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CHAPTER 7

FISH CULTURE

take the challenge!

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
Lesson 1: Understand the Aspects, Classifications, Methods of
Fish Culture
Lesson 2: Recognize Terminologies Used in Fish Culture
Lesson 3: Identify the Facilities, Parts of Fish Pond and their
Functions. Illustrate Fish Pond Layout
Lesson 4: Identify the Cultivable Fish and Crustacean Species

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Fish Cage – is a structured-based net that is ether stationary or movable.

Fish Conservation – is the scientific means of conserving fish and other

fishery aquatic products/resources.

Fish Cultivation – is the rearing of fish under controlled and semi-controlled

condition.

Fish Pen – is an enclosure of net or bamboo slats with sturdy posts staked at
the bottom of water and used for the culture of fish from fry to marketable size.

Fish Pond – is a confined body of water where fish are raised under controlled
conditions.

Fish Propagation – is the process of increasing fish life either by natural or

artificial means of reproduction.

Fish Tank – is a structure made of brick tile, concrete or polyvinyl chloride

(pvc) used for the purpose of culturing fish from fry, to marketable size. It also
can be used as a breeding tank, or as conditioning tank.

Hapa – is a small unframed net enclosure with the entire upper opened.

Raceway – is an enclosure of concrete soil or added materials.

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LESSON 1:

ASPECTS, CLASSIFICATIONS AND METHODS

OF FISH CULTURE

Many programs and activities had been done in response to the

problems regarding the shortage of the supply of fish in the country. One of
which these program is Fish Culture. Fish culture then must be introduced to
enhance awareness and adopt some of the technology and its adoption as
additional source of food and income.

Nature and Scope of Fish Culture

It is the rearing of fish from fry to marketable size. It also cultivates
other aquatic products such as crabs, prawns and shrimps. Fish cultivation is
undertaken in fresh, brackish and marine waters based from the environment
and water supply.
The fresh water type of fish cultivation is carried out in lakes, rivers,
dams or reservoirs and marshes. Structures used for this type are fish ponds,
fish pens, fish cage, fish tank and raceways. The species of fish that are usually
raised are tilapia, carp, catfish, mudfish and milkfish.

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The brackish water type of fish cultivation is carried out in tidal flats or
along margins of estuarine areas. The structures as those in freshwater are used
in this type is the same, except the raceways. The major species of fish
cultivated are tilapia, milkfish, shrimps and crabs. Fish pond is the predominant
type of fish cultivation in the country. It contributes utmost production of
inland waters. Milkfish is the number one product.
The marine water type of fish cultivation is carried out in salt waters or
open ocean waters. The farms are positioned in deeper and less sheltered
waters, where currents are stronger than they are inshore. The structures used
for this type are fish cage, fish tank, fish pond and raceways. The species of
fish that are shellfish like prawns, or oysters and seaweed.

Phases or Aspects of Fish Culture:

1. Fish Cultivation
The rearing of fish under controlled and semi-controlled condition.

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2. Fish Propagation
The process of increasing fish life either by natural or artificial means of
reproduction.

3. Fish Conservation
The scientific means of conserving fish and other fishery aquatic

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products/resources. It helps to keep the sport of fishing alive. Also, helps to

maintain the balance of certain ecosystems. Fish are important to the planet
and fish conservation can help maintain nature’s balance.

Classification of Fish Culture

1. . According to extent of financial investment

a. Intensive - utilizes limited area with very high investment
b. Extensive - utilizes wide area with minimal capital and very
low production
c. Semi-intensive - employ some or the majority of the modern
techniques of production

2. According to purpose
a. for commerce or for business
b. for recreation or for enjoyment
c. for educational and cultural or scientific pursuit
d. for food production

3. According to design
a. natural pond
b. artificial pond

4. According to state of water

a. still water
b. running water

5. According to salinity
a. freshwater
b. brackish-water
c. marine or saltwater

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6. According to temperature
a. warm water or hot water
b. cold water

7. According to species raised

a. freshwater species
b. brackish-water species
c. marine or saltwater species

Methods of Fish Culture

Based on the structures used in fish cultivation, they can be classified

into five methods. These are the fish pond, fish pen, fish cage, fish tank and
open-water method.
Fish pond is the most widely used. Fry or fingerlings of one or more
species are stocked and reared in pond up to harvest time. Natural food is
grown in pond. The supplementary feed is added. The method of harvesting is
draining the pond. Retrieval of fish in this way is complete. Another method of
harvesting is freshening in case of bangus. Having positive rheotaxism, the fish
are induced to go against water current by the gate and concentrated into a
catching pond where they are scooped.
The fish pen method of fish cultivation is undertaken in net enclosures
in shallow protected areas of inland waters. Bamboo and wood materials ate
used as post and braces. Its lower end is embedded in the mud to prevent
escape of stock by excavating under, while the upper end is extended two
meters or more beyond the water level to escape of fish by jumping out.
Harvest of fish is done by seining or shocking them with electricity.
The fish cage method of fish cultivation is also undertaken in inland
bodies of water, both in flowing and still water ones. The structure used is also
made of nets. PVC pipes as framing materials is preferred to that of wood or
bamboo. A cage is much smaller than a fish pen. The cage is closed on all sides

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and installed in suspension. Fish cage is stationary and movable. Floating and
fixed cages have open top. Growth rate of fish is dependent on the kind and
amount of food given and suitability of the environment. Harvesting of stock is
relatively easy and complete. The fish is either scooped or the cage is merely
brought out of the water to empty the fish.
The fish tank method of fish cultivation is practiced primarily by fish
hobbyists and in pet shops. The method employs varying sizes and shapes of
fish culture structures. These include glass bowls or aquaria and wooden or
concrete tanks. This method cultivation is done outdoor and indoor. The
method involves rearing or breeding of ornamental or fancy, colourful species
of fish.
A fifth method of fish cultivation is open-water method. It is done in
bays, coastal lagoons, canals and similar environments.

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LESSON 2:

DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES USED IN FISH CULTURE

In every area of specialization, there are terminologies used to give a

specific meaning for a matter. This will served as a common idea to the
professionals in their respective fields. So as is in this area, there are scientific
terminologies. In this lesson, it will tackle about various common terminologies
used in fish culture.

Terminologies Used in the Study of Fish Culture

1. Anadromous - are species of fish that go upstream from salt

water to freshwater to spawn. ex: bangus

2. Biomass - is the total weight of the animal in the given

environment.

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3. Cannibalistic - are species of fish that feed on their

own kind.

4. Carnivorous - are species of fish that feed on other

animals.

5. Catadromous - are species of fish that go down from

freshwater to saltwater to spawn.
ex: eels

6. Competition - is the rivalry for food, space and

oxygen inside the fishpond.

7. Endemic or indigenous - is native to the locality

8. Exotic or digenous - is introduced by other countries

9. Fecundity - is the number of eggs laid by a female

fish in one spawning.

10. Food chain - is the linear relationship of

undergoing the process of eating and
being eaten.

11. Habitat - is the place where plants and animals

grow and naturally live.

12. Herbivorous - are species of fish that feed on plants

and vegetables only

13. Lab-lab - is the vernacular term for all the

greenish, brownish or yellowish crust
of micro benthic fauna and flora,
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which are found growing in matrix or

mat at the pond floor.

14. Milt - is the male reproductive gland of

fishes

15. Omnivorous - are species of fish that feed on both

plants and animals

16. Oviparous - are species of fish whose eggs are

fertilized and developed outside the
body. ex: tilapia

17. Ovoviviparous - are species of fish whose eggs are

fertilized and developed within the
body but the young when born alive
do not receive nourishment from the
mother fish. ex: Rays and Sharks

18. pH - is the hydrogen ion-concentration of

water.

19. Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants

manufacture their food with the aid of
sunlight.

20. Plankton - is the biological association of minute

plants and animals which are found
growing on the surface of the water.

21. Predators - are species of fish feeding on other

fishes specially the cultivable ones.

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22. Prolific - is the process of producing young in

great numbers

23. Sabalo - is the bangus breeder or spawner

24. Salinity - is the degree of freshness and

saltiness of water.

25. Scavenger - are species of fish that feed on

decaying organic matter.

26. Spat - is the larvae of oyster and mussel

which are free swimming in water.

27. Standing crop - is the total number of fish stocked at a

given area at a given time.

28. Temperature - is the degree of coldness and hotness

of water.

29. Tide - is the periodic rise and fall of

seawater.

30. Viviparous - are species of fish that bring forth

living young which during their early
development receive nourishment
from their mother fish.

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LESSON 3:

FISH CULTURE FACILITIES

Many facilities that can operate in fish culture. In this lesson, we only
tackle the common and frequently used facilities. They are Fish Pond, Fish
Cage, Fish Pen, Fish Tank, Hapa and Raceway. All of them will be discussed
below.

1. FISH POND
According to the www.agriculturenigeria.com that fish pond is a
confined body of water where fish are raised under controlled
conditions. Fish can also be raised in plastics, fiber stars and wooden
rafts. There are three main types of ponds in construction. This either be
earthen pond, concrete pond and riprap.

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Fish Earthen Pond

Fish Concrete Pond

Fish Riprap Pond

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Compartments of a Fish Pond and each Function

1. Nursery pond - is the smallest and the cleanest compartment

where fish are reared from fry up to pre-
fingerling size.

2. Transition pond - is a compartment where fish are reared from

pre-fingerling size to post fingerling size
before stocking compartments, it is also
known as stunting pond.

3. Rearing pond - is the largest compartment of a fishpond

where fishes are reared from post fingerlings
up to marketable size.

4. Breeding pond - is a compartment where spawners are

confined and are used purposely for the
production of fry.

5. Catching pond - is an area that serves as catchment basin for

fish harvest.

6. Head pond - is an area that serves as water reservoir

where water is stored before going to other
pond compartments.

7. Water supply canal - is a canal used to supply water throughout

the whole fish pond system.

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Interpreting Plans and Layout

Fish Pond Layout

Legend:
][ - Main Gate
)( - Secondary Gate
| | – Tertiary Gate
HP – Head Pond
NP – Nursery Pond
TP – Transition Pond
RP – Rearing Pond
WSC – Water Supply Canal
CP – Catching Pond

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Kinds of Dikes

1. Main dike – is the largest of all dikes that surrounds the whole
fishpond project.

2. Secondary dike – is the dike that surrounds the big compartment.

3. Tertiary dike – is the dike that surrounds the small compartment.

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Kinds of Gates

1. Main gate – is the largest gate that serves as water entrance in the
whole fishpond system.

2. Secondary gate – is the gate that can be found in the large

compartment.

3. Tertiary gate – is the gate that can be found in the small compartment.

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2. Fish Cage
Fish Cage is a structured-based net that is ether stationary or
movable. Set in water and surrounded all sides by bamboo slats and
provided with an anchor at the bottom. It is used for the culture of fish
from fry to marketable size.

3. Fish Pen
It is an enclosure of net or bamboo slats with sturdy posts staked
at the bottom of water and used for the culture of fish from fry to
marketable size. The fish pen is fastened permanently against sturdy
post and frames.

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4. Fish Tank
It is structure made of brick tile, concrete or polyvinyl chloride
(pvc) used for the purpose of culturing fish from fry, to marketable size.
It also can be used as a breeding tank, or as conditioning tank.

5. Hapa
A small unframed net enclosure with the entire upper opened. It
is suspended by poles with ample portion extending beyond the water
level to prevent the fish from jumping out.

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6. Raceway
It is an enclosure of concrete soil or added materials. The shape is
likely of the canal through which constant water flows. Fish are raised in
the raceway at high density and their waste products are carried out by
the water passing through the areas.

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LESSON 4:

CULTIVABLE FISH AND CRUSTACEAN SPECIES

There are vast species of aquatic animals with their unique

characteristics around the globe in freshwaters, brackish waters and saltwater
yet not all of them are edible to consume by human for food because of health
issues if eaten and the threat of extinction to their race which are protected by
local governments. So, there are only specific species of fish for food and
legally to produce and commerce. In this lesson, it will discuss about the
Philippine common species of cultivable fish and crustaceans in fish facilities,
their characteristics and natural food according to their water habitats.

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Common Cultivable Fish Species:

Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is a tropical species that prefers

to live in shallow water. The lower and upper lethal temperatures for Nile
Tilapia are 12˚C and 42˚C, respectively, while the preferred temperature ranges
from 31˚C to 36˚C. It is an omnivorous grazer that feeds on phytoplankton,
periphyton aquatic plants, small invertebrates, benthic fauna, dentitus and
bacterial films associated with detritus. Nile Tilapia can live longer than 10
years and reach an exceeding weight of 5 kg.

Mozambique Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is a freshwater and

brackish water inhabitant. It lives in warm, weedy pools of sluggish stream,
canals and ponds. Is mainly diurnal, occurs at temoeratures ranging from 8˚C to
42˚C. Omnivorous, feeds on almost anything from algae to insects but also
crustaceans and fishes. Mozambique Tilapia reaches a maximum size to 36 cm.

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Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) is live in the middle and lower

streams of rivers, in inundated areas, and shallow confined waters such as lakes
and water reservoirs. Carps are mainly bottom dwellers but search for food in
the middle and upper layers of water body. Best growth is obtained when water
temperature ranges between 23˚C and 30˚C. The fish can survive cold winter
periods. It is omnivorous, with a high tendency towards the consumption of
animal food such as water insects, larvae of insects, worms, molluscs, and
zooplanktons. Common carps can reach 0.6 to 1 kg body weight within one
season in the polycultural fish ponds of tropical and subtropical areas.

Bighead Carp (Hypopthalmichthys nobilis) is a eurythermic fish,

being to tolerate water temperatures of 0.5˚C to 38˚C. It inhabits lakes, rivers
and reservoirs. Bighead carp normally dwell in the upper layer of the water
column and prefers high fertility water with abundant natural food. Basically, it
is a zooplankton eater throughout its life under natural conditions yet also
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consumes artificial feed in culture ponds. Bighead Carp are fast growing and
become very large in size reaching a maximum weight of 40 kg.

Philippine Catfish (Clarias batrachus) is an air breathing fish inhabit

in lowland streams, swamps, ponds, ditches, rice paddies and pools left in low
spots after flood. It can walk and leave the water to migrate to another water
bodies using its auxiliary breathing organs. It usually confined to stagnant,
muddy water and tolerates temperature from 10˚C to 28˚C. Omnivorous that
feed on insect larvae, earthworms, shell, shrimps, small fishes, aquatic plants
and debris. Approximately, its maximum length is 47 cm and maximum weight
of 1.2 kg.

Bighead Catfish (Clarias macrocephalus) is an air breathing fish lives

in lowland wetland and rivers. Occurs in shallow, open water and is capable of
lying buried mud for lengthy period in the time of ponds and lakes evaporate
during dry seasons. It can also extend its fins to move out of the water. Found
in medium to large-sized rivers, stagnant water bodies including sluggish
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flowing canals and flooded fields. It can tolerate temperatures from 10˚C to
28˚. Omnivorous that feed on aquatic insect, young shrimps, small fishes and
aquatic plants. Its maximum length is 120 cm and maximum weight is 45 kg.

North African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) is found in lakes, streams,

rivers, swamps and floodplains, many of which are subject to seasonal drying.
The most common habitats are floodplain swamps and pools where they can
survive during the dry season(s) due to their accessory air breathing organs. It
undertake lateral migrations from the larger water bodies, in which they feed
on aquatic insects, worms, gastropods, small crustaceans, small fishes, aquatic
plants, terrestrial seeds and berries, small birds and small mammal as being an
omnivorous. It can live in the temperature of 10˚C to 28˚C. The record
individual from Country of Malawi was 16.1 in kg and the max length is 150
cm.

Snakehead Murrel (Channa striata) is a ray-finned fish that perch-

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like in form and its head is like of a snake. It is a fresh and brackish water
inhabitant such as ponds, streams, rivers, stagnant and muddy plains. Found
mainly in swamps but also occurs in lowland rivers. It can survive in dry
season by burrowing in bottom mud of lakes, canals and swamps as long as
skin and breathing apparatus remain moist and subsists on the stored fat. Feed
on fish, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, tadpoles and small crustaceans as
being a carnivore. Snakehead murrel can live in temperature of 23˚C to 27˚C.
Its maximum length is 100cm and weight of 3kg.

Giant Gourami (Osphronemus gouramy) is a laterally compressed

(compressiform) fish. It has the ability to breath air through a specific organ
called labyrinth (a much-folded suprabranchial accessory breathing organ),
which appears in juviniles about 30 days after hatching and become functional
around 40 days. This fish is omnivorous but with a strong vegetarian tendency,
it can ingest various aquatic and terrestrial plants, although it can also eat a
wide range of other food resources such as frogs, tadpoles, snails, small fishes
and other small aquatic animals. Giant gourami prefers calm fresh waters
especially slow-moving areas such as lakes and large rivers. They are also
found in flood plains and irrigation canals. It lives in tropical temperature of
water. It can reach a remarkable size but normally the maximum size is 45-50
cm. Growth rate is quite slow and may reach commercial size of 500 to 750 g
within 9-14 months of growout. To achieve larger sizes 1 to 2 kg, an extended

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period of growout rearing is required, generally compromising 25 to 35 months

in total.

Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) is also known as seabass, it inhabit

freshwater, brackish water and marine habitats including streams, lakes,
billabongs, estuaries and coastal waters. Barramundi are opportunistic
predators; crustaceans and fish predominate in the diet of adults. It is highly
fecund; a single female (120 cm) may produce 30-40 million eggs.
Consequently, only small numbers of broodstock are necessary to provide
adequate numbers of larvae for large-scale hatchery production. Larvae recruit
into estuarine nursery swamps where they remain for several months before
they move out into the freshwater reaches of coastal rivers and creeks
considering them as a diadromous fish. They usually occur at a temperature
range of 26˚C to 29˚C and between 10 to 40 m deep. Its size is commonly
between at 25 to 100 cm.

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Orange-spotted Grouper (Epinephelus coioides) has body elongated,

not very compressed, light greyish brown dorsally, shading to whitish on side
and ventrally, with numerous brownish orange or brownish yellow spots on the
size of pupil or smaller on head and body. It inhabits turbid coastal reefs and is
often found in brackish water over mud and rubble. Juveniles are common in
the shallow waters of estuaries over sand, mud, gravels and among mangroves.
It feeds on small fishes, shrimp and crabs. It is generally cultured in floating net
cages or earthen pond, but cage culture is more common in Southeast Asia.
Most of the brooders are collected from wild and reared for 1 to 7 years using
seawater at a constant temperature of 27˚C to 28˚C. The fish are fed with
frozen sardines, mackerels, cuttlefish, squids and top-shell clams because these
foods have high contents of cholesterol, phospholipids and polyunsaturated
fatty acids.

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Malabar Grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus) is a ray-finned fish and

has perch-like body. It has light grey to yellowish brown color; five slightly
oblique dark brown bars that bifurcate ventrally; numerous small black spots
and blotches in head and body. It inhabits in marine, brackish, reef-associated
waters such as coral and rocky reefs, tide pools, estuaries, mangrove swamps
and sandy or mud bottom from shore to depths of 150 m. It feed primarily on
fishes and crustaceans. Malabar grouper can tolerate water temperature from
26˚C to 29˚C. Its common maximum length is 234 cm and maximum weight of
150 kg.

Orange-spotted Spinefoot (Siganus guttatus) is also known as rabbit

fish by the similarity of the nose. It is a ray-finned fish with perch-like body. It
has a bright yellow spot adjacent to last few rays of dorsal fin, head with lines
and spots. Its spine is stout, pungent and venomous. Inhabits in marine and
brackish water to include turbid inshore reefs among mangroves; tolerates or
even prefers low salinities. Fry settlers in seagrass beds around river mouths
and adults enter and leave rivers with tides but also found on drop-offs of
inshore fringing reefs down to 6 m. It feeds on benthic algae. Unlike other
siganids, this species is reported to be active at night as being a nocturnal fish.
It can tolerate water temperature from 24˚C to 28˚C. Its common maximum
length is 42 cm.

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Vermiculated Spinefoot (Siganus vermiculatus) is is also known as

rabbit fish by the similarity of the nose. It is a ray-finned fish with perch-like
bluish white body, head brown to brownish or golden yellow with irregular
lines. Its spine is stout, blunt or pungent and venomous. It inhabits in marine
and brackish water, juveniles live among mangroves then move out to lagoon
and coastal reefs as they mature. It feeds on algae growing on seagrass,
mangrove roots and rocks. Adult congregate inshore in groups of several
hundreds to spawn in summer. Adults on coastal reefs are subject to strong
currents. The species has a high fecundity of 350,000 per spawning season. It
can tolerate water temperature from 19˚C to 38˚C. Its common maximum
length is 45 cm.

Spotted Scat (Scatophagus argus) is a ray-finned fish with perch-like

quadrangular body shape. Juveniles with a few large roundish blotches, about
size of eye, dorsal head profile is steep. Eye moderately large and snout is
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rounded. It inhabits in fresh, brackish and marine waters such as harbors,

natural embayments, brackish estuaries and lower reaches of freshwater
streams, frequently occurring among mangroves. It feeds on worms,
crustaceans, insects and plant matters. The dorsal, anal and pelvic spines are
believed by Philippine fishers to be venomous and capable of inflicting
wounds. It can live in the water temperature from 20˚C to 28˚C and usually its
maximum length is 38 cm.

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is a fusiform, elongated, moderately

compressed, and smooth streamline body fish. It has body color silvery on
belly and sides grading olive-green or blue on back, transparent tissue covers
eye. It is the only species in the Family Chanidae. Its distribution is restricted to
either low latitude tropics or the subtropical northern hemisphere along
continental shelves and around islands, where temperatures are greater than
20˚C. Milkfish only spawn in saline waters. Spawning takes place near coral
reefs during the warm month of the year. Juveniles and adults eat a wide
variety of relative soft and small food items, from microbial mats to detritus,
epiphytes and zooplankton. It attains typical length of 1m but may reach
maximum length of 1.8m.

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Common Cultivable Prawn/Shrimp Species:

Giant Tiger Prawn (Penaeus monodon) is similar to all penaeid

shrimp, the rostrum well developed and toothed dorsally and ventrally. Its
carapace has without longitudinal or transverse sutures. Depending on
substratum, fees and water turbidity, body colors vary from green, brown, red,
grey, blue and transverse band colors on abdomen and carapace are alternated
between blue or black and yellow. Penaeus monodon was originally harvested
together with other shrimp species from traditional trapping-growing ponds or
as a significant by-product of extensive milkfish ponds. It is mature and breeds
only in tropical marine habitats and spends their larval, juvenile, adolescent and
sub-adult stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas. In the wild,
they show marked nocturnal activity, burrowing into bottom substratum during
day and emerging at night to search for food as benthic feeder. Under natural
conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more of a predator than an omnivorous
scavenger or detritus feeder than other penaeid shrimp. Adults are often found
over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20 to 50 m depth in offshore waters. The
females are highly fecund with gravid females producing as many as 500,000
to 750,000 eggs. Hatching occurs 12 to 15 hours after fertilization. It feeds on
benthic detritus, polychaete worms and small crustaceans. Healthy adult
females can grow 25 to 30cm and weighted of 200 to 320g while healthy adult
males can grow 20 to 25cm and weighted of 100 to 170g.

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Indian White Prawn (Penaeus indicus) is similar to all penaeid

shrimp, carapace rather smooth, lacking gastro frontal and hepatic crest, ad
rostral crest extending as far as or just before epigastric tooth, rostrum slightly
curve at tip and sigmoidal-shaped, usually bearing 7 to 9 upper teeth (including
those on carapace) and 3 to 6 lower teeth, rostral crest generally slightly
elevated in large specimen including adult females. Its body color is semi-
translucent, somewhat yellowish white (small specimens) or greyish green and
covered with numerous minute dark brown dots, eyes light brown mesh-like
stripes, rostral and abdominal dorsal crests reddish brown to dark brown. The
methods of brackish water aquaculture are applied whether in cultures practices
followed such as traditional, extensive, modified extensive, semi-intensive or
intensive. It inhabits the coast of East and South Africa, Southwest and East
coast of India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia,
Southern China and Northern coast of Australia. Penaeus indicus is non-
burrowing, active both day and night, and prefers a sandy mud bottom. Adults
are normally found at depths less than 30m but have also been caught from
90m. The shrimp mature and breed mostly in marine habitats and spend the
juvenile and sub-adult stages of 30 to 120 mm total in length (TL) in coastal
estuaries, backwaters or lagoons. Juveniles can tolerate a much wider range of
salinity (5-40%) than asults. On the southwest coast of India the juveniles
support a good commercial fishery in the backwaters and paddy fields. It is also
highly fecund, ranging from 68,000 to 1,254,200 eggs from females of 140-
200mm TL. Depending upon the temperature, hatching takes place within 8-12
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hours after spawning. The postlarvae migrate into the estuaries, settle and feed
on benthic detritus, polychaete worms and small crustaceans, and remain there
until they attain 110-120 mm TL. These sub-adults then return to the sea and
get recruited into the fishery. The size of Penaeus indicus used for broodstock
development should preferably be above 145mm TL (20g) for females and
140mm (17g) for males.

Banana Prawn (Fenneropenaeus merguinsis) is widely distributed in

the Indo-West Pacific region in both tropical and subtropical waters. To include
from Persian Gulf to Thailand, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Indonesia, New
Guinea, New Caledonia and North Australia. It inhabits in the bottom mud,
estuarine and marine about 10 to 45 m in depths. Its usually maximum total
length is 240 mm (female). It has been cultured in extensive ponds with natural
seeding for a long time in Asia and recently in semi-intensive and intensive
ponds. Supplementary feeding occurred only later in improved extensive
farming, with usually stocked with wild caught or hatchery-produced
postlarvae. Although F. merguinsis does not grow as fast as P. monodon, their
ability to mature and spawn in captivity and their short life cycle ensure a
consistent production of postlarvae and a great opportunity to domesticate the
species. This would eliminate the reliance of the prawn farming industry on
wild broodstock and more importantly, allows the development of fast growing
or pathogen-free stocks through selective breeding. Such low cost of
broodstock, ease in larvae rearing and potentially low feed cost.
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Greasyback Prawn (Metapenaeus ensis) is commonly called mud

prawn, sand prawn in catering trade. It is popular due to its rich-tasting
nutritious flesh. Cahracteristics of M. ensis include a wide distribution, strong
adaptability, omnivorous feeding habit, fast growth and high commercial value.
It breeds in seawater or brackish water but it can also be bred in freshwater
after domestication. After 100 days in cultivation with a favourable
environment and abundant food, juveniles will grow into adult commercial
shrimps of 10cm in length.

Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) is the largest

Macrobrachium species. The maximum recorded size for males and females
are 33cm and 29cm in length. Mature male prawns are larger than females. The
head of the male is also proportionately larger and the abdomen is narrower. M.
rosenbergii is nocturnal, bottom dwelling and sluggish in nature and is
territorial. During the day they remain half buried in sediments and prefers

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shallow, detritus rich and vegetated areas. In temperature regions, the breeding
season is summer while in tropical regions it is to the onset of the rainy season.
Its spawning occurs two or more times per season.

Common Cultivable Crab Species:

Swamp Crab (Scylla serrata) is a crab with smooth carapace and

strong transversal ridges. Its gastric zone is on the carapace with deep H-
shaped groove. Front with 4 broad lobes, all more or less in line with each
other, 9 broad teeth on each anterolateral margin, all of them with similar size
and projecting obliquely outwards. It has a strong chelipeds with well
developed spines on the outer surface of carpus and on the anterior and
posterior dorsal parts of propodus. Its carapace color is green to almost black
with legs that may be marbled. The three other Scylla species prefer less saline
water. Farming of this species has developed from low density pond
polyculture with fish and shrimp, using wild seeds introduces tidally or
intentionally, to monoculture in ponds and pens. Typically associated with
mangroves in estuaries and sheltered coastal habitats, they are found in soft
muddy bottoms where they dig deep burrows. Their courtship and mating occur
in estuaries. Mature S. serrate migrates offshore (up to 50km) to spawn. They
may spawn at any time during the year. The number of eggs produces may
range from 1 to 6 million in a single spawning with at least 3 batches. Males

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can grow up to 3kg with 28cm carapace width. Mature females have wide and
dark abdomens and dark orange ovaries that fill the cavity under the carapace.

Mud Crab (Scylla paramamosain) is a crab with a carapace usually

green to light green, plam green to greenish blue with lower surface and base of
fingers usually pale yellow to yellowish orange. Its carapace common width is
between 15 and 18cm. Inhabits rock areas, near reef and mangroves. Members
of the order Decapoda are mostly gonochronic. Mating behaviour:
Precopulatory courtship ritual is common (through olfactory and tactile cues);
usually indirect sperm transfer. Its recorded maximum carapace length is 20cm.

Common Cultivable Lobster Species:

Ornate Spiny Lobster (Panulirus ornatus) is a lobster under the

family of Palinuridae. It has maximum total body length of 50cm but usually
much smaller (30 to 35cm). It is found in shallow, sometimes slightly turbid
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coastal waters from 1 to 8m depth, with a record of 50m deep. It inhabits sandy
and muddy substrates, sometimes on rocky bottom, often near the mouth of
rivers but also on coral reefs. Juveniles occur in holes and crevices which are
partially covered by seagrass or macroalgae. It is solitary, may live in pairs and
has been found in larger concentrations. It is an omnivore species. Members of
the order Decapoda are mostly gonochronic. Mating behaviour: Precopulatory
courtship ritual is common (through olfactory and tactile cues); it is also
indirect sperm transfer. It can found in the Indo-West Pacific region.

Common Cultivable Mollusk Species:

Slipper Cupped Oyster (Crassostrea iredalei) is a shell medium sized,

very variable in shape but generally higher than long, roughly rounded, oblique
triangular or elongate ovate in outline. It’s left (lover) valve rather thick but
light weighted, more convex and larger than right (upper) valve. The color of
outside shell is dirty white, often flushed with pale greyish brown. The right
valve is frequently with a few darker purplish grey radial bands in early stages
of growth. The interior of valves are whitish and shiny, often with irregular
areas of chalky white, deep puple-brown on posterior adductor scar. Its
geographical distribution is restricted to the Philippine Archipelago and
Malaysia. C. iredalei attached to hard objects or growing in bunches, on
various soft bottoms, especially in bays and estuaries with somewhat reduced
salinity, intertidal and shallow subtidal water, and suspension-feeding. This
brackish water species is noted for its tasty creamy flesh and its culture
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required a salinity range of 15 to 25ppt. Its recorded maximum shell height is

15cm and commonly 8cm in length.

Donkey’s Ear Abalone (Haliotis asinina) is actively collected in the

Southeast Asian countries for its shell and large fleshy animal. It is common
but not aggregating in dense populations. The depth where they are usually
found is at 0 to 10m. In life, the exceptionally large green mantle almost covers
the shell which is them devoid of encrusting marine growths, unlike of the
other species. It is active at night, feeds on epilithic algae by grazing. Found in
intertidal, on coral reefs. H. asinine is mostly gonochronic and broadcast
spawners. Life cycle: Embryos develop into planktonic trocophore larvae and
later into juvenile veligers before becoming fully grown adults. Its recorded
maximum length is 12cm and its common size is 9cm.

Green Mussel (Perna viridis) is an economically important mussel, a

bivalve belonging to the family of Mytilidae. It is harvested in the wild and
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grown in aquaculture facilities in its native area. The shell tapers to a sharp,
downturned beak and has a smooth surface covered with a periostracum. The
ventral margin of the shell is straight or weakly concave. The ridge which
supports the ligament connecting the two shell valves is finely pitted. The beak
has interlocking teeth; one in the right valve and two in the left. The wavy
posterior end of the paleal line and the large kidney-shaped adductor muscle
are diagnostic features of this species. Periostracum can be vivid green to dark
brownish-green near the outer edge and olive-green near the attachment point.
The interior of the shell valves is shiny and pale bluish green. It can usually
found up to 10m depth and forms dense population (up to 35,000 individuals
per square meter). This species in an efficient filter feeder, feeding on small
zooplankton, phytoplankton and other suspended fine organic material. Sexes
are separate and fertilisation is external. Spawning generally occurs twice a
year between early spring and late autumn, however, in the Philippines and
Malaysia spawning occurs year round. Sexual maturity occurs at 15 to 30mm
shell length. Life span is about 3 years. It is found in estuarine habitats with
salinities ranging from 18 to 33 ppt and temperatures from 11˚C to 32˚C. It can
reach 150mm.

Common Enemies of Fish and Crustacean

1. Predator - fish and other animals that prey on the cultured

species of fish and crustacean

2. Competitors - fish and other animals that compete with the

cultured species in terms of food, space and oxygen

3. Nuisances - crustaceans and other animals that do a lot of

damage to the food and in the habitat of fish

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Characteristics of Fish and Crustacean that are Suitable for Pond Culture

1. Fish should be palatable and good tasting – the fish must have a
delicate flavour.

2. Fish must be a fast grower – the fish must be able to grow rapidly or
can give a possibility of four or more harvests a year.

3. Fish should be resistant to pests, diseases and parasites – the fish

should not succumb to abrupt changes in temperature or salinity and
can tolerate such conditions in all its existence.

4. Fish should be a universal feeder – the culture fish require food

which can be grown easily and abundantly under favourable
conditions.

5. Fish should have high market demand – the fish must command a
high price to recover the expenses incurred.

6. Fish should not be destructive in confinement, either to its kind or to

other species or to its environment – the fish should be prolific which
means that reproduce very often to have a continuous supply of fry
or stocks.

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