S im o n Bo rg

U N I T E D K I N G D O M

Conditions for Teacher Research

T
eacher research refers to “all manner in which this should or can
forms of practitioner enquiry take place has been the subject of
that involve systematic, inten- much debate, it is generally accepted
tional, and self-critical inquiry about that more involvement in research by
one’s work” (Cochran-Smith and teachers can enhance the quality of
Lytle 1999, 22). It extends beyond education.
thoughtful teaching of the kind often Numerous more specific benefits
associated with reflective practice and to teachers of engaging in such activ-
should also involve, as Freeman (1998) ity have been proposed. Kincheloe
argues, making public one’s findings. (2003, 18–19), for example, provides
This notion has a long history in an extensive list in which, amongst
the field of education (e.g., Stenhouse other benefits, he argues that through
1975); more recently, a number of research teachers can:
book-length guides for teachers on the • appreciate the benefits of research;

subject (e.g., Lankshear and Knobel • begin to understand in deeper

2004) have demonstrated the continu- and richer ways what they know
ing interest in it. from experience;
• be seen as learners rather than
Benefits of teacher research
functionaries who follow top-
The emergence in recent years of down orders without question;
evidence-based practice (EBP) as a • be seen as knowledge workers who
model for professional action in edu- reflect on their professional needs
cation has emphasised even further and current understandings;
the idea that engagement by teachers • explore the learning processes
in research is desirable. A fundamen- occurring in their classrooms and
tal argument behind EBP is that when attempt to interpret them.
teachers are able to engage in research In the field of language teaching,
and make justified pedagogical deci- although a range of perspectives have
sions informed by sound research been adopted in defining what teach-
evidence, this will have a beneficial er research is and how it relates to the
effect on both teaching and learning process of teaching (Burns 1999; Free-
(Davies 1999). Although the precise man 1998), a similar overall message

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 emerges: when teachers inquire into their own ness, (2) motivation, (3) knowledge and skills,
practices, individually or collectively, that pro- (4) choice, (5) mentoring, (6) time, (7) recog-
cess benefits teachers’ professional growth and nition, (8) expectations, (9) community, and
pedagogical activity. (10) dissemination potential. Although the
impact of these conditions cannot be explained
Incidence of teacher research formulaically, I believe that the more of them
Empirical interest in the prevalence of teach- that are met, the more likely it is that research
er research in our field has been scarce. How by teachers will take place. Below I discuss
much teacher research takes place? Where? each condition in turn.
What are the characteristics of the teachers
who do it? What motivates them? What condi- Condition 1: Awareness
tions support or hinder their efforts? Evidence Many teachers associate research with aca-
about these issues is lacking. demics and scientists, experiments and statis-
With respect to how much research tics. In a study by McNamara (2002, 16), for
teachers do, my experience suggests that the example, teachers’ notions of research included
majority of professionals in our field remain “professors undertaking tests and surveys and
uninvolved. I do not feel that this is a contro- making reports.” Shkedi (1998) found that
versial assertion—English language teaching teachers’ definitions of research commonly
(ELT) is certainly not the only subject where focused on quantitative tools, objectivity,
this is the case—nor is it meant to be a criti- hypotheses, representativeness, and generaliz-
cism of teachers. As I argue below, there are ability. While these are central concepts in
many reasons for this situation. educational research, they do not on their
In considering where teacher research is own provide a suitable basis for understand-
done, I would argue that a small proportion ing the particular assumptions about research,
of the settings in which ELT occurs is repre- its purposes, and its methods that underpin
sented: work in Australia and North America teacher research. In teacher research, the goal
would seem to be most prominent; such work is often understanding rather than proof; the
is often conducted in atypical instructional researchers are the teachers themselves; and the
contexts, such as private institutions, courses self is accepted as a legitimate focus of inquiry.
for adult learners, small classes. A significant Teachers whose conceptions of their own role
amount of the teacher research which does and of research do not extend beyond tradi-
occur in our field takes place within the tional notions are unlikely to be able to engage
context of formal programmes of study, such in teacher research in a productive manner. An
as degree programs or certification courses. awareness of teacher research and its assump-
This does not detract from the value of such tions is thus an important condition for it to
research, but if teacher research is to become occur.
an integral part of teachers’ professional prac-
tices, then it needs to extend beyond such Condition 2: Motivation
settings and purposes. Teacher research, then, Many teachers have been made aware
is clearly not a widespread activity in ELT. In through reading or professional development
the rest of this article I will consider why this initiatives of the potential benefits of teacher
is the case. research, yet they do not engage in it. Aware-
ness alone, then, is not a sufficient condition
Conditions for teacher research for teacher research to occur. Teachers must
In the absence of empirical evidence in have a reason for wanting to engage in teacher
our field of why teacher research does or does research. Thus a second condition is motiva-
not take place, the ideas I present here are tion, which can be viewed as the belief, as
informed by the literature, both in ELT and opposed to the awareness, that the process will
in education more generally, as well as by my be beneficial to their work, or it may be more
own experience of promoting and supporting instrumental. Obtaining a qualification, for
research with language teachers. These sources example, motivates many teachers to engage
suggest ten conditions that I believe affect in research (as I noted earlier, much teacher
the incidence of teacher research: (1) aware- research in our field occurs during formal

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 programmes of study). Clearly, there are dif- of the teachers. I have observed some situa-
ferent kinds of motivation for teacher research, tions where teachers preferred to be assigned
and, like most of the issues I discuss here, research topics rather than to be given the
this is not a matter that has been empirically freedom to plan their projects. (This may be
explored. Where motivation exists, though, particularly true in assessed programmes of
teacher research is more likely to occur. study, where the only motivation for doing
teacher research is to pass a course.)
Condition 3: Knowledge and skills Allowing teachers to make choices does
Motivation will only take teachers so far in not negate their need for support. However,
their attempts to engage in teacher research. teacher research is more likely to be produc-
If the inquiry is to be soundly conducted and tive when the support teachers receive enables
the findings effectively shared, teachers need them to exercise choices about what to study
to possess relevant research-related knowledge and how to do so. Sustained teacher research
and skills. They need to be aware of the differ- is an element in self-directed professional
ent methodological options available and to development, and this implies that it must be
make informed choices from amongst them. driven by the teachers themselves.
If teachers want to collect data through ques-
tionnaires, well-established guidelines for their Condition 5: Mentoring
design and administration exist. Likewise, con- Many teachers will not engage in or sustain
ducting and analysing qualitative interviews research without initial and continued support
is a challenging activity, technically and con- from a mentor. The research mentor can func-
ceptually. Although thoughtful teachers may tion in many different ways, depending on the
possess certain skills they can exploit during needs of the teacher. My experience support-
research, such as observation skills, many have ing teachers in Switzerland, Turkey, and Oman
not received the “research education” (Borg over the past two years suggests that key roles
2003) that equips them to effectively concep- for mentors of teacher research are (1) assist-
tualise and implement a piece of research. ing in setting up a general framework for the
Teachers may see their lack of such knowl- conduct of the research, (2) helping teachers
edge and skills as an impediment to their to find a focus, and, importantly, (3) com-
involvement in research, or, if they do not menting on teachers’ initial attempts to collect
recognise their needs in this respect, they and analyse data. Mentors can also function as
may conduct research that is methodologically an audience who responds to teachers’ efforts
flawed. A common example I have observed is to communicate their work by, for example,
the teacher researcher who wants to examine commenting on drafts of reports they write.
the relative effects on learning of “method A” If we acknowledge that most teachers have
over “method B.” Frequently the inquiry is not had a sound research education, the role of
conducted without sufficient understanding the mentor becomes crucial. Teacher research,
of how to establish cause-effect relationships, at least initially, will often need to be scaffolded
thus significantly limiting the value of the by a more experienced and skilled individual.
findings. I believe it is important not only to This person need not be an academic; where
promote teacher research but to promote good communities of teacher researchers exist, the
quality teacher research. This cannot occur mentoring role can be assumed by a local col-
unless teachers have the prerequisite knowl- league. The availability of a mentor who teach-
edge and skills. ers know will value and support their attempts
to be teacher researchers can encourage more
Condition 4: Choice teachers to assume this role. This is perhaps
A further condition that facilitates teacher even more important where teacher research-
research is choice. Not only should teacher ers feel isolated and where a research culture
research be an activity that teachers opt to does not exist.
engage in, but teachers should also be involved
in shaping the nature of the inquiry they Condition 6: Time
conduct. The extent of such involvement will Good teacher research can be conducted at
vary, depending upon the skills and experience minimal expense and with limited technology.

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 Financial and physical resources, while certain- I have heard several teachers say that there is
ly facilitative, are not necessary conditions for nothing in their work worth researching or
teacher research to take place. Time, however, which other teachers would find interesting.
is. No matter how well research is integrated Unless teachers see the classroom as a site for
into the teaching process, planning, conduct- generating knowledge, they will not be aware
ing, and sharing teacher research requires of the potential of teacher research. How-
additional time and effort from teachers. In ever, if the knowledge that stems from teacher
many contexts where the conditions specified research is recognised as having value—by
so far exist, teachers may still not feel they are teachers themselves as well as by head teachers,
able to engage in research because they do not local education authorities, and others—then
have enough time. teacher research is more likely to occur.
In exploring why teachers did not engage in
research, Crookes and Arakaki (1999) found Condition 8: Expectations
that some teachers worked 50 hours a week Teacher research is more likely to occur
to make ends meet. A teacher from North when teachers feel it is an activity they are
America sent me a personal communication expected to engage in. In many language
making a similar point: teaching contexts, this is simply not the case.
I’ve found it extremely difficult to carry Research is often seen—by employers, parents,
out research projects and publish. I just learners, and even by teachers—as an activ-
don’t have the time. I teach 32.5 hours ity that lies outside the scope of the teacher’s
a week and need to prepare for those work. Studies of student learning suggest that
classes in addition to work with the one factor that promotes achievement is high
teachers’ union and our technol- expectations on the part of the teacher. A par-
ogy committee. It’s a shame. Until allel argument holds true for the conduct of
policy changes to permit teachers to do teacher research. If, in our field generally and
research in their classrooms and publish in teachers’ own working contexts specifically,
results, there won’t be much connection there is an expectation that being a profession-
between research and practice except al language teacher involves researching one’s
within the individual classroom. In own practices, then such inquiry is more likely
my own context almost nobody reads to occur. The power of expectation is perhaps
TESOL publications—they don’t have nowhere more strongly demonstrated than
time. in the commitment many teachers around
Admittedly, pleading a lack of time is often the world show to the often laborious task
a convenient excuse for not engaging in profes- of correcting piles of student exercise books
sional activities, but many teachers of English each evening. A primary motivation for this
around the world work under conditions that practice is the teachers’ knowledge that it is
provide little if any space for professional devel- expected of them by head teachers, colleagues,
opment activities, such as teacher research. parents, and students.
Combined with the absence of many of the
other conditions conducive to teacher research Condition 9: Community
outlined here, a lack of time can act as a pow- Conducting teacher research as part of a
erful hindrance to the promotion of teacher like-minded professional community is likely
research. This point has been highlighted in to be more productive than working in isola-
discussions of teacher research in education tion. Thus, forms of teacher research such
generally (Hancock 2001; Barker 2005). as action research are often conceived of as
collaborative, rather than individual, activi-
Condition 7: Recognition ties (see, for example, Burns 1999). Highly
The classroom often is not recognised as motivated teacher researchers may attain their
a site for generating knowledge. Rather, it is goals even when they are the only individuals
viewed—by employers and parents, but also in their schools who engage in such activity.
often by teachers themselves—as a place where However, the majority of language teachers are
knowledge is transmitted or implemented. This likely to consider the lack of institutional and
belief hinders the conduct of teacher research. collegial support for their research to be a bar-

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 rier to such activity. By community support, responses to their work at more local levels.
I am not referring to resources, but to one or Advice from experienced teachers or mentors
more of the following: about appropriate outlets to target can facili-
• shared understanding about the value of tate teacher researchers’ efforts to disseminate
teacher research their work.
• encouragement from school leaders and
colleagues Additional considerations
• opportunities for collaboration with If teacher research is to become a sustained
other teacher researchers feature of the language teaching profession,
• opportunities to discuss the research a considered analysis of the conditions that
with others facilitate such research is desirable. The condi-
• a sense of collective activity with others tions discussed above may provide an initial
engaged in teacher research framework for examining the circumstances
At the institutional level, if management under which teacher research can thrive. These
sends positive messages about teacher research conditions also provide the basis for a set
and values and acknowledges such activity of questions that can be used, almost diag-
as part of the institutional culture, language nostically, by teachers thinking about doing
teachers are more likely to engage in research. research or by project managers or professional
On the other hand, if management does development officers planning to introduce
not value attempts by teachers to research teacher research at an institutional, regional,
their own practices, or actually obstructs their or national level. These questions are:
research (research is sometimes seen as an 1. Are teachers aware of the assumptions
activity that will highlight deficiencies in the behind teacher research and of its poten-
school system), then research by teachers is less tial benefits?
likely to occur. Community can most obvi- 2. Do teachers have a reason to engage in
ously be created in the teachers’ own working teacher research, such as personal interest
context. However, national and international or promotion opportunities?
teachers’ associations as well as web-based 3. Do teachers have the knowledge and
discussion groups can also provide supportive skills required to conduct quality research
collegial forums for promoting and supporting and communicate it effectively?
teacher research. 4. Will teachers be involved in decisions
about the nature of their inquiry, includ-
Condition 10: Dissemination potential ing what to study and how to study it?
If teachers are to commit themselves to 5. Will teachers have access to mentoring
research, they need to know that there is the from professionals who value teacher
possibility that their inquiries will be made research, have experience in it, and are
public so that others can benefit from their willing and able to support it?
findings. Moreover, as most academic research- 6. Is the time required for teacher research
ers acknowledge, the prospect of publication available, given the teachers’ overall
is a major incentive for conducting a study. workloads and working conditions?
Thus, a final condition for teacher research 7. Is the classroom valued—by teachers,
is that mechanisms be in place to disseminate institutionally, and in the wider profes-
the results of the research. At a local level, sional, educational, and social context—
opportunities for teachers to share their work as a valid source of knowledge about
can be created through newsletters, websites, teaching and learning?
and professional development events. Pre- 8. Is there an expectation in the teachers’
sentations at regional or national conferences context, both in and outside the school,
and written reports submitted to the journals that doing research should be a feature of
of professional associations are further steps. teachers’ work?
Dissemination on an international scale, orally 9. Do teachers belong to, or can they
or in writing, is also an option, though one become members of, a community that
which teacher researchers may want to build promotes, values, and engages in teacher
up to gradually by first sharing and receiving research?

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 10. Do opportunities exist, locally or on a through practice-based evidence. In Becoming an
larger scale, for the oral or written dis- evidence-based practitioner. ed. O. McNamara,
15–26. London: Routledge Falmer.
semination of teacher research?
Shkedi, A. 1998. Teachers’ attitudes towards
Good quality teacher research is most likely research: A challenge for qualitative researchers.
to occur when as many of the above questions International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
as possible are answered affirmatively. This Education, 11 (4): 559–78.
is not the case in many ELT contexts; thus, Stenhouse, L. 1975. An introduction to curriculum
teacher research is not a widespread activity in research and development. London: Heinemann.
our field.
SIMON BORG is a Senior Lecturer in TESOL
Conclusion and Postgraduate Research Tutor in the
School of Education at the University of
Most teachers I talk to about research agree Leeds, UK. His areas of teaching and
it is good thing to do. A much smaller propor- research are teacher cognition, teacher
tion, though, implement practices that mirror research, teacher education, and grammar
that view. By acknowledging the lack of teach- teaching.
er research in ELT and examining the reasons
for it, my aim here has been to stimulate a
constructive discussion in our field of how, if
quality teacher research is a goal we are com-
mitted to, the conditions that promote such
research—informed, sustained, and shared
inquiry into our professional practices—can
be created.

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