Inquiry Approaches in Secondary

Studies of Society and Environment

Key Learning Area

Occasional paper prepared for the

Queensland School Curriculum Council

by

Jenny Nayler
Consultant in Education

CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Pedagogical underpinnings of inquiry processes in SOSE
3. Some essential characteristics of inquiry processes
4. Essential characteristics of inquiry processes
5. Essential characteristics of inquiry processes
a proposed example
6. A mindset for inquiry
7. References
8. Notes

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Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 1. Introduction

‘Inquiry as a framework for developing understandings about the world has a long history in
educational pedagogy and remains a powerful tool in the contemporary classroom’ (Murdoch
1998, p. 4). It is timely, with the development of the Queensland Years 1 to 10 Studies of
Society and Environment (SOSE) syllabus, to reflect on what makes inquiry a powerful
vehicle for learning.

The reader is invited to consider the role of inquiry within the broad context of the key
learning area, as well as the understandings of learning and teaching that underpin inquiry
processes. Consideration of the statements in Table 1 and identification with some of those
listed below will support the reader to clarify understandings with regard to inquiry and broad
curriculum underpinnings.

Table 1 Exploring understandings of inquiry in the secondary school

1. The teacher can provide most of the content material for an inquiry at secondary level.
2. The SOSE key learning area has its own requirements for presenting information and
formats or genres used in other key learning areas should not be used.
3. Inquiry projects will prepare students for life after school in which they will be able to
understand key issues and monitor the roles of nominated persons who will guarantee that
their interests are served.
4. Inquiries are seen as ways of supporting schools’ broad goals of maintaining, reproducing
and legitimating social, economic and political structures.
5. Inquiry projects will involve students in collaborative partnerships with community and
government groups so that their findings and recommendations can be heard.
6. Students should be grouped homogeneously, using streaming/selection for any inquiry
work.
7. Inquiry processes should be aimed at individualisation of tasks, with some opportunities for
group work.
8. Inquiry processes should involve heterogeneous groups that build on independence and
interdependence.
9. The student-teacher relationship during the inquiry process is typified by the teacher yielding
control, as students are able to exercise self-control within the existing social and cultural
frameworks.
10. Teachers need to use processes of critical reflection in order to review their practices with
regard to inquiry learning.
11. Inquiry learning is best reserved for gifted and talented students or those who satisfy
mandatory requirements of a SOSE work program.
12. The teacher is regarded as a ‘mentor’ or facilitator as students conduct their inquiries.
13. The teacher is regarded as a co-learner as students conduct their inquiries.
14. The teacher has mastery of all content material, providing structuring and sequencing of all
material for students.
15. Processes and topics of inquiry are negotiated and emphasis is placed on projects that
involve action that will improve the broader community.

The above statements were provided to support the reader to reflect on the broad curriculum
orientations that underpin pedagogical approaches, in general, and inquiry approaches,
specifically. Responses 5, 8, 10, 13 and 15 reflect practices and approaches that Kemmis,
Cole and Suggett (1983 p. 49) 1 would label as belonging to a ‘socially critical curriculum
orientation’ whilst responses 3, 7, 9, 11 and 12 suggest a ‘liberal/progressive curriculum
orientation’ and responses 1, 2, 4, 6 and 14 indicate commitment to a ‘vocational/neo-
classical orientation’. The types of ‘inquiry’ that are called for in the Years 1 to 10 Studies of
Society and Environment Syllabus are aligned with a socially critical pedagogy. Such
pedagogical underpinnings will be further explored later in this paper.
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Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 The purposes of this paper are four fold:
• To briefly explore the pedagogical underpinnings for the use of inquiry method as it is
presented in the Studies of Society and Environment Syllabus;
• To outline a range of inquiry processes that could be used to support students to
demonstrate the core learning outcomes and, importantly, define some essential
characteristics of effective inquiry models;
• To provide specific examples of the ways in which these approaches could be used with
regard to core learning outcomes; and
• To provide further references throughout the paper that teachers may find helpful in the
development and implementation of effective inquiry processes within the SOSE key
learning area.

2. Pedagogical Underpinnings of Inquiry Processes in Studies of

Society and Environment
At the outset, it is important to state that the core learning outcomes are the overarching
determinant of the nature of inquiry within the Studies of Society and Environment key
learning area. The core learning outcomes of the Syllabus, that draw on socially critical
perspectives that, in turn, incorporate the values of social justice, democratic values, peace
and ecological and economic sustainability, are the chief determinants of the nature of inquiry
within this key learning area. Therefore, specific reference will be made to the core learning
outcomes throughout this paper.

The Syllabus calls for “student-centred approaches to learning and teaching [that] include
socio-cultural, socially critical and metacognitive approaches”. The broad “socially critical”
curriculum orientation that was introduced at the outset of this paper involves approaches
that are “socio-cultural” and “metacognitive”. It is important to note, however, that the
presence of socio-cultural and metacognitive approaches does not guarantee a socially
critical curriculum. A worthwhile practical guide to the use of inquiry approaches in secondary
schools must involve an exploration of the pedagogical underpinnings of such practices.

Table 2 draws on Hoepper and Land’s (1996, pp. 85 - 86) understanding of these curriculum
orientations defined by Kemmis, Cole and Suggett (1983).

Table 2 Curriculum orientations and classrooms

Curriculum orientation What the classroom looks like

Vocational neo-classical “Conservative classrooms are characterized by the undisputed authority

or ‘conservative’ (Hoepper of the teacher, the relative passivity of the students, and the
and Land 1996, p. 85) unproblematic transmission of authorised knowledge.”
“Liberal classrooms are characterised by the teacher’s role as leader
Liberal and facilitator, active inquiry by students, and an emphasis on
understanding the reasons for social phenomena.”
“Critical classrooms are characterized by more democratic relations
Socially critical between teachers and students, by high levels of collaboration, and by
learning that involves ideological critique.”

The question then emerges as to how to adopt approaches that will guarantee inquiry
processes that are “socially critical, socio-cultural and metacognitive”. Both Hoepper and
Land (1996) and McDonald (1996) suggest that an understanding of Habermas’s
“knowledge-constitutive interests” supports students’ and teachers’ framing of appropriate
inquiries for students. Simply put, these forms of knowledge are variously labelled because
they serve the interests of particular groups. According to Habermas’s schema, the
knowledge-constitutive interests are technical, practical and emancipatory.
3
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Hence, technical questions for inquiry can be framed which involve exploration of how
particular phenomena occur. For example, in research prior to demonstrating a core learning
outcome from the strand, Systems, Resources and Power (SRP 6.5), students might ask the
following technical question: How are scarce resources allocated within the Australian and
global contexts? Practical questions involve asking why particular phenomena occur. Thus, a
practical question addressing SRP 6.5 might be Why is the Federal government involved in
the allocation of scarce resources within Australia? Socially critical inquiry will not result,
however, if students do not ask critical or emancipatory questions. Emancipatory or critical
questions are those which investigate whose interests are being served. For example,
students could investigate the following questions: Should traditional owners of the land be
automatically guaranteed ownership of scarce resources? Whose interests are being served
as a result of uranium mining? The contention here is that the inclusion of technical, practical
and critical questions will provide for learning that supports students to look critically at the
way things are and consider how they could be changed to improve outcomes for all,
especially those currently disadvantaged.

2.1 A range of inquiry processes that could be used to support students to

demonstrate the core learning outcomes

There is a multitude of inquiry processes from which teachers can choose in order to support
students’ demonstration of the core learning outcomes of syllabus documents within the
Studies of Society and Environment key learning area. For the purposes of this paper, a
range of inquiry processes has been presented in Table 3 that uses the “general sequence of
phases” suggested in the Syllabus. This sequence includes: framing and focusing questions,
locating, organising and analysing evidence, evaluating, synthesising and reporting
conclusions and possibly taking action of some sort.

It is important to note that the inquiry processes explored in this paper are those which
involve students working fairly independently. Of course, a whole class group can be involved
in a collective inquiry. For example, reference is made later in this paper to a Level 5 module
in which the whole class is engaged in activities structured using the Social Investigation
Strategy (Department of Education, Queensland 1992, pp. 16 - 17), followed by individual or
group inquiries. A premise of this paper, therefore, is that student-directed inquiry, on a group
or individual level, is most desirable.

Additionally, the diversity and specialisation that contributes to the richness of the SOSE key
learning area is reflected through the inclusion of geographical and historical inquiry
processes. That other inquiry processes are relevant and appropriate to the Studies of
Society and Environment key learning area is articulated in the introduction of the Syllabus
that states:

A range of interrelated concepts associated with particular key values and processes
underpins the Studies of Society and Environment key learning area. These are drawn
from disciplines including history, geography, economics, politics, sociology,
anthropology, law, psychology and ethics; and studies, such as Aboriginal, Torres Strait
Islander, Asian, Australian, civics and citizenship, enterprise, environmental, futures,
gender, global, media, rural, peace, and others (p 1).

A particular challenge for the Studies of Society and Environment key learning area is to
maintain the integrity of disciplines, such as History and Geography that have played such a
significant role in the academic lives of secondary students, whilst at the same time
supported students to appreciate and work with the integration of key concepts from related
fields.2

It is not suggested that teachers of Studies of Society and Environment in secondary schools
would use all of these methods, or that they be proficient in many more than about two of
these. The range is offered here in order to highlight commonalities and differences and to
4
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 provide a context for discussion in schools that require a stimulus to beginning teacher and
faculty investigation of inquiry methodologies for students.

5
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Table 3 A range of inquiry processes for secondary students (See endnote for sources of models)3
SOSE Social TELSTAR Historical Geographical Action A model of
Syllabus Investigation process process Research inquiry
sequence of Strategy Model learning
phases
Framing and • Motivate • Tune in • Motivati • Awareness of • Identify • Tuning in
focusing • Explore • Explore on a question, problem (identifying
questions • Frame, knowledge, • Prepara issue or & defining
negotiate viewpoints, tion to problem issue)
and identify questions conside arising from • Deciding
and ra interaction of
methods problem people with directions
• Diagnos their (formulatio
is environment n of
• Formula • Outline and hypothesis)
tion of define the
an question,
hypothe issue or
sis or a problem
set of • State
questio hypothesis if
ns appropriate
• Decide on
data and
evidence to be
collected
Locating, • Gather • Look • Research • Collect, • Investigate • Sorting out
organising and information • Sort Stage One describe problem (data
analysing • Analyse • Social organise and • Evaluate collection,
evidence information reinforceme analyse data data processing
nt and and evidence •
& analysis,
clarification
• Consolidatio refining
n issues)
Evaluating, • Conclude • Test • Research • Move towards • List • Drawing
synthesising and review Stage 2 and providing possible conclusion
and reporting synthesis explanations actions s
conclusions • Evaluation • Attempt to • Predict
and/or accept or outcomes
assessment reject • Select best
hypothesis action
• Decide
whether more
data are
required
• Evaluate
results
• Attempt to
make
predictions
• Move towards
generalisation
s
• Consider
future
alternatives
Possibly • Take action • Act • Make decision • Implement • Considerin
taking action action g social
of some sort action
Reconsidering • Reflect on • Reflect • Evaluate
consequences action
and outcomes
from each
phase

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Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 3. Some Essential Characteristics of Inquiry Processes
All of these inquiry models involve commitment of the learner to continuous reflection and re-
evaluation of the direction and purposes of the inquiry. Readers are urged strongly to seek out the
original source documents of those models with which they are unfamiliar. What follows is a
discussion of some essential characteristics of effective inquiry processes. Some of these
characteristics are explicitly advocated in the models, whilst for others it is important for teachers to
apply these qualities very overtly.

3.1 Recursive nature of inquiry

A problematic aspect of the presentation of these models in this comparative format is the
suggestion of linearity. One of the essential qualities of inquiry processes that support students to
demonstrate core learning outcomes at Levels 5 and 6 is the recursive nature of inquiry. Productive
inquiry cannot be conducted in a strictly linear fashion with the questions that guide the inquiry
remaining the same throughout. Students and teachers need to adopt flexible approaches so that in
the light of information gathered, knowledge being constructed, and skills and processes being
enhanced, additional or different questions and/or hypotheses can be adopted. The recursive
nature of an inquiry means that, during an inquiry, the unexpected may be encountered so students
may revisit and reconsider their work in earlier phases. It could be argued that inquiry models, such
as the Social Investigation Strategy (Department of Education, Queensland, 1992, pp. 16 - 17) and
its simplified version, TELSTAR (Education Department, Queensland 1992, p. 19) along with the
Action Research Model (Department of Education, Queensland 1993) provide more scaffolding for
student reflection and recursiveness than do other models presented here.

3.2 Students’ agency in the inquiry process: active construction of meaning

That students would revisit questions and hypotheses during an inquiry is the result of a key
characteristic of sound inquiry process, that is, the active construction of meaning. Sound
definitions of learning, with their emphases on students’ construction of meaning, further suggest
practical ways in which inquiry processes could be planned and implemented in secondary schools.
As much as possible the planning for, and carrying out, of the inquiry should be conducted by
students themselves. Boomer (quoted in Wilson and Wing Jan 1993, p. 55) could have been
referring specifically to learning through inquiry when he claims that “the curriculum is no longer a
prepackaged course to be taken; it is a jointly enacted composition that grows and changes as it
proceeds”. An important question then emerges: in practical terms exactly how much scope can
students be given to construct meaning for themselves during inquiries.

An integral aspect of students’ construction of meaning is metacognition, another approach to

inquiry highlighted in the Syllabus. Metacognition, or learning about one’s own learning processes,
is explained more fully as including “predicting, checking, monitoring, ‘reality testing’ and the
coordinating and control of deliberate attempts to learn, study and solve problems” (Ministry of
Education and Training, Victoria 1989, p. 13). At all stages of an inquiry there are opportunities for
students to be metacognitive:

• at the outset of the inquiry and as it proceeds in order to critique one’s own hypothesis or
problem formulation;
• to analyse the nature of questions developed and reformulate where necessary;
• to stop during the gathering of data to think about what is being learnt and how;
• importantly, at the conclusion of an inquiry students need specific support (until they do this
automatically) to reflect on the methods of learning that were effective for them, as well as
those methods that proved ineffective.

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Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Additionally, it is important that learners reflect on the stages and nature of the inquiry framework,
itself. If the teacher always orchestrates these stages, this skill will not be developed well. A
component of the Syllabus that supports students’ metacognition is the explicit naming of
processes used in SOSE investigation. Processes explicitly named are: investigating, creating,
participating, communicating and reflecting. These processes may represent the phases of an
inquiry, or one or more processes may occur within a phase of inquiry (see the Level 5 module,
Environments & Markets: Local to Global that uses these processes in order to sequence the five
phases of the inquiry. See also the inquiry in Table 5 that draws on the Social Investigation
Strategy, but which highlights these processes.) Also crucial to students’ construction of meaning is
acknowledgment of, and engagement with, students’ prior knowledge, experiences and attitudes.
Metacognition is also closely connected to adopting a recursive approach to inquiry. The learner not
only revisits phases and reformulates questions or hypotheses on the basis of information
gathered, but also on the basis of knowledge about the way in which learning is occurring or not
occurring.

3.3 Students’ agency in the inquiry process: negotiation

A useful answer may begin with what must remain within the realm of the teacher’s direct influence.
It is the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that learning experiences, and in this case planned
inquiries, support students to demonstrate the core learning outcomes of the syllabus. Of course, if
the situation arises that all core learning outcomes have been demonstrated and opportunity exists
for an independent study, it is reasonable and desirable to expect that students would exert
discretion over the outcomes to be addressed. Many opportunities exist, however, for students to
direct their own inquiries.

Wilson and Wing Jan (1993, p. 59) suggest that students can negotiate the area of interest,
methods of investigation, time required for the investigation (this may prove challenging in many
secondary school contexts) and materials and resources to be used. In this approach teachers and
students are engaged in “shared investigations” (Hamston and Murdoch 1996, p. 6).

3.4 Students’ agency in the inquiry process: framing of questions

Framing of questions is also an area in which students can exert agency over their work. An
important practical consideration in teachers’ support of students’ framing of questions is the
provision of appropriate frameworks. Already modelled in this paper is the framing of questions
using Habermas’s constitutive knowledge interests: the technical, the practical and the
emancipatory or critical (quoted in Hoepper and Land 1996, p. 86). Another framework that could
be shared with students in order to increase their input into their own investigations is the notion of
strategic questioning (Level 2 module: Green, lean, cleaning machine: caring for the environment).
The questions below are examples of practical and technical questions. Hence, this schema can be
used to complement those drawing on Habermas’s knowledge-constitutive interests. It cannot be
overemphasised that student awareness of types of questions is vital for effective inquiries to occur.
This questioning schema, illustrated in Table 4 by drawing on a Level 6 core learning outcome,
supports students to move from simple levels to more complex levels of questioning.

Table 4 Using Strategic Questioning

Type of Knowledge Core Learning Outcome Place and space
strategic being PS 6.2 Students create proposals to resolve environmental issues in
questioning constructed the Asia-Pacific region.
about. . .
Students may choose local and Asian land clearing issues to
demonstrate the above core learning outcome.

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Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 1. Focus • the key facts to an • Where, how and why is land being cleared?
questions understanding of • Who is involved in the process?
the situation • What are the rates of land clearing in the area being studied?
• For what purposes is land cleared?

2. Observation • what can be • What evidence can you see of land clearing in this area?
questions observed about a • What do you know about land clearing in other areas?
situation • What do you know about the impact of land clearing on the
environment?
• What do you know about the state of the land prior to clearing?
• What do you know about the state of the land after the clearing?

3. Feeling • people’s feelings • Who do you think has strong feelings about the clearing of land?
questions with regard to the • What do you think the views of each of these groups would be?
situation • What are your feelings toward the clearing of land?

4. Visioning • people’s ideals, • What do we need to do to achieve a balance that will satisfy all
questions values and hopes groups who have strong views regarding land clearing?
for the future • Whose responsibility is it to bring about such a balance?

5.Personal • your own attitudes • What is your view regarding land clearing?
inventory to the issue
questions
6. Change • what needs to be • What do you need to do to clarify this situation and bring about a
questions done to build a better situation?
better future

3.5 Students’ agency in the inquiry process: learning in social context

Learning from others is an important ingredient in the conditions that support students to actively
construct meaning for themselves. Phillips and Soltis (1991) sum up the importance of the social
context in learning processes when they claim:

Learners have parents, siblings, teachers, peers, and fellow learners, with all of whom
they communicate and interact, and from whom they receive guidance and stimulation.
Learners interact with adults who are generally more proficient than they are, they
discuss their puzzlements with their friends (using the social medium of language), and
they read books and magazines and watch television. (p. 51)

An important implication of the acknowledgment of the importance of the social in learning is the
need to plan inquiries that draw on these contexts. A core learning outcome from the strand, Time,
Continuity and Change: “TCC 5.3 Students collaborate to locate and systematically record
information about people in diverse past settings” offers an example of the way in which inquiry
processes can be planned to draw on social contexts. Apart from the cooperative learning contexts,
referred to already, demonstration of outcomes, such as the one above, is well served by social
research which involves students engaging with the viewpoints of others beyond the classroom to
gather data.

3.6 Student agency in the inquiry process: taking action

Another important quality of the inquiry process is the carrying out of some form of action. Some of
the models presented here state this phase more explicitly than do others. If action is used in a
broad sense, all inquiry models result in action. Certainly models of inquiry that focus on
environmental issues highlight this phase. However, it is important to note that the demonstration of
a genre, for example, the writing of a report or a persuasive argument constitutes action. The
demonstration of knowledge constructed during an inquiry also constitutes action. The diverse
ways in which action occurs as a result of inquiry is outlined by Calder and Smith (1991, pp. 62 -
63). 9
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 • Calder and Smith propose four main types of action:
• action to inform others (display, newspaper articles, letters, etc.);
• action to stimulate others to join (educating others through guest speakers, films, etc.);
• action to direct change (debating issues publicly, visiting politicians, making submissions, etc.);
and
• action to operate change (joining and/or raising money for local or national projects, etc.).

4. Essential Characteristics of Inquiry Processes

When organised into a sequence of activities for students, Studies of Society and Environment
inquiry processes include most of the following characteristics:

• They address a number of identified core learning outcomes, usually from different strands.

• The framework to be used for the inquiry is explicit. For example, a module is structured using
the phases of the Social Investigation Strategy, and/or the key processes of the Studies of
Society and Environment syllabus, that is, investigating, communicating, participating, reflecting
and creating.

•A socially critical approach is used. Questions such as Who benefits from promoting this image?
advance a socially critical perspective. The inclusion of more critical or emancipatory questions
would also achieve this. Questions students could be asked to consider include: Whose voice is
heard in this text? What are you invited to understand? Whose views are marginalised or
silenced? What are your views? Whose interests are being served here?

•A socio-cultural approach is used. That is, the inquiry draws strongly on the context-text model of
language use in which an analysis of texts should begin with a description of the contextual
factors — that is, the subject matter, the people involved, and the mode and medium through
which the ideas are conveyed — and then uses functional grammar concepts to describe the
text that arises within the particular context.

• Students have agency in the inquiry process. They are actively involved in the construction of
meaning, including the framing of key questions for investigation.

• Students’ agency in the inquiry process includes negotiation. To facilitate student construction of
meaning, students negotiate topics and processes throughout the collective inquiry, as well as
during their own inquiries. Extensive scope should exist for negotiation in the development of the
type of presentation to occur.

• Students’ agency in the inquiry process acknowledges social contexts.

• The nature of most Studies of Society and Environment topics requires that students learn from
one another and recognise the need for some social relevance in what they investigate.

Students’ agency in the inquiry process involves taking action. This action may take a number of
forms, including the completion of authentic assessment tasks.

5. Essential Characteristics of Inquiry Processes – A Proposed Example

The following example in Table 5 suggests some ideas that teachers and students could use when
constructing an inquiry that supports students to demonstrate Level 5 Core Learning Outcomes:
Time, Continuity and Change 5.1 and 5.5:
• Students use primary and secondary sources to identify the developments of ideas from
ancient to modern times; and
• Students identify values inherent in historical sources to reveal who benefits or is
disadvantaged by particular heritages.
10
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 It should be emphasised that this table offers one pathway which might occur when students and
teacher interact to develop learning and teaching activities that support students to demonstrate the
above outcomes. An authentic inquiry embedded in a socially critical curriculum is one that evolves
through the dynamic interaction between learners and which results in action that improves the
social context in which we live. Specifically, to serve the purposes of the Syllabus such an inquiry
values and promotes social justice, democratic processes, ecological and economic sustainability
and peace.

Table 5 Australian History – whose history is it, anyway? (Note that SOSE processes are highlighted in the
left-hand column in upper case)

Phase of the Essential

Social Possible scope and sequence character-
Investigation istics of
Strategy effective
inquiry

 Invite students to peruse texts such as “100 Famous Australians”, lists Arousing student
Motivate of parliamentarians, a brief written overview of Australian history interest
INVESTIGATE published thirty years ago or a documentary of similar vintage and to
consider questions such as:
• Which social groups are represented in these texts?
Focus on values
• Which social groups are not represented in these texts?
• What activities, ideas, etc appear to be valued in these texts?
• Students might like to select texts, which are related directly
or indirectly to the values of social justice, democratic
processes, ecological and economic sustainability and peace.
Explore  Learners explore Core Learning Outcomes in TCC 5.1 & 5.5 and Arousing student
INVESTIGATE rewrite in their own words. interest
 Specifically, learners could explore their knowledge and attitudes
regarding: Active
• the nature of reflective inquiry construction of
meaning
• the notion of a social group as being people who share similar
identities in terms of gender, age, ethnicity, place of dwelling,
physical ability and so on
• the notion of values as:
− determined by the beliefs we hold. They are ideas about
what someone or a group thinks is important in life and
they play a very important part in our decision-making.
We express our values in the way we think and act
(Lemin, Potts & Welsford, 1994, p. 1).
−what constitutes historical sources
• the concept of a marginalised group.
Addressing core
 Learners could read as many texts as possible that are related to the learning
period of history that interests them. They could look for film and outcomes from
literary representations of this period of history, focusing on texts that syllabus
suggest particular positions relating to values of social justice,
democratic processes, ecological and economic sustainability and
peace.

11
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Frame, negotiate  Working either individually or in groups, learners could: Negotiation of
and identify •negotiate to explore a particular period of history; topic
COMMUNICATE •identify a particular problem, using the lens of the values mentioned Framing of
INVESTIGATE above; and questions
CREATE
REFLECT
•frame specific questions about this period, focusing on the broad
Socially critical
questions: perspectives
− Which groups were the actors creating history at this
(critical literacy)
time? What values did they hold?
− Which groups were acted upon? In other words, which Learning in a
groups appeared to not have a role in determining social context
economic and political processes? What values did they
hold?
− What changes occurred during this time? Which groups
appeared to benefit from these changes?

Gather  Students could gather a range of texts, including primary source Socially critical
information documents, such as songs, posters, film, letters, newspaper articles, perspectives
COMMUNICATE etc which fall into two main categories: (critical literacy)
INVESTIGATE • those texts which represent mainstream or dominant activities
CREATE Reframe
REFLECT and values; and questions,
• those texts which represent a non-mainstream or marginalised
problem and
view. processes for
learning

Analyse  Students could write a commentary on each text that presents an

COMMUNICATE understanding of values held during this historical period. Remember Active
INVESTIGATE construction of
the values will seldom be stated explicitly, but every text is
CREATE meaning
REFLECT underpinned by particular values. About 5 or 6 texts would provide a
useful range using the following guiding questions:
Technical questions: Reframing of
• What are you invited to understand from this text about what was
questions,
happening during this period of history? problem and
• Which groups were making key economic, social and political processes for
decisions? Which groups were not involved in making key learning
economic, social and political decisions?
• What are you invited to understand about what beliefs were
valued by the mainstream? For example, what were the dominant
values with regard to family life, working responsibilities, general
lifestyle, relations with foreign countries, attitudes to teenagers,
viewpoints on war, etc? What are you invited to understand with
regard to values that were marginalised or silenced?
Practical questions:
• Why were these social groups making key decisions regarding
economic, political and social processes?
• Why were some social groups not involved in such decision-
making?
Critical questions:
• Whose interests are served by the values represented in this
text?
• Whose interests are not being served by the values represented
in this text?

Conclude and  Learners working in groups could discuss and formulate group Learning in a
review conclusions about values that were dominant in this period and values social context
REFLECT that were marginalised.
COMMUNICATE
PARTICIPATE

12
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Take action •Students could be invited to choose a genre that fulfils the following Taking action
CREATE requirements: Negotiation of
COMMUNICATE • An oral presentation; learning process
PARTICIPATE
• The sharing of knowledge to an audience of peers;
• Adoption of a life-like role

Reflect  Students could be invited to use graphic organisers such as PMI Being meta-
REFLECT (Plus, Minus and Interesting Factors) or SWOT (Strengths, cognitive
Weaknesses, Opportunities and Tensions) to reflect on what they
have learnt and the effectiveness of the learning processes that they
have used to learn.

6. A Mindset for Inquiry

Hargreaves’s (1997; 99) advice that teachers need to learn to teach in ways they did not learn
themselves is useful here. Successful inquiry fulfils the characteristics outlined in this paper, with
student agency in learning, relevance of issues to students’ lives and the scaffolding of some form
of action being vital components. It is highly recommended that teams of teachers of Studies of
Society and Environment consider these approaches in order to investigate which forms are most
appropriate for their contexts. (See Cox 1989 and Heck and Reddy 1998 for specific strategies to
encourage student inquiry as well as advice on conditions that inhibit such activity.) This activity
could be conducted as a faculty project that provides a context for teacher reflection of their own
practice. (See Heck and Reddy 1998 for specific ways in which teachers can develop Studies of
Society and Environment or whole school approaches to developing appropriate inquiry methods.)
This investigation which could be conducted as an action research project could also involve
teachers identifying the skills they require and planning to acquire these skills through the use of
learning logs, professional development sessions and so on.

Educational literature abounds with definitions of learning that will equip students for socially just
futures in which lifelong learning and productive response to change are fundamental components.
Senge (quoted in O’Neill 1995 p. 20) illuminates the nature of effective inquiry when talking about
learning, in general. He claims that “[r]eally deep learning is the process that inevitably is driven by
the learner, not by someone else. And it always involves moving back and forth between a domain
of thinking and a domain of action”. The challenges to create such student agency in our
classrooms are great, but the rewards are enormous.

7. References
Bellanca, J. and Fogarty, R. 1991, Blueprints for Thinking in the Cooperative Classroom, Hawker
Brownlow Education, Melbourne.

Board of Secondary School Studies. 1988, Junior Syllabus in Geography, Brisbane.

Board of Secondary School Studies. 1988, Junior Syllabus in History, Brisbane.

Calder, M. and Smith, R. 1991, A Better World for All, Australian Government Publishing Centre for
the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau, Canberra.

Cox, B. 1989, ‘Making Inquiry Learning Work in the Geography Classroom’ in Fien, J., Gerber, R.,
and Wilson, P. (Eds.), The Geography teacher’s guide to the classroom, Macmillan, South
Melbourne, pp. 64-74.
13
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Department of Education, Queensland. 1994, English in Years 1 to 10 Queensland syllabus
materials, Brisbane.

Department of Education, Queensland. 1993, P-12 Environmental Education Curriculum Guide,

Brisbane.

Department of Education, Queensland. 1989, P-10 Social Education Framework, Brisbane.

Department of Education, Queensland. 1992, Social Education, Years 8-10 Syllabus, Brisbane.

Department of Education, Queensland. 1994, Social Investigators: An Approach to Active and

Informed Citizenship for Years 8–10, Brisbane. (Video and Support Materials).

Gibbs, J. 1995, Tribes: A New Way of Learning and Being Together, Centre Source Systems,
Sausalito, California.

Gough, N. 1992, Blueprints for Greening Schools, Gould League, Melbourne.

Hamston, J. and Murdoch, K. 1996, Planning Integrated Units of Work for Social Education:
Integrating Socially, Eleanor Curtin, Armadale.

Hargreaves, A. 1997, ‘The four ages of professionalism and professional learning’ in Unicorn 23(2),
pp. 86-114.

Heck, D. and Reddy, S. 1998, Enquiry Learning for the Environment, Module 7 http://
www.ens.gu.edu.au/ciree/LSE/mod7.htm’

Hoepper, B. and Land, R. 1996, ‘Planning investigations, in R. Gilbert (Ed.), Studying Society and
Environment: A Handbook for Teachers. Macmillan, Melbourne, pp. 80-101.

Kemmis, S., Cole, P. and Suggett, D. 1983, Orientations to Curriculum and Transition to the
Socially Critical School, Victorian Institute of Secondary Education, Melbourne.
.
Lemin, M., Potts, H. and Welsford, P. 1994, Values Strategies for Classroom Teachers, The
Australian Council for Educational Research, Hawthorn.

McDonald, H. 1996, ‘Planning for practice’ In R. Gilbert (Ed.), Studying Society and Environment: A
Handbook for Teachers, Macmillan, Melbourne, pp 20-40.

Ministry of Education and Training, Victoria. 1989, Learning How to Learn, Ministry of Education
and Training, Melbourne.

Murdoch, K. 1998, Classroom Connections: Strategies for Integrated Learning, Eleanor Curtin,
Armadale.

Murdoch, K. and Hornsby, D. 1997, Planning Curriculum Connections: Whole-School Planning for
Integrated Curriculum, Eleanor Curtin, Armadale.

Nayler, J. (Ed.). 1997, Gender Up Front: strategies for a gender focus across the key learning
areas. Association of Women Educators, Queensland.

O’Neill, J. 1995, ‘On Schools as Learning Organisations: A Conversation with Peter Senge’
Educational Leadership, 52(7), pp. 20-23.

Phillips, D. C. and Soltis, J. 1991, Perspectives on Learning, Teachers College Press, New York.

Pike, G. and Selby, D. 1988, Global Teacher, Global Learner, Hodder and Stoughton, London.
14
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
 Wilson, J. and Wing Jan, L. 1993, Thinking for Themselves: Developing Strategies for Reflective
Learning, Eleanor Curtin, Melbourne.

Woolever, R. and Scott, K. 1988, Active Learning in Social Studies: Promoting Cognitive and Social
Growth, Scott Foresmen and Co, Glenview, Ill.

8. Notes

15
Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment
1This article is highly recommended reading for teachers and administrators. Kemmis, Cole and Suggett (1983)
briefly outline “three orientations to curriculum” and then offer the reader a detailed explanation of how these
orientations translate into classroom practice and organisation.
2For example, as a member of a team or faculty, teachers could articulate those inquiry skills specific to
particular disciplines. Considering geographical skills, for example, the chapter by Cox, “Making Inquiry Learning
Work in the Geography Classroom” in Fien (1989) is highly relevant to the teaching of geographical skills within
a SOSE or Geography syllabus. Readers are also urged to read the occasional papers commissioned by the
QSCC in which historical and geographical processes, concepts and skills are explored.
3Sequence of phases: QSCC (1998b). Studies of Society and Environment Years 1 to 10 Syllabus. Brisbane:
QSCC, pp. 8-9.
Social Investigation Strategy: Education Department, Queensland. 1992, Social Education Years 8-10
Syllabus, Brisbane pp. 16-17.
TESLSTAR: Education Department, Queensland. 1992, Social Education Years 8-10 Syllabus, Brisbane,
p. 19. (See Education Department, Queensland, 1994 for video and support materials that explore TELSTAR.)
Historical process: Board of Secondary School Studies (1988b), Junior Syllabus in History, Brisbane: BSSS,
p. 11.
Geographical process: Board of Secondary School Studies. 1988a, Junior Syllabus in Geography. Brisbane,
p. 14.
Action Research Model: Department of Education, Queensland. 1993, P-12 Environmental Education
Curriculum Guide. Brisbane, p. 24.
A model of learning: Gough, N. 1992, Blueprints for Greening Schools, Gould League, Melbourne.

Inquiry Approaches in Secondary Studies of Society and Environment