
with the vessel or are set as anchored nets in long rows at or near the
bottom of the sea. Gill nets are used for many pelagic fishes, such as
herring, pilchards, sardines and related species, mackerels, croakers,
salmon, and tuna. They also are used for many bottom fishes—cod,
Alaska pollock, and others. For cod, Icelandic fishermen set up to 90
nets, each about 50 metres in length, in depths up to 180 metres.
170
Drift nets are widely used to catch pelagic sea fishes. In northern
Europe, before the introduction of trawling, drift nets were the most
important method of deep-sea fishery. In the old herring fishery of
northwestern Europe, drifters commonly set more than 100 nets, each
about 30 metres in length. Thus a fleet of drift nets might measure three
or even four kilometres. The nets are set in the late afternoon to catch
the herring as they ascend in the evening from ocean bottom to higher
water levels. During the night the vessel drifts with the nets like a buoy.
Hauling, done by hand or with mechanical aids, begins at midnight and,
when big catches are taken, can continue until late morning. The fish are
shaken out of the meshes by hand or with shaking machines.
5.3.1.10. Entangling nets
Similarly operated are entangling nets, single or double walled, and
three-walled trammel nets. These are used in sea fisheries for hake,
shark, rays, salmon, sturgeons, halibut, plaice, shrimps, prawns, lobster,
spiny lobster, king crabs, and turtles. Single-walled nets are used in the
southern part of the Caspian Sea and in the Black Sea to catch sturgeons
by entangling. Iranian fishermen set about 150 sturgeon nets in one row
perpendicular to the shoreline. Setting requires much labour; between
each two nets a line is tied, which is connected to a short wooden peg
driven into the bottom. The Turkish Black Sea fishermen sometimes set
sturgeon nets in another form. Two nets always form an angle open to
the sea. The nets are held by sticks rammed into the bottom. Sturgeon
nets are checked once or even twice each day, depending on weather.
For this purpose an Iranian fisherman lies on the bow of his sailboat,
towing the vessel along the float line of the net. The sturgeons are taken
from the water by hand or with a gaff.
The most important sea fishery for crustaceans is the king crab fishery
in the northern Pacific. For the Japanese, who use entangling nets, this is
a very important distant fishery ranking with tuna and salmon fishing.
Originally carried on close to shore, king crab fishing was extended in
the northern Pacific after its beginnings in the 1870s. The old land
stations for processing were replaced by floating factories that
accompanied the fishing vessels. The entangling nets are set on the
171
bottom, sometimes 200 nets with a total length of 10 kilometres in one
row. Larger catching vessels set 1,200 to 1,300 nets a day, usually in
parallel rows about 500 metres apart. Nets stay in the water from five to
seven days and are hauled by small open vessels with motor-driven
reels, which can take from 2,500 to 3,000 nets per day out of the water.
When hauling, the floats and sinkers are untied and the entangled king
crabs are taken from the netting. The catch and nets are then transported
to the mother ship, where the catch is processed and the nets cleaned, an
operation that may require 30 minutes per net. Large racks for drying
and cleaning the entangling nets are characteristic of this type of vessel.
A single fishing unit may own a permanent set of 15,000 to 30,000 nets.
5.3.2. Harvesting machines
A relatively new type of fishing gear is the harvesting machine
combined with a pump, used in the northern part of the Caspian Sea for
sardinelike fish and for squid off the California coast. In both cases the
prey is attracted by light. Squid fishing can be done near the surface, but
in the Caspian the fish are sucked on board with pumps from depths as
great as 110 metres. In pumping, the suction nozzle is moved up and
down with attracting lamps. Once on board the fish or squid are strained
from the water. The difficulty in fish pumping is to avoid damage to the
catch. Only small objects can be pumped without injury.
Another type of harvesting machine is the hydraulic dredge, with pumps
and conveyors. These dredges wash out deeply buried mussels with jets
of water under high pressure. The Americans operate such hydraulic
dredges to harvest soft clams, and the British use similar machines for
cockles. Harvesting machines also are used to cut kelp off California.
Giant kelp is harvested by cutting to a maximum depth of 1.2 metres
below the surface of the water and is transferred by conveyor belt into
the open hold of the vessel.
5.3.3. Freshwater fishing
Freshwater fishing is carried out in lakes and rivers or streams and to a
growing extent in natural and artificial ponds. In some tropical areas,
swamps with shallow water, sometimes overgrown with vegetation, are
important inland fisheries. Before efficient transportation and
172
distribution of ocean fish was organized, fresh waters were the only
resource available for fish and other aquatic products for the inland
population. Their importance decreased with the growing bulk fisheries
of the seas. Freshwater fish now compose only about 5 percent of the
total catch of water products of the world.
5.3.3.1. General characteristics
Widely different freshwater species feeding on bacteria or detritus,
plants or plankton, or living as predators are used for human
consumption. Well-known species include trout and whitefish, carp and
other cyprinids, catfish, murrals, and tilapias. The desirability of some
anadromous fishes those, such as salmon and sturgeon, that spawn in
freshwater but live in the sea and catadromous fishes those, most
notably the eel, that spawn in the sea but live in freshwater has led to
specialized fisheries in inland waters.
The kind and quantity of fish found in lakes and rivers vary greatly with
the physical and chemical condition of the water. Limnologists,
scientists who study conditions in fresh water, classify freshwaters by
the quantity of oxygen and essential nutrient salts (nitrates, phosphates,
and potash) they contain. Fishermen classify waters by the principal fish
to be caught therein. Rivers, for example, are divided into different
zones beginning with the source, which is often good trout water, and
ending in the estuary, where many coastal varieties of ocean fish can be
caught. In like manner, fishermen classify lakes by expected catch (e.g.,
eels, tilapias, or crayfish).
The great variations in the productivity of inland waters are explained
by differences in their physical and chemical properties. Though some
rivers may produce as much as 200 kilograms per hectare (180 pounds
per acre) each year and some lakes may yield 160 kilograms per hectare,
the world average is about eight kilograms per hectare.
Pollution produced by chemical preparations applied for agricultural
purposes has created serious problems for the world‘s freshwater
fisheries; fish cultivation is increasingly restricted to man-made waters.
Traditional freshwater fisheries still supply basic protein to China,
Southeast Asia, and tropical Africa but have been seriously affected in
173
the United Kingdom, continental Europe, Japan, Central Asia, and the
United States.
Because of pollution, freshwater fishing in natural waters has declined
in industrial countries, but pollution is not totally to blame. The rapid
rise in angling as a leisure pastime has created competition for the
available waters and the fish in them. Because angling interests can
afford higher prices for the rights to available waters, angling is now
virtually the only fishing for wild fish that takes place in natural waters
in industrialized countries. Some fish species that are considered
delicacies and attract high prices are exempt from this trend. Fishing for
salmon, eels, and crayfish is still very active on a commercial basis.
With these fisheries there are many traditional rights to fishing certain
waters.
In nonindustrialized countries freshwater fishing has increased
considerably, mainly under the influence of aid programs. Some of
these programs have tried to introduce new and more efficient fishing
methods, but the main improvement has been in mechanization of the
fishing boats used and in improved methods of preserving and
distributing the catch. On some of the larger inland lakes, freshwater
fishing is still the primary occupation in the villages along the shore.
Fish farming for freshwater species is being introduced in developing
countries to produce a valuable source of protein. Where natural waters
are fished in developing countries, fish management techniques are
being used to improve the catch and to prevent overfishing.
5.3.3.2. Methods
Many techniques are employed to catch fish in inland waters, some
appropriate to lakes alone, some to rivers only, and some to both. Of the
many methods employed worldwide, only a few are economical for
large-scale operation. Commercial line fishing, which uses many
hooked and baited branch lines tied to a single main line, is widely
practiced. A simpler technique is handlining, in which single lines with
baited hooks are tied to small sticks or trees along the shore or to special
devices set along the side of a hole in ice. Handlining is used for deep
fishing or for catching in rocky areas. Drifting lines with one or more
174
hooks can also be used on lakes, though seldom in rivers. Lines may
also be trolled (trailed) behind a moving boat. On some rivers in tropical
and temperate areas, fish are caught by fouling with sharp-pointed
hooks. The main difficulty in line fishing is to keep the lines clear and to
obtain baits in needed quantity.
Passive and stationary fishing gear is so important in many lakes and
rivers that some fishermen specialize entirely in trapping. Since deep
and rocky shores, however, do not favour the use of traps, these devices
cannot be used in all areas. Fish seeking shelter may be caught in simple
brushwood devices when the brushwood is lifted quickly. More
important are traps, such as wooden baskets made of wickerwork or of
split bamboo, with retarding devices such as funnels or valves at the
entrance. Wooden baskets, generally used in rivers with strong currents,
can be set according to the longline system in which the baskets are tied
with branch lines on a main line lying across the bottom of the river.
Such baskets are usually baited, with the bait sometimes held in small
bags or boxes. Today, in river fisheries as in coastal sea fisheries, traps,
especially those used for eels, are made of plastic.
A more modern type of trap is the bag-shaped fyke net, held open by
hoops; linked together in long chains, these are used to catch eels in
rivers. When equipped with wings and leaders, fyke nets are employed
in lakes where there are sheltered places with abundant plant life.
Hundreds of such nets can be combined into systems where it is not
economical to build large traps.
Another fishing method important in freshwater fisheries employs small
scoop nets or large net bags (stownets). Such gear is known on many
European and Asian rivers. The net bag is fixed to the river bottom to
catch migrating or drifting fish. Some human control may be necessary;
sometimes a watchman lives on a vessel or raft next to the stownet or on
a special platform. Though stownets are especially popular in European
rivers for eel fishing, their importance is lessening owing to increased
boat traffic and to pollution. Moreover, the gear can be too large to be
moved easily. In Indonesia stownets up to 100 metres long and up to 40
metres across the mouth are used. Small scoop nets can be operated by
175
hand and pushed or towed over the bottoms in shallow waters.
Sometimes this is done by fishnetting parties, in which all the men of a
village form a line across the river, with a scoop net in each hand.
Sometimes the fisherman stands on a platform built on the side of the
stream and simply scoops up fish as they pass; this is done by some
African fishermen in Malaŵi and was done by American Indians on the
Columbia River in Oregon.
One of the most common fishing methods in freshwater lakes and rivers
is seining, which is done in temperate zones especially in autumn and
winter when fish are concentrated in deeper parts of the lakes. Because
part of the seine must be dragged over the lake bottom while it
surrounds the fish, seining is practicable only where the lake bottom is
smooth and where favourable areas (i.e., with fish concentrated near the
bottom) are known. In some lakes such areas have been known for a
long time and may be named and marked on fishing maps. Seine nets in
lake fisheries can be very large, with wings of 1,000 metres each. Since
traditional seining required considerable labour, mechanization became
desirable. A modern mechanized seine-net fishery requires only a small
labour force. In northern countries seine nets are used under ice. For this
purpose a number of ice holes are needed for guiding the towing warps
with the net on the underside of the ice sheet. Here also manpower is
saved by motorized towing and coiling lines and by drilling the holes in
the ice with power drills. Some success has been achieved in increasing
the efficiency of seine nets by electric light. Fish trying to evade the net
can be caught by stunning, or eels lying in the mud during the cold
season (generally a time when eel fishing is poor) can be attracted out of
the mud by an electrical current. The disadvantage of all seine nets is
that they are not selective; many undersized fish that should be
preserved cannot escape.
On larger lakes, sea-fishing methods such as trawling and purse seining
are used. Two or more fishing boats are usually required to set a purse
seine net, which can then be hauled in manually by people on the shore.
Lift nets are often used in fresh water, not only to catch bait fish for line
fishing but also to catch crayfish or other freshwater crabs. There are
176
small hand-operated lift nets tightened by frames and larger ones lifted
from a gallows or with one or two vessels. Unframed blanket nets are
used in rivers in Italy, each corner held by a gallows placed on the
banks. Cover pots and cast nets also have some importance in
commercial freshwater fisheries. Cover pots are especially used in rice
fields or shallow waters with rich vegetation. Cast nets are used more in
clear waters in lakes and in rivers; considerable skill is required to cast
these. In Russia shooting mechanisms are employed to cast larger nets.
Much more important in freshwater fisheries, however, are gill nets. The
mesh size of the net can be used to regulate the size of the fish caught;
thus smaller, undesired species escape. Lake fishermen use mostly
stationary gill nets, anchored near the bottom or floating. River
fishermen use gill nets that drift with the current, with one side tied to
the boat and the other to a drifting buoy. With entangling two-walled
nets and trammel nets, yield can be increased by frightening the fish into
the netting; this is accomplished by beating the water or throwing
stones.
177
5.4. FISH TRANSPORT
5.4.1. Introduction
There are two basic transport systems for live fish - the closed
system and the open system. The closed system is a sealed container in
which all the requirements for survival are self-contained. The simplest
of these is a sealed plastic bag partly filled with water and oxygen. The
open system consists of water-filled containers in which the
requirements for survival are supplied continuously from outside
sources. The simplest of these is a small tank with an aerator stone.
These systems will be reviewed with respect to the problems of fish
preparation for transport, types of vehicles and equipments, problems of
water quality and its changes during transport, and chemical aids used
during fish transport.
There is ample literature on fish transport and associated problems;
however, the literary sources overlap and give partly differing
interpretations of the recommended ways of transport. These are the
reasons why this survey aims at comprising mainly those published
results which have been fully verified in practice and which are,
therefore, reliably instructive.
The basic factors and principles associated with any live fish transport
systems, or influencing them, are evaluated before the actual ways of
fish transport are commented on.
5.4.2. The Main Factors and Principles Associated with Fish
Transport
Fish survival in a good state of health during transport is influenced by a
number of factors, or combination of factors.
5.4.2.1. Quality of Fish
The quality of fish transported is a decisive criterion. The fish to be
transported must be healthy and in good condition. Weakened
individuals should be eliminated from the consignment, particularly
when the temperature during shipment is high. When the fish are of
poor quality, even a great reduction of fish density in the transport
178
container fails to prevent fish losses. Weak fish are killed at a much
higher rate than fish in good condition when the transport time is longer.
A need for adapting the fish to a lower water temperature may also arise
before transport. Natural ice is used to cool the water; the ice of
carbonic acid should be avoided. As a guide ratio, 25 kg of ice will cool
1 000 litres of water by 2°C. If the water contains fish during the
cooling process, the temperature drop should not be faster than 5°C per
hour. Direct contact of fish with ice should be prevented at the same
time. The total temperature difference should not be greater than 12–
15°C, with respect to the species and age of the fish.
The fish to be transported, except for the larval stages should be left to
starve for at least a day; if the digestive tract of the fish is not totally
cleaned, the possible time of transport is reduced to a half, though the
conditions may be the same. The fish with full digestive tracts also need
more oxygen, are more susceptible to stress, and produce excrements
which take up much of the oxygen of the water. However, when fish
larvae are transported, their time of survival without food should be
taken into consideration. The transport time of the larvae of herbivorous
fishes should not last longer than 20 hours and that of many aquarium
species should be shorter than 12 hours.
Oxygen: The most important single factor in transporting fish is
providing an adequate level of dissolved oxygen. However, an
abundance of oxygen within a tank does not necessarily indicate that the
fish are in good condition. The ability of fish to use oxygen depends on
their tolerance to stress, water temperature, pH, and concentrations of
carbon dioxide and metabolic products such as ammonia.
The crucial factors underlying oxygen consumption by fish in relation
with oxygen metabolism during transport are fish weight and water
temperature. Heavier fish and those transported in warmer water need
more oxygen. For instance, if the water temperature increases by 10°C
(e.g., from 10 to 20°C), oxygen consumption is about doubled. From the
point of view of fish transport, for each 0.5°C rise in temperature, the
fish load should be reduced by about 5.6%; conversely, for each 0.5°C
decrease in temperature, the load can be increased by about 5.6%
179
(Piper et al., 1982). Oxygen consumption also increases with fish
excitement by handling. Excitement increases oxygen demand three to
five times and, for instance, salmonid fry need up to several hours to
return to the normal level of oxygen metabolism which is, in fact,
usually after the end of the transport (Lusk and Krcál, 1974).
In water provided with an unlimited amount of oxygen, a fish at rest
will consume a minimum amount of oxygen. In a fish transport system,
the fish will require more than the minimum amount since they are not
at rest. Furthermore, if they are excited at loading or disturbed during
transport they may consume near to the maximum amount.
The amount of oxygen a fish consumes also depends on the amount of
oxygen available. At high levels, the fish will consume at a steady rate.
When water oxygen levels are low, fish consume lower amounts of
oxygen than when oxygen levels are high, despite the degree of activity.
Fish transport systems often contain water with oxygen levels that do
not provide enough oxygen required to satisfy the fish bodies. To offset
this predicament, the fish will shift its metabolism to use the stored
oxygen of the body. This condition is likened to that of a man who is at
rest and suddenly performs strenuous activity before a proportionate
amount of oxygen is taken in. For the man and the fish, an oxygen
―debt‖ is created which must be repaid when favourable oxygen
conditions are experienced.
The first hour after loading is a particularly critical time for fish in
respect to their oxygen needs. They are excited and require a large
amount of oxygen with a short time for adjustment. Significant
differences in oxygen demand exist also within fish families. As
asserted, for instance, by Uryn (1971), when water temperature
increases (4–14°C) during transport, the fry of Coregonus
lavaretus consume 2.4 times more oxygen than the fry of C. albula. Fish
size is also important. A large fish consumes less oxygen per unit
weight than does a small one. Oxygen levels of water for most warm
water fish should be above 5 mg.1-1 for normal conditions. This level
should prevent oxygen from becoming a major stress factor.
180
Some conversion coefficients of oxygen demand are indicated by the
FRG recommendation (1979): 25 kg of rainbow trout at an individual
weight of 250 g have the same oxygen demand as 20 kg of 12 cm stock
trout (1 100 fish), or 17 kg of 8 cm stock trout (3 200 fish), or 12 kg of
forced fry at the length of 4 cm (ca. 23 000 fish). Taking the oxygen
demand of carp as 1, the converted oxygen demand levels for other
fishes are as follows:
Trout 2.83 bream 1.41
pike-
1.76 pike 1.10
perch
Roach 1.51 eel 0.83
Perch 1.46 tench 0.83
During fish transport in closed systems with pressurized oxygen

atmosphere, oxygen content in water usually is not a limiting factor
because there is enough pressurized oxygen in a closed bag. Oxygen
deficit may occur in exceptional cases when the density of fish is too
high or the transport is longer than the fish can stand. The dead fish
compete with the living ones for oxygen: they increase bacterial
multiplication requiring much oxygen, and this multiplication may
further produce toxic metabolites. The slime produced by the fish is
another substrate for bacterial growth resulting in a decrease of the
water oxygen content; this process is intensified when water
temperature is higher.
A high oxygen content of water has no unfavourable influence on the
fish, e.g., the limit for rainbow trout is 35 mg per litre which is not
attainable in practical conditions. In closed systems, slight shaking of
the bag supports the penetration of atmospheric oxygen to water. During
long steps when the bags with fish are left without movement, the fish
may die though the oxygen reserve in the bag is still high. This applies
mainly to dense stocks of salmonids, requiring much oxygen; no such
181
problems are encountered when cyprinids, except their sac fry, are
transported, because these fish move the water in the bag by their own
movement, thus driving it into sufficient contact with the oxygenated
atmosphere. The time of the onset of the threshold oxygen
concentrations during salmonid fry transport in closed bags left without
movement.
pH, Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia: Water quality is a function of the
load of fish concentration and the length of time for which the fish are
transported. The source of the water used during transport must have
been tested before dispatching a mass consignment of fish. The water
pH level is a control factor because the proportions of toxic ammonia
and CO2 contents are direct functions of pH.
With increasing transport time, CO2 production through fish respiration
shifts water pH towards acidity. Water pH levels about 7–8 are
considered as optimum. Rapid changes in pH stress fish, but buffers can
be used to stabilize the water pH during fish transport. The organic
buffer trishydroxylmethylaminomethane is quite effective in fresh and
salt water. It is highly soluble, stable and easily applied. This buffer has
been used on 29 species of fish with no deleterious effects. Levels of
1.3–2.6 g/litre are recommended for routine transport of fish.
Temperature: Water temperature is an important factor. When water
temperature is low, the pH remains higher and fish metabolism
decreases. The generally applicable zones of optimum temperatures for
transported fish are 6–8°C for cold-water fishes and 10–12°C for warm-
water fishes in summer, 3–5°C for cold-water fishes and 5–6°C for
warm-water fishes in spring and autumn, and 1–2°C for all in winter.
Naturally, these temperature ranges do not apply to the early stages of
fish fry. The early fry of cyprinids cannot be transported at temperatures
below 15°C, early fry of salmonids at temperatures higher than 15–
20°C, and the temperature of 10°C, is considered as optimum for the
early stages of the fry of coregonids.
182
5.5. QUALITY CONTROL AND NORMS OF
MPEDA FOR EXPORT FISHES
5.5.1. Introduction
Quality & Safety is the foundation of any food processing industry. In
the sea food industry, quality control is a very vital element as quality of
the products processed is highly heterogeneous and perishable in nature,
particularly under tropical conditions. Realizing this, MPEDA advised
the industry to adopt modern methods of handling, processing and
adequate quality control measures to safeguard the quality of sea food.
To cope up with the increasing demand for safe food and to satisfy the
needs of health / quality conscious consumers all over the world,
MPEDA Quality Control Section identified the following thrust areas
for development / improvement and implements programmes as under:
 MPEDA has set up Labs at Kochi, Bhimavaram, Nellore and
Bhubaneswar with facilities to test seafood samples for heavy
metals, dyes, pesticides and antibiotic residues using advanced
technology.
 Operating a nationwide network of ELISA labs to ensure
Antibiotic residue free aquaculture shrimp meant for export.
 Imparting technical knowhow and information to seafood
industry for quality up-gradation.
 Entrusting special research projects on quality problems with
National Research Institutes as and when required
 Monitoring of quality from primary production to processing
plants for export.
 Integrated development programme for upgrading seafood
quality by providing infrastructural facilities like pre-processing
centers and setting up of mini lab towards quality assurance.
 Evolving standards for compliance for export of fish and fishery
products to various countries based on standards / norms /
regulations prescribed by such countries from time to time.
 Arranging delegations from India to acquaint with latest
development in technology and resolving quality issues if any.
183
 Whenever required, MPEDA also invites the Health Authorities
of importing countries to India to observe for themselves the
improvements that have taken place in India in the processing
and handling of fish and fishery products and to generate
confidence in the processing and inspection systems being
followed in India.
 MPEDA is a member in the Bureau of Indian Standards, the
Export Inspection Council and Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India. MPEDA also attends the meetings organized
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, where international
standards for fish and fishery products and related subjects are
formulated.
 Providing comments on SPS/TBT issues and notifications.
 Investigate the rejections/detention reported from European
Union, Japan, USFDA and other markets to suggest corrective
actions to the processor to prevent recurrence in future.
 Providing technical guidance for HACCP implementation.
 MPEDA has evolved a Marine Products (Quality Marking)
scheme to grant logo as a mark of quality which is to be affixed
on seafood products exported from India by the registered
seafood processors who meet the criteria prescribed, which will
make marketing their products easier.
 Organising national/international trainings in Quality Control for
the seafood processing sector for familiarizing the analytical
methods adopted by importing countries. Training programmes
are organized in India in collaboration with national and
international organizations like USFDA, EU-BTSF, CITD,
FAO, INFOFISH etc.
5.5.2. EXPORTERS
Registration as an exporter is granted under section 9(2) (h) of MPEDA
Act 1972 read with rules 40-42 of MPEDA Rules/ norms, 1972. The
exporters are categorized into four, viz:-
1. Manufacturer Exporter – is an owner of an approved
processing plant, or an approved fishing vessel having onboard
184
processing facilities, or live fish handling facility, or chilled fish
handling facility or dried fish handling facility.
2. Merchant Exporter – is an exporter who does not own a
processing plant, but utilizes the surplus capacity of an approved
processing or handling facility.
3. Route through Merchant Exporter – is an Export House or
Trading House or Star Trading House or Super Star Trading
House, possessing a certificate of approval issued by the DGFT.
4. Ornamental Fish Exporter – is an exporter who exports only
ornamental fish but not an exporter of live marine products
for human consumption.
The marine products permitted to be exported are classified into 8
categories as given below:-
1. Frozen Marine Products
2. Canned Marine Products
3. Freeze Dried Marine Products
4. Live Marine Products, other than Ornamental Fish
5. Dried Marine Products
6. Chilled Marine Products
7. Ornamental Fish
8. Others (Edible)/(Non-Edible)
5.5.3. FREEZING AND CANNING
Fish preservation is a very important aspect of the fisheries. Normally
the fish farms or other fish capturing sites are located far off from the
market place and there is chance of fish decomposition and the
uncertainties of their sale in market. When the fishes are caught in
numbers, greater than the amount of consumption, their preservation
becomes a necessity for their future use. Preservation and processing,
therefore become a very important part of commercial fisheries. It is
done in such a manner that the fishes remain fresh for a long time, with
a minimum loss of flavour, taste, odour, nutritive value and the
digestibility of their flesh.
5.5.3.1. Methods of preservation
Preservation can be done, both for short and long duration:
185
a) Preservation for short duration
Chilling: This is obtained by covering the fish with layers of ice.
However, ice alone is not effective for long preservation, because
melting water brings about a sort of leaching of valuable flesh contents
which are responsible for the flavour. But ice is effective for short term
preservation such as is needed to transport landed fish to nearby markets
or to canning factories, etc. Here autolytic enzymic activities are
checked by lowering the temperature.
b) Preservation for long time
When the preservation is required for a long period of time, the fishes
are passed through the cleaning, gutting and conservation and storage.
Cleaning: During cleaning, the caught first are fish washed thoroughly
in cold, clean water to remove bacteria, slime, blood, faeces, and mud,
etc. from the body surface of the fish. It is being done under proper
sanitary conditions.
Gutting: After cleaning, the fishes are cut along their mid ventral side,
and their visceral organs are removed. By removing viscera, the bacteria
in the gastro intestinal tract and enzymes of visceral organs are removed
along with it to prevent bacterial decomposition and enzymic autolysis
respectively.
Conservation and storage: Conservation is necessary to keep the dead
fish in fresh condition for quite a long time. This is achieved by
employing any one of the methods like freezing, drying, salting,
smoking and canning.
5.5.3.2. Freezing:
Freezing means removal of heat from the body. To check the enzyme,
bacterial action and putrefaction it is preferred to store the fish under
lower temperatures. The fishes are chilled in ice when they are to be
stored for a few days. Ice is put inside the body cavity in large fishes.
The fishes are arranged in tiers in shelves or boxes and stacked, and
should not be dumped in heaps in cold storage. It is preferred to store at
a temperature below 6.6oC to prevent microbial spoilage offish. The
formation of ice to some extent causes damage to the biological
material, like growth of crystals of ice ruptures the structural
186
components, releasing the enzymes and precipitation of liquid water and
thereby causing precipitation of proteins effecting the change of pH
making it more or less dry. The ice formation is initiated when the
temperature of fish is lowered to about-1oC with a change in the
concentration of inorganic and organic compounds. Freezing continues
to fall with the lowering of temperature. At -50oC to -60oC the entire
water in the fish is frozen. The maximum freezing of water is between
1oC and 5oC with different sized crystal formation of ice.
Ice formation occurs at a place where heat is extracted and then spread
to warmer areas from where heat is conducted to refrigerating medium.
The size of the crystals depends upon the nature of freezing in slow or
quick freezing. Large crystals formed in slow freezing, rupture the
tissues more since it penetrates the cell wall easily and forms the drip.
Drip is the flow of tissue fluids from the frozen fish or muscle during
freezing of the fish or muscle. This drip is due to the cell damage caused
in freezing. This drip leaches along with soluble protein, vitamins and
minerals and gives an undesirable appearance. The formation of drip
affects the appearance of the product and results in the loss of weight.
Hence, drip is considered as one of the criteria for judging the quality of
the frozen products.
Uses of ice:
 Fish preservation time can be extended by using ice.
 Ice reduces fish body temperature and keeps the body
cool for more time.
 Water, formed due to ice melting, cleans the mucous,
and other material of the fish body.
 Ice is useful as good preservative due to its melting point
0oC and latent heat 80 cal./gr.
 Due to high relative humidity of ice, it is very good for
preservation.
 Ice is cheap and very effective preservative.
187
Fig. 5.1.
Deep or quick freezing: When fish is intended to be stored for a long

period, quick freezing is preferred which inhibits bacterial action.
During quick freezing every part of the product comes within the range
of 0oto -5oC. Properly frozen fish at -20oC retains its physical
properties and nutritive values for a year or more and is almost as good
as fresh fish. Smaller sized crystals, shorter time taken for freezing less
time allowed for diffusion of salts and evaporation of water and
prevention of decomposition are some of the advantages in quick
freezing. There are three ways effecting quick freezing:
a) Direct immersion of fish in the refrigerating medium
b) Indirect contact with the refrigerant through plates
c) Forced convection of refrigerated air directed at heat transfer
surfaces.
There are several methods of quick freezing. Among the various types
of quick freezing plants installed in India the carrier air blast type is
widely used. Preserving of fish in cold storage is practised on a small
scale in India. Cold storage preservation of fish is practised at the places
where storage facilities are available. The fishes are preserved overnight
in cold storage and marketed the next day. With the increase in
availability of ice, fish is transported in ice by different modes of
transport like rail, trucks, motor launches, etc. The west coast has a
large number of freezing plants at places like Bombay, Mangalore,
Cochin, and Trivandrum where freezing of prawns, lobsters and frog
188
legs are undertaken. At Bombay fishes like pomfrets, jew fishes, etc.,
are frozen and stored for several months.
Oil sardines, mackerel and seer are the three commercial important food
fishes used in the application of refrigerated sea water for preservation.
These fishes were stored in artificial sea waters prepared by dissolving
common salt to give a sodium chloride content 3.5% at a temperature of
-1.1 to 0oC. In general the fishes stored in refrigerated sea water had
firmer texture and better appearance than ice-stored ones. The oil
sardines stored upto 2 days did not show any difference compared to ice
samples. Further storing resulted inferior quality of the fish. Similarly
mackerel and seer could be stored for 4 to 6 days and 12 to 14 days
respectively.
In general different methods of freezing are adapted through sharp
freezer. air blast freezer, contact plate freezer, vertical plate freezer,
immersion freezing, liquid freon freezing, liquid nitrogen freezing,
fluidized bed freezer, cryogenic freezing, sub freezing, etc. All the
methods of freezing shall help in absorption of heat and in preserving
the initial qualities of fish. Among the various methods of freezing the
blast freezer is mostly in use in India.
Freeze drying: This is modified deep freezing, completely eliminating
all chances of denaturation. The deep frozen fish at -20oC is then dried
by direct sublimation of ice to water vapour with any melting into liquid
water. This is achieved by exposing the frozen fish to 140oC in a
vacuum chamber. The fish is then packed or canned in dried condition.
Any loss of flesh contents by way leaching during melting of ice is thus
avoided. The product is quite fresh looking in appearance, flavour,
colour and quality.
Filleting and freezing of fish: The processing industry also adopted
freezing of fish in the form of fillets at times when prawns are not
available. Fillets are nothing but the strips of flesh cut parallel to the
backbone of the fish. Fishes like milk fish, cat fish, perches, mullets,
carps, eel, etc., are suitable for filleting and freezing. Filleting can be
done by hand which is economical or by using a filleting machine.
Fillets may be with or without skin and it fetches a much higher price in
189
the luxury market. Fillets are dripped in brine to enhance their
appearance and to reduce the amount of drip and it also gives a salty
flavour. The freezing of fillets can be an individual quick freezing of
block freezing. After dropping in brine, the fillets wrapped in polythene
sheet are frozen in contact plate freezer at -350C to 400C.
In block freezing the fillets in known weight 500grm, 1Kg, 2Kg. are
packed in polythene bags lined with wax and sufficient quantity of
glazed water is poured to cover the fillets. The fillets are put in a freezer
at -35 to 400C and stored at -230C.
5.5.3.3. Canning:
Canning is a method of preservation in which spoilage can be prevent
by killing micro-organisms through heat. It is generally well known that
food carries micro-organisms which cause spoilage if left unchecked.
These micro-organisms are to be eliminated and the entry of other is
restricted. The canning process involves pre-treatment of fish,
preparation of can, filling and closure of the can, technique of heating
the filled cans to kill micro-organisms without damage to fish, finally
cooling, cleaning and storage of the product. The raw material should be
processed properly since it contains most dangerous Closetridium
botulinium which should be destroyed. This is found in protein rich food
such as fish which has pH 6-7 and is non acidic. There are some other
heat resistant bacteria like Clostridium sporogenes which can be
eliminated at a temperature of 5 -6 times more than Clostridium
botulinlum. It needs a temperature of 120oC for 4 minutes or at 115oC
for 10 minutes to kill them in large numbers.
190
Fig. 5.2.
191
Methods of canning:
Filling: Empty cans should be packed carefully by employing the
manual labouror through mechanical device. While packing, care should
be taken to see that no air pockets are left which cannot be removed by
exhausting. At the same time too tight packing should be avoided. It is
always better to leave some space at the top for accommodating gas
released while processing. Fatty fishes (salmon, herring, mackerel, etc.)
results in acceptable products when salt is added. Non-fatty fishes call
for special additives to improve flavour and texture. Brine is used when
fish is not salted properly as an additive for enhancing flavour.
Monosodium glutamate is used as additive for canned fish at a
concentration of 1.6 gm / Kg fish. Vegetable oil and olive oils are also
used for filling the cans.
Exhausting: The air and gas from the can should be removed before its
sealing process. This can be done by using exhausting which minimizes
the strain on the can through expansion of air during heat processing.
Removal of oxygen to avoid internal corrosion and creation of vacuum
when the can is cooled are indication of sound packing since it protects
colour and flavour of products and retains vitamins, etc. Further it
checks the growth of organisms which requires air for growth. Later
sealing is done to obtain air tight seal between the cover and the body of
container so that the spoilage agents cannot enter the sealed container
after the canned fish has been sterilised.
Processing: Removal of air as completely as possible is an important
factor in steam processing. The container along with the contents fish is
heated in a retort at a temperature which is sufficient to kill the potential
inactive spoilage agents without any damage to the fish inside. The
retort system scan be operated continuously or in batches. In the recent
times open boilers are being tried. Thus pressure processing either by
steam or by water is delayed in this processing. The majority of retorts,
may be horizontal or vertical still, or rotating, are fed by steam. The
retort shall have an inlet at the top through which steam enters. The
192
weight of the steam that entered the retort and the incoming steam both
put together drives the air out from the bottom without mixing. Air
pockets if present in a retort may give rise to uneven processing and
lead to under processing while interfering between pressure and
temperature. The processing time and temperature required for each
food depends on various factors like types of pack, size of cans retort
system, etc. By adopting the above heating process the majority of the
spoilage agents or bacteria are killed. If any bacteria remains unkilled
they can be eliminated by subjecting it to rapid cooling immediately
after processing. The can should be cooled to a temperature of 35oC
which is sufficient for rapid drying of the can surface. It protects against
rusting.
Chlorinated water of 5 ppm can be used for cooling purpose. Even after
careful regulation of pressure during and after processing, the cans are
sometimes exposed to temporary leaks. Through these leakages the
bacteria may enter-after processing. Hence, to minimise this, chlorinated
water is used for cooling. The canned product should not be transported
immediately since the salt pellets and others additives used may take
some days for equal distribution throughout the can contents. It is
advised to store for 3 months before final quality control. During this
period all cases of leak contamination would show up.
Microbial spoilage: Sometimes the canned fish show signs of microbial
spoilage which may be due to insufficient pre-treatment especially
inadequate cooling or improper preservation of raw material. It exhibits
signs of spoilage accompanied by the presence of dead bacteria. These
bacteria may at times withstand the processing during cooling and
storage. Insufficient processing leaves back a number of heat resistant
spores forming bacteria in the canned product. The commonly observed
sporeformers are mesophilic anaerobes (Clostridium sporogenes,
C.putrificum).They produce putrid swells, mesophilic aerobes (Bacilus
sp) produces flavour and changes colour and softens the contents.
Thermophilic bacilli produce flat sours which are rare. The bacteria has
got ability to produce gas and to interact with the material inside the
can. The gas accumulated at the head region in the can helps in
193
determining the kind and cause of spoilage. The swelling of cans may
also be due to CO2 and hydrogen formed due to microbial spoilage.
Finally the canned product is thoroughly examined by various methods
like examining the product organoleptically, chemically and
microbiologically for the quality of final product. Then it is properly
labelled which should exhibit the name of the product, meat contents
and any specific information if required. The processed cans can be
stored at a room temperature which should be just above the freezing
point of canned products.
SUMMARY
T he circumstances of producing and marketing fish and seafood

produced from aquaculture are changing quickly. Technological
advances have brought new species and higher productivity to the
sector, which has developed to become an important contributor to
national and international markets. Consumer demand for specific
products, combined with good business opportunities, has contributed to
the rapid development and restructuring of certain aquaculture
subsectors, notably those concerned with export to developed countries.
In this block, we have discussed about the marketing the products,
marketing the fish to local markets and for export, harvesting and
transport, quality control norms, caning and freezing.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. Explain about the marketing of aquatic products

---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Define the export market?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
194
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Describe the fish transport.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Discuss the quality control norms of MPEDA.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Explain the scanning and freezing of fish products
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
REFERENCES:
1. ARUMUGAM N (2008), Aquaculture Saras Publications,
Nagercoil.
2. RATH, R.K (2000) Freshwater Aquaculture. Scientific
Publishers (India), Jodhpur.
3. JHINGRAN, AVG (1991) Fish and Fisheries of India.
Hindustan Publishing Co. New Delhi.
4. BARADACH, JE. JH, RYTHER & WO, MC LARNEY
(1972) Aquaculture. The farming and Husbandry of Freshwater
and Marine Organisms. Wiley Inter Science, New York.
195
BOppmo pbppomoú u6osnooánpmb
TAMILNADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
577, scimamT B00, aspainuCa, Gsaa 600 015
URLwww.tnou.ac.in, Email:[email protected], Admission Director Mobile92451
UGC RECOGNISED PROGRAMMES

(eman ßlanao/wapamm unpcLo UGC sdaryo auppma)
UGPROGRAMMES
B.A. Tamil (NS) B.C.A/LE MSc Counselling and Psychotherapy
B.A. Functional Tamil (NS) B.SW (Social Work)* NP/LE
B.Lit. Tamil (NS) B.P.A. Drama and Theatre Studies M.Sc Geography
B.A. English B.Ed.(SpL) 0MR/VI/HD MScApparel and Fashion Design
B.A. Englsih and Communication B.Ed.(Subject to Approval of UGc/NCTE) MSc Computer Science
B.A. History M.CA/LE
B.A. History and Heritage Management
B.A. Tourism and Travel Studies
PG PROGRAMMES MSW (Social Worki
M.LIS
B.A. Political Studies M.A. Tamil (NS)
B.A. Public Administration M.A. English (NS) Both Engish and Tami Mediun
B.A. Human Rights M.A. Linguistics LE Lateral Entry
B.A. Scociology M.A. Comparative Literature
P Non-Psychology
B.A. Economics M.A. Translation Studies
NS Non-Semester
B.A. Business Economics M.A. History
B.A. Urdu M.A. Tourism and Travel Studies All 80 Programmes (UG42, PG-38)
B.A. Islamic Studies M.A. Political Studies offered by TNOU are recognized by
B.A. Criminology and Criminal M.A. Public Administration the University Grants Commission
Justice Administration M.A. Human Rights (UGC) FNo2-10/2018/(DEB-).
M.A. Police Administration Dated 14th August 2018)
B.Com.
B.Com. Accounting and Finance M.A. International Relations
B.Com. Bank Management M.A.Development Administration Interested Sudentsfrom Govemment
B.Com. Corporate Secretaryship M.A. Scociology (N5) Colleges of Arts&Science, can
dergo any of the skill Development
B.Com. Computer Applications (N5) M.A. Anthropology
Programmes through 16 short-term,
B.B.A. M.A. Women Studies
24 Certificates, 4 Diplomas,
B.B.A. Marketing Management (NS) M.A. Economics 14 Vocational Diplomas and
B.B.A. Retail Management M.A. Islamic Studies 2 Advanced Diploma Programmes.
B.B.A. Computer Applications M.A. Criminology and Criminal (G.O.163 Dated: 22.05.2008)
B.Sc. Mathematics Justice Administration (NS)
B.Sc Mathematics with Computer The Students who could not get the
M.Com.
admission in the interested subject in
Applications M.B.A
the Govemment Colleges of Arts &
B.Sc.Physics M.B.A. Hospital Administration
Science, can join in TNOU for the
B.Sc. Chemistry M.B.A. Logistics Management same subject under ODL Scheme in
B.Sc. Botany M.B.A. Shipping and Logistics the same college.
B.Sc. Zoology Management (G.0.150 Dated: 23.10.2020)
B.Sc. Psychology M.Sc. Mathematics
B.Sc. Geography M.Sc. Physics
B.Sc. Multimedia M.Sc. Chemistry For online Admission visit:
B.Sc. Visual Communication M.Sc. Botany http://tnouadmissions.in/onlineapp/
B.Sc. Apparel and Fashion Design /LE M.Sc. Zoology
B.Sc. Computer Science M.Sc. Psychology
LD60TL6 LDLIIB6T
GrsrD1:7904509518 G#A9345913391 Gsrmai:9345913386 ogng:93459 13388

BGDy9345913387 GpsoGauof.9345913392 afguugb:934591393/9345913380 aL:9345913390

Mzo 24

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mzo 24

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mzo 24

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

5ulpsTo Spbstmoi udoascmodapab

Coordination : Dr. M. Murugan

© Tamil Nadu Open University

First Edition: July 2019

Importance of aquaculture – Over exploitation of wild fish stocks –

Cultivable species of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae. Culture

Fish disease management : Common bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoan

After completion of this block, you will be able to

Finfish: Carp, trout, milkfish, bait minnow, yellow tail, mullet,

Shellfish: Shrimps, prawns, oysters, mussels, pearl oyster for

Plants: Water chestnut (Trapa natans). Red alga of Japan,

During the last decade or so there has been noticeable a global

Fig. 1.1. Aquaculture

1.2.1. Scope of Aquaculture

1.3.1. Alternative food source

1.4.1. IN THE WORD

India is an important aquaculture country in the world. The fish

 The most important feature is to have the pond bottom

 When the pond walls are constructed, the excavated soil

 If grass is found in the pond bottom, it need not be

f) Drainage of the pond water

g) Drainage of the pond water

 The best and easiest way to have a good drainage system

1. List out the importance of aquaculture

2. Describe the over exploitation of wild fish stock

4. Draw the model fish farm.

5. Write about factors affecting the aquaculture?

After completion of this block, you will be able to

Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) was originally found in

Channa Marulius ( Poo menu, pedda murrel)It is highly

2.1.3.1. Macrobrachium malcolmsonii

It is commonly known as tiger prawn. It grows very quickly to a size of

Fig. 2.3. Penaeus monodan:

Fig. 2.4. Penaeus monodan:

2.1.3.4. Cultivable Lobster

2.1.4.1. Scylla transquibarica

2.2. CULTIVABLE MOLLUSCS

Fig. 2.8. Pila globosa

2.3. CULTIVABLE ALGAE

Asexual reproduction may be by fission (splitting), budding,

7. Patients or people who need high volumes of nutrients to assist

Water quality is usually maintained by high water exchange rates and,

2.4.1.3. Semi-intensive system:

Semi-intensive culture is almost exclusive to ponds and allows for an

1. Explain the general characteristics of cultivable fishes

2. Describe the aquaculture system

3. Write about the composite fish culture?

4. Define the polyculture.

5. Explain the integrated fish farm with suitable example

After completion of this block, you will be able to

Fig.3.1. Catla (Catla catla)

Fig, 3.4. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mriqala)

3.1.3. EXOTIC CARPS

Fig. 3.5. Silver Carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)

Fig. 3.6 Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Fig. 3.7 Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

3.1.4. STEPS IN CARP CULTURE

Farm Management: Periodic checking of the farms is essential. The

Frozen oysters: After depuration whole oysters (shell-on) are frozen by