Aerospace materials

These slides were designed for studying purposes at VAA

CHAPTER 2

Thanh Binh Cao, Dr. Eng.

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 Aerospace materials

Overview of the course:

▪ Delivery method: traditional classroom-based teaching (may be combined with online class)
▪ Credit: 3
▪ Base knowledge: theoretical mechanics, strength of materials
▪ Workload: approximately 4 teaching hours/week + self-study
▪ Main referring textbooks:
Vật liệu học, Nguyễn Khắc Cường và các tác giả, 2001, NXB Giáo Dục
Mechanics of Composite Materials, 2nd Edition, Autar K. Kaw, 2006, Taylor & Francis
A&P Technical General (Textbook/Workbook/Study guide), Jeppesen, 1999
Others: noted on the prepared slides

▪ Grading:
Attendance: 10%
Exam 1: 20%
Exam 2: 20%
Examination: 50% (assignment)

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Steels: Fe-C alloys, may contain other alloying elements (small concentrations)
• Mechanical properties → sensitive to %C (normally < 1wt%)
• Classification: (figure)

• Steels are widely used because:

• Abundant quantities of Fe + C
• Economical extraction, refining, alloying, fabrication
• Wide range of mechanical/physical properties

• In aircraft, steel (5-8%) of total airframe weight

• Safety-critical structural components
• 𝜎𝑌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 1500 − 2000𝑀𝑃𝑎

• High E, fatigue resistance

• High fracture toughness
• Good performance at T = 300–450 °C
→ Heavily loaded aircraft structures
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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Using steel for small quantities in aircraft structures since:
• High density (> 2.5 density of Al, > 1.5 density of Ti, > 3.5 density of carbon-epoxy composite)
• Susceptible to corrosion → surface pitting + σ concentration cracking + others
• High-strength steels: prone to damage by hydrogen embrittlement (due to H2 absorption ≈ 0.0001%)

• Examples of using steels in aircraft:

• Landing gear: for min volume of undercarriage +
high-load capacity → withstanding high impact
load on landing + support aircraft during
taxi/take-off
• Wing root attachments
• Wing carry-through boxes
• Slat tracks (part of leading edge of aircraft wings)

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Introduction to aerospace materials, Adrian P. Mouritz
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Some important groups of steels:
• Mild steels:
• Low carbon steels (< 0.2wt%C), hardened by cold working
• Moderate σY (200–300 MPa)
• Too soft → not use for aircraft structural applications

• High-strength low-alloy steels:

• %C < 0.2wt% (like mild steels) + alloying elements (Cu, Ni, Nb, V, Cr, Mo, Zr with small amounts)
• σY ≈ 250–600 Mpa
• Uses in automobiles, trucks and bridges; rare utility in aircraft (low strength and poor corrosion resistance)

• Medium-carbon steels:
• 0.25wt% < %C < 0.6wt%, can be heat-treated (austenitizing + quenching + tempering → ↗ properties)
• Low harden abilities (thin section with high quenching rates) → alloying with Cr, Ni, Mo → ↗ strength &
ductility (stronger than low carbon steels, but lower ductility + toughness)
• Railway wheels + tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Some important groups of steels:
• High-carbon steels:
• 0.6wt% < %C < 1.4wt%, hardest, strongest, and least ductile (among
carbon steels), wear resistant
• Alloying with Cr, V, W, Mo → making tool steels + die steels (presence of
very hard + wear resistant carbide like Cr23C6, V4C3, WC…)

• Limitations of carbon steels:

• ↗ %C for higher strength steels, but material becomes brittle (↗ strength at
cost of ductility and toughness)
• ↗ hardness by quenching → high cooling rate → distortion and cracking
• Large section → not uniformly hardened
• Poor resistance to corrosion + oxidation at high T
Engineering materials technology, W. Bolton
• Alloying to modify properties of steels + overcome effects of impurities (ex. S, O2…);
called alloy steels (alloying elements < 2wt%), medium alloy steels (2wt% < alloying
elements < 10wt%), high alloy steel (alloying elements > 10wt%)

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Some important groups of steels:
• Stainless steels (SS): highly resistant to corrosion in different
environment, alloying with Cr (at least 11wt%), with additional
Ni & Mo for ↗ corrosion resistant

• Generally, 3 types of stainless steels:

• Martensitic SS: can be heat-treated, M is prime micro-
constituent
• Austenitic SS: γ phase exists at Troom
• Ferritic SS: composed of α ferrite (BCC) phase

• Austenitic and ferritic: not heat-treatable (need cold working)

• Austenitic SS most corrosion resistant (high Cr, Ni contents)
• Martensitic and ferritic SS → magnetic (Austenitic SS not)

• Some SSs used at high T in severe conditions (can resist

oxidation + mechanical integrity). Ex. gas turbines, aircraft,
missiles, and nuclear power generating units (17-7PH)
7
Engineering materials technology, W. Bolton
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Some important groups of steels:
• Maraging steels:
• High alloy content, virtually no C (%C < 0.03wt%); alloying + heat treatment (including age-hardening)
• High strength, ductility and fracture toughness (σ = 1500–2300 MPa)
• For heavily loaded aerospace components (heat resistant to 400–450 °C)

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Introduction to aerospace materials, Adrian P. Mouritz
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics
• Some important groups of steels:
• Maraging steels:
• Use in aircraft: landing gear, helicopter undercarriages, slat tracks and rocket motor cases (requiring high
strength + damage tolerance
• Is low C martensitic steel + hard precipitate particles (caused by thermal aging). Term “maraging” =
martensite + age-hardening
• Composition: C = max 0.03%, Ni = 17-19%, Co = 8-12%, Mo = 3-5%, Ti = 0.2-1.8%, Al = 0.1-0.15%; low C for
avoiding formation of TiC precipitates (severely ↘ impact strength, ductility and toughness)

• Production:
• Heating to 850 °C (γ phase) + slow cooling in air → M (high Ni content → suppress formation of ferrite
and pearlite) → soft enough for machining (avoid cracking)

• Heat-treating at 480–500 °C (several hours) → create fine distribution of hard precipitates (like, Ni3Mo,
Ni3Ti, Ni3Al, Fe2Mo…) in soft M matrix (carbide precipitation eliminated) → restrict movement of
dislocations → strengthening by the precipitation hardening process

• Optimum age-hardening → σY ≈ 2000MPa + good ductility and toughness (avoid over-aging)

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Several stages: > boiling T → gaseous stage
(atoms fly completely disordered); between
boiling T and solidification T → liquid stage
(atoms move + disordered but close together); <
solidification T → solid stage (ordered into
crystals, oscillation about fixed points)
• Region + same ordering → phase
• Homogeneous stage: one phase is present ><
heterogeneous
• Concentration: amount of ex. alloying elements
• Phase diagram: consider extremely low
heating/cooling → thermodynamic equilibrium
between phases (enough time for atoms to
diffuse/accumulate → form various phases +
balance between formation + dispersal of phases)
• Fe: γ-iron (FCC arrangement of atoms?)
δ- and α-iron (BCC?)
γ-iron → larger interstices → greater
Fundamentals of Materials Science and
solubility of small atoms Engineering, William D. Callister 10
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Fe-C system:
• Ferrous materials: up to 4%wt C (note: tramp elements: difficult to remove during steel making)
• α-solid solution = ferrite, γ-solid solution = austenite, δ-solid solution = δ-ferrite
• Presence of C in ferrite for ex. → slight local distortion, but overall ordering remains the same → same phase
for α-iron and ferrite
• Fe3C: cementite, containing 6.67%C

• Max concentration of solute atoms (in solid solution) → solubility limit

• System is equilibrium: min free energy → stable. Change in T, P, composition → ↗ free energy → driving force
to change to another stage (for ↘ free energy)
• Equilibrium → never achieved, but can obtain metastable stage

• Phase diagram: transition from one to another phase → help predict phase transformation + microstructures
• Liquidus, solidus, solvus

• Eutectic reaction: a liquid phase → 2 solid phase at T (up on heating, opposite reaction occurs)
• Eutectoid reaction: a solid phase → 2 other solid phases at a specific T
• Peritectic reaction: a solid phase + liquid phase → form a second solid phase at specific T & composition
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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Fe-C system:
• C seen as interstitial impurity in iron → form solid solutions
• In BCC α ferrite, max 0.022wt%C soluble at 727oC, α ferrite soft,
possess magnetic at T < 768oC
• Austenite (γ phase of Fe), not stable if T < 727oC. Max solubility
of C in γ is 2.14wt% at 1147oC, nonmagnetic
• δ ferrite: similar α ferrite, but exists at different T (practically no
technological importance )
• Cementite (Fe3C): very hard and brittle, and is metastable
phase

• Eutectic point exists (in Fe-C system) at 4.3wt% C and at 1147oC.

L → (γ + Fe3C)
• Eutectoid point exists at 0.76wt% C at 727oC. γ → [α
(0.022wt%C) + Fe3C]

• Classification: Fe (< 0.008wt% C ), steel (0.008-2.14wt% C ), cast

iron (2.14-6.67wt% C, normally < 4.5wt% C) Introduction to aerospace
materials, Adrian P. Mouritz 12
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Development of microstructures in Fe-C alloys
• Depending on both C content + heat treatment
• Eutectoid composition (0.76wt% C): above 727oC → γ phase → cool
down and reach eutectoid T (727oC) → transformation
• Slowly cool through eutectoid T → lamellae microstructure α + Fe3C,
relative layer thickness of 8:1
• Microstructure at point b → pearlite, P (thick light α layers and thin
cementite lamellae)
• Properties of P: intermediate between soft + ductile α and hard +
brittle cementite
• γ → P, require redistribution of carbon by diffusion

Fundamentals of Materials Science and

Engineering, William D. Callister
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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Development of microstructures in Fe-C alloys
• γ → P, require redistribution of carbon by diffusion
• 850oC → 750oC: no transformation
• 750oC → 650oC: P starts to form
• Below 650oC: pearlite lamellae (becomes finer)
• P formation → begin at γ grain boundaries (or disarray
in γ grains)
• Assume P originates from Fe3C

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Development of microstructures in Fe-C alloys
• Hypo-eutectoid alloys: (left of eutectoid point)
• Cool down composition C0 following yy’ line
• Point c (about 875oC), exist entire γ phase; cooling to point d (about
775oC): α + γ region (α particles formed along original γ boundaries)
• When cooling, composition of α changes with T (along line MN),
whereas composition of γ changes along line MO
• Point d to e, still α + γ region (α particles grow larger)
• T reaches point f: all remaining γ → P
• At point f, α exists in P (called eutectoid ferrite) and as phase cooled
from α + γ region (called proeutectoid ferrite)

Fundamentals of Materials Science and

Engineering, William D. Callister
0.38wt% Carbon steel 15
P + proeutectoid ferrite
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)
• Development of microstructures in Fe-C alloys
• Hyper-eutectoid alloys: (right of eutectoid point)
• Cool down composition C1 following zz’ line
• Point g, exist only γ phase (γ grains); cooling to point h: α + γ region
(Fe3C formed along γ boundaries, called proeutectoid cementite)
• When cooling, composition of γ changes (along line PO), whereas
cementite composition remains constant
• T reaches point i: all remaining γ → P, so P + proeutectoid Fe3C

1.4wt% Carbon steel Fundamentals of Materials Science and

White proeutectoid Fe3C surrounding Engineering, William D. Callister 16
by P colonies
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (binary phase diagram)

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (do not contain B)
• γ → B:

• At T < 550oC: bainite starts to form along with P

• B formation → initiation on α nuclei (platelet)

→ %C surrounding γ↗ → reaches %C for
forming Fe3C → Fe3C forms juxtaposition with α
platelets

• T ↘ → B starts to form inside grains

• Based on T, at which B is formed → classify B as

upper B and lower B

• Upper B → more brittle

• Lower B → tough

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.2. Fe-C phase diagram (do not contain M)
• γ → M (martensite):

• Cooling very rapidly: γ starts to transform to α

when reaching MS

• When T < MS → very little C atoms migrate

(remain inside solid solution). Since space inside
α < inside γ (for C atoms) → C atoms expand
lattice → ↗σ → ↗ hardness of steel

• 2 types of M
• Massive martensite (lath martensite)
• Acicular martensite (plate martensite)

• γ will not be fully transformed to M → retained

austenite

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.3. Designation
• Vietnamese system (TCVN 1658 - 87), alloy steel denoted as:
• First number: C content (parts per 10 thousand)
• Chemical symbol of alloying elements + corresponding percentage content
• If % content closed to 1% → index not added
• Letter A→ indicating good alloy steel
• Ex. 15Cr, 20Cr, 20CrNi (structural alloy steel grades) or 12CrNi3A, 12Cr2Ni3A (letter A for good)

• SAE system (four-digit system):

• First digit: (1) → carbon steels; (2) → Nickel steels, (3) → Nickel-chromium steels, (4) → Molybdenum steels,
(5) → Chromium steels, (6) → Chromium-vanadium steels …, (9) → Silicon-manganese steels
• Second digit: concentration of major element in percentiles (1 equals 1%)
• Last two digits: carbon concentration to 0.01%
• May have addition letters between 2nd and 3rd digits: B and L when boron and lead are added
• Prefix M for merchant quality steel , prefix E for electric-furnace steel, suffix H for hardenability requirements
• Ex. SAE 5130 → chromium steel alloy, with 1% of Cr and 0.3% of C

• And many other systems…

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.1. Steel and steel alloys
2.1.3. Designation

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
• Process involves controlled heating + cooling material →
modifications of microstructure + properties
• Important factors: T to which material is heated + cooling
rate
• TTT diagram (time-temperature-transformation) → see
effects of time, T on microstructure (of steel for ex.); also
called isothermal transformation diagram; specific to a
particular material (steel)

Fundamentals of Materials Science and

Engineering, William D. Callister

22
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
• TTT diagram
• Pearlite and bainite: cool γ between A1 and nose of TTT
diagram → nucleation at γ boundaries or at inhomogeneity
→ formation of alternate plates of α and Fe3C.
• ↘ T transformation → ↘ time for P formation, ↘
thicknesses of α and Fe3C plates, ↗ hardness
• B is (only) product of isothermal decomposition of γ; B is α-
carbides aggregate, formed by growing from α nucleus
• At sufficient low T → no C diffusion → BCC lattice distorts
into tetragonal structure (M) + severe lattice strain due to
trapped C atoms

Elements of physical metallurgy, Albert G. Guy 23

 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
• > 727oC (for a steel shown below), γ is stable phase
• 566oC < T < 727oC, γ unstable → begin to transform to P (higher T
transformation → coarser P)
• 215oC < T < 566oC, product is B (feathery-like structure)
• -20oC < T < 215oC, unstable γ → M (same with lower T)

Fundamentals of Materials Science and 24

Engineering materials technology, W. Bolton Engineering, William D. Callister
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• High hardenability when γ can transform to M, without P (normally high
cooling rate is required)
• Hardenability depends on (i) chemical composition of steel + (ii) size of γ
grain before metals cooled back to Troom
• Process: heat to fully γ, then rapidly cool (ex. quenching) to produce M
structure. Fast cool → insufficient t for C to diffuse out of γ → result in M
(not equilibrium structure, not in Fe-C diagram)
• Precipitation hardening (by heat treatment)
• Solution heat treatment:
• Heat up → solute atoms dissolve → single-phase solid solution
• Consider alloy with composition C0 → heat to T0 (α phase field) +
time to dissolve β completely → rapid quenching to T1 (any
diffusion for formation of β is prevented) → α solid solution
supersaturated with B atoms (relative soft + weak)
• Precipitation heat treatment (may call aging):
• Supersaturated α solid solution → heat to T2 (intermediate T
within α+β region) → diffusion
• β precipitate formed as finely dispersed particles
• After aging at T2 → cool to room T Fundamentals of Materials Science and 25
Engineering, William D. Callister
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• Mechanism of hardening (consider Al-Cu system as an example):
• α → substitutional solid solution of Cu in Al, θ → intermetallic
compound CuAl2 – Ex. consideration of 96 wt% Al–4 wt% Cu
• Initial stage: Cu atoms cluster (GPzone) → small thin discs within α
• With time, Cu atoms diffused → zones become particles;
precipitate particles pass 2 transition phases: θ’’ → θ’ → θ
• Max strength (formation of θ’’) preserved upon cooling to Troom
• Over-aging: particle growth → development of θ’ & θ phases
• Time + T for aging designed → create strength in vicinity of max
• Lattice distortion due to transition phases (θ’’ & θ’) → impeding
dislocation movement → alloy becomes harder + stronger

Fundamentals of Materials Science and 26

Engineering, William D. Callister
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• Mechanism of hardening (a bit more detailed):
• ↗ age-hardening time mechanism change from: solid-solution
strengthening (SSS) → Guinier-Preston (GP) strengthening →
Coherent precipitate → incoherent precipitate strengthening
• Solution treatment + quenching → supersaturated solid solution in
host metal (soft with solid solution hardening)
• Aging → diffusing alloy atoms → form solute-rich clusters (GP zones),
clusters are coherent with host metal → high strain for surrounding
lattice → impeding dislocation slips → strengthen metal
• GP zones → coherent precipitates in matrix (heterogenous
nucleation) + no interface between particles & matrix. Coherent
precipitates distort matrix → resist dislocation slip
• Coherent precipitates change crystal structure (no longer match with
lattice planes of host metal lattice) → form incoherent precipitate
particles (with well-defined interface) → obstacles against dislocation
slip (based on Orowan hardening mechanism)
• Max strength occurs immediately when coherent precipitates Coherent precipitates Incoherent precipitates
transforming into incoherent particles. But prolonging aging → Introduction to aerospace
coarsening particles → Orowan hardening less effective materials, Adrian P. Mouritz
27
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• Mechanism of hardening in steels:
• Solution hardening: foreign atoms → migrate in among Fe
atoms → form solid solution
• Substitutional solution: foreign atoms → disperse among host
atoms (can be larger or smaller than host atoms) → create
strain field around solute atoms → obstruct movement of
dislocations → ↗ yield strength and hardness of material
• Interstitial solution: C, N, H and B atoms (smaller than Fe atoms)
→ disperse in interstices in Fe lattice → size difference between
Fe atoms and dissolving atoms → create local strain fields → ↗
hardness of material

• At Troom, α-Fe can slightly dissolve foreign atoms

• At higher T, γ-Fe has high solubility potential for foreign atoms
• If rapidly cool γ-Fe → C atoms are not diffused → form
supersaturated solution of in α-Fe (martensite) → ↗ yield
strength and hardness of material

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• Mechanism of hardening in steels:
• Grain size effect hardening: fine-grained material has a higher
yield point and hardness

• Hall-Petch equation

• Fine grain size → obtain by alloying C-steel with small amount

of Al, Nb, Ti, V + rolling or normalizing → ↗ yield strength &
low-T toughness

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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• Mechanism of hardening in steels:
• Dispersed-phase hardening: hardness of material can be
increased by separating particles in matrix (ex. finer P
lamellae → higher hardness)

• Very small particles → disperse + lie closely together → stop

migrations of dislocations (dislocations may finally cut
Incoherent precipitates
through particles or create closed loops around them) → ↗ Coherent precipitates
hardness (precipitation hardening or dispersion hardening);
smaller + more finely-dispersed particles → higher hardness

• Particles are precipitated → if crystal lattice coincide closely

with matrix’s lattice → coherent precipitation → create
severe strain fields around precipitated particles → more
impede migration of dislocations → higher hardness

• In steel, cooling steel (special solution treatment) →

precipitation of particles
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 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.1. Hardening
• Mechanism of hardening in steels:
• Work hardening: plastic deformation (ex, by cold drawing) →
produce number of dislocations, being proportional to degree
of deformation → create complicate network of interlocking
dislocations → ↗ yield strength + ↘ toughness

• Strain-age hardening: heating cold-worked steel (within 100oC

– 300oC) → carbides and nitrides are precipitated (on
dislocations) → impede movements of dislocations → ↗
hardness + ↘ toughness

• Other hardening mechanism: for boron steels → performing

special process based on assumption that interstitially-
dissolved boron atoms are likely to concentrate at grain
boundaries → affect formation of α in some ways

Steel and its heat treatment, Karl-Erik Thelning

31
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.2. Quenching
• Heating above A3 → fully γ → cool quickly for γ → M
(Body-centered tetragonal)

• During heating → avoid unintentional carburization or

decarburization (and severe oxidation)

• Cooling rates depend on used medium (water, oils,

gases…) for γ → M

• Basic requirements for hardening a steel by quenching:

• Adequate carbon content: for wear resistance →
%C may be larger than 1%
• Non equilibrium γ decomposition (otherwise →
tend to form coarse P which is relatively soft)
• Avoid cracking and excessive distortion during
quenching

• Hardenability: index of depth to which M can be formed

Steel and its heat treatment, Karl-Erik Thelning
in a steel 32
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.3. Tempering
• After quenching → normally have mixture of M + γ residual (both are
unstable), M is brittle + tends to develop quench cracks (if aged at Troom)

• Steels with simple M structure → little useful value → need tempering to ↗

properties of quenched steels (M: highly stressed supersaturated solid
solution of C in a distorted α lattice)

• Process: heating to T < eutectoid T (below A1) + hold for fixed length of time
+ cool to room T → allow diffusion (C out of α lattice and form fine Fe3C) +
more stable structure + less brittle

• ↗ tempering T → ↘ tensile stress + hardness, but ↗% of elongation

• Light shock applications (need max wear resistance ), like thin sheet
punching dies → tempering at 190°C to 250°C (reach 60 to 63 HRC)
• Heavy duty applications, like heavy shear blades → tempering between
540°C and 560°C (hardness of 52 to 56 HRC)
• Special steels may need double tempering
33
Engineering materials technology, W. Bolton
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
2.2. Heat treatment
2.2.4. Carburizing
• ↗ C content of surface layers + quenching → form M on surface
• Applying for steel, having < 0.2%C → create 0.7-0.8%C in surface layers
→ surface layers are hardened while inner core remains soft + tough
• In pack carburizing, steel heated above A3 in sealed metal box
(containing charcoal + BaCO3). O2 react with C → form CO → diffusing C
into surface γ layers. Mainly use for large components
• In gas carburizing, heating above A3 in furnace/in C-rich gas
environment → diffusing C into surface γ layers (most widely use)
• Salt bath carburizing: heating parts in bath of C-rich salts (mainly use
Sodium cyanide, NaCN) → diffusing C + N (from molten salt) into parts
→ hardened microstructure (thin layer with high C content). Problem
with (i) health and safety hazard since working with cyanide, and (ii)
removal of salt from hardened parts
• May result in large grain structure, may have poor impact properties →
Engineering materials technology, W. Bolton
might need heat treatment → grain refinement
• 2-stage process if C content on surface largely different form inner core
• First: heat above A3 (core < 0.2% C)+ quench in oil → fine grain (core) + coarse M (in surface layers)
• Second: heat above A1 (surface 0.9% C)+ water quench → little effect on core but refining M in surface layers
• (Can add low T tempering for relieving internal stress) 34
 Chapter 2: Ferrous alloys
Further reading
• Crystal structure of metals
• Defects in crystal structures (ex. Point defects in metals, Impurities in Solids, Dislocations)
• Strengthening of metal
• More on binary phase diagram
• Phase transformation

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