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KERR EFFECT EXPERIMENTATION KERR EFFECT

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 KERR EFFECT EXPERIMENTATION

by

Muhammad Mustafa Dastageer

2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

Supervised by:
Dr. Umber Kalsoom

2023
_____________________________________

Department of Physics
University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
 KERR EFFECT

History
The Kerr effect, named after the Scottish physicist John Kerr, is a phenomenon observed in

optics and electromagnetism. It refers to the nonlinear optical response of a material to an

applied electric field. In 1875 Kerr discovered that a glass plate to which a strong electric field

was applied became birefractive. His first publication on what came to be known as the Kerr

electro-optic effect [1].

Background
The Kerr effect occurs in materials that lack inversion symmetry, meaning that their crystal

structure or molecular arrangement is asymmetrical. When an electric field is applied to such

a material, the electric field induces a polarization in the material, causing its refractive index

to change. The nonlinear Kerr effect is characterized by a nonlinear relationship between the

refractive index change and the applied electric field. The induced polarization is proportional

to the square of the electric field strength. This effect is much stronger and is observed in

materials such as certain crystals and semiconductors.

Introduction
Monochromatic, vertically polarized light impinges on a PLZT element (lead-lanthanum-

zirconium-titanium compound) which is set in its holder at 45° to the vertical. An electric field

is applied to the PLZT element and causes it to become birefractive. The phase-shift between

the normal and the extraordinary light beam behind the PLZT element is recorded as a function

of the applied voltage and it is shown that the phase-shift is proportional to the square of the

electric field strength respectively of the voltage applied. From the constant of the

proportionality the Kerr constant is calculated for the PLZT element.

The process where the change in refractive index is proportional to the square of the electric

field is called the Kerr effect. (An analogous process where the change is proportional to the

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

electric field is called Pockel's effect and only occurs in anisotropic media.) The Kerr effect,

also called the quadratic electro-optic effect (QEO effect).

Two special cases of the Kerr effect are normally considered, these being the Kerr electro-optic

effect, or DC Kerr effect, and the optical Kerr effect, or AC Kerr effect [2].

Kerr electro-optic effect

All materials show a Kerr effect, but certain liquids display it more strongly than others. Some

polar liquids, such as nitrotoluene (C7 H7 NO2 ) and nitrobenzene (C6 H5 NO2 ) exhibit very large

Kerr constants [3], [4]. Higher values of the Kerr constant allow complete transmission to be

achieved with a smaller applied electric field. A glass cell filled with one of these liquids is

called a Kerr cell. These are frequently used to modulate light, since the Kerr effect responds

very quickly to changes in electric field. Light can be modulated with these devices at

frequencies as high as 10 GHz. Because the Kerr effect is relatively weak, a typical Kerr cell

may require voltages as high as 30 kV to achieve complete transparency. This is in contrast to

Pockels cells, which can operate at much lower voltages. Another disadvantage of Kerr cells

is that the best available material, nitrobenzene, is poisonous. Some transparent crystals have

also been used for Kerr modulation, although they have smaller Kerr constants [5].

Problem

1. The phase-shift between the normal and the extra-ordinary light beam is to be recorded for

different voltages applied to the PLZT-element respectively for different electric field

strengs.The half-wave voltage U is to be determined.

2. By plotting the square of the applied voltage versus the phase shift between normal and

extraordinary beam it is to be shown that the relation between the two quantities is

approximately linear. From the slope of the straight line the Kerr constant is to be calculated.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Experimentation
Equipment:

Apparatus Quantity

Kerr cell, PLZT-element 1

High voltage supply unit, 0-10 kV 1

Laser, He-Ne 1.0 mw, 220 V AC 1

Polarising filter, on stem 2

Optical profile bench l = 60 cm 1

Base f.opt.profile-bench, adjust 2

Slide mount f.opt.pr.-bench, h 30 mm 5

Photoelement f. opt. base plt 1

Measuring amplifier 1

Digital multimeter 2

Screened cable, BNC, l 750 mm 1

Adapter, BNC-socket/4 mm plug pair 1

Connecting cord, 750 mm, red 3

Connecting cord, 750 mm, blue 2

Set up and Procedure

The experiment for the demonstration of the Kerr effect is set up as shown in Fig. 1. The PLZT

element is connected directly to the HV power supply whose voltage can be altered between 0

and 1000 Volt with a sufficiently high precision by using a digital voltmeter branched in

parallel to the HV power supply. Do not exceed 1000 V; this will damage the PLZT element.

The light source is He/Ne laser, the power of which is 1 mW. Caution: Never look directly into

a non-attenuated laser beam.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up for demonstrating the Kerr-effect

Important: Before performing any measurement of luminous intensity the He/Ne laser has to

be switched on for about 20 minutes to reach its equilibrium in power emission.

1. The experiment is set up and aligned, as in Fig. 1.

2. Turn on the laser for about 20 minutes.

3. Adjust the voltage to zero and wait for one minute

4. Take down the I0 value. (When both polarizer and analyzer are at 0°.

5. Turn the analyzer to 90°, clockwise.

6. Adjust the voltage to 300 V. (a) count for 5 sec and record the output voltage from the

voltmeter. (b) reduce the voltage to zero and wait for 1 minute.

7. Increase the voltage in steps of 25V, from 300V until 1000V, and tabulate your

measurements as shown on page 7. Repeat step 6 a, b for every change in voltage.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

As can be seen from Fig. 1, the light from the He/Ne laser which is vertically polarized on

passing through the polarizer, impinges on the PLZT element which is set in its holder at 45°

to the vertical. The incident linearly polarized wave can be regarded as the superimposition of

two “in phase” oscillating waves which are polarized, one perpendicularly and the other

parallel, to the PLZT element and to the electric field that is applied to the PLZT element.

The two light waves pass through the PLZT element at different speeds. The light wave which

oscillates parallel to the electric field of the PLZT element is delayed relative to the light wave

which oscillates perpendicularly to the applied electric field of the PLZT element. This

produces a phase difference between the two waves and the light which has passed through the

Kerr cell (PLZT element) will be elliptically polarized. This results in the analyzer, which is

located behind the Kerr cell at 90° to the polarizer, no longer being able to extinguish the

polarized light.

For a phase difference between the two waves of λ/2 a linear polarized wave results from the

superimposition of the two waves after they have passed through the PLZT element.

This linearly polarized wave is turned by 90° with respect to the direction of incidence, e.g.

with respect to the vertical. The applied voltage is therefore called the “half-wave voltage”. In

this case the light intensity behind the analyzer which is at an angle of 90° to the polarizer will

show a maximum.

A silicon photodiode with amplifier is used as the detector for the luminous intensity behind

the analyzer.

The PLZT element used in this experiment has the advantage that the birefraction, represented

by the Kerr constant, is more than two orders of magnitude larger than for nitrobenzene and

voltages of a few hundred volts are sufficient in order to study the electro-optical effects of the

ceramic element. This one is transparent for wavelengths from 0.4 to 5.6 µm. Its chemical

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

compositions here described by the formula Pb 0.9125 La 0.0875 Zr 0.65 Ti 0.3503. With

regard to the transmission of light the PLZT element behaves like a transparent polycrystal.

For λ = 633 nm its transition ratio is more than 60%. With respect to an applied electric field,

it behaves like a ferromagnetic substance which is submitted to a magnetic field. Within the

PLZT element there are already prepolarized domains which grow or which are reoriented by

the applied electric field. In this way, the element becomes optically anisotropic respectively

birefractive. Regarding the above mentioned electro-optical modulation, it should be pointed

out that the element can deal with modulation frequencies of up to 100 kHz.

Fig. 2: Cross-section of PLZT element [6].

Fig. 2 shows a cross-section of the PLZT element. The active element 1 of the modulator is a

parallelpiped of height = 8 mm, length = 1.5 mm and width = 1.4 mm. The width represents

the distance between the electrodes. The electric field strength is given by the ratio of voltage

applied over the distance between the electrodes. The path of the light beam within the element

is equal to the length of the element. Active element (1) is encapsulated using silicon hermetics

(2) an isolating ring (3) and glued between two glass plates (4). As optical glue (5) Canadian

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

balsam was used. Wire (6) are fixed on the electrode faces of the element and connected with

BNC socket on frame (7).

Method of analysis

The light wave, whose field vector oscillates parallel to the electric field, is called the

extraordinary beam whereas the wave oscillating perpendicular to the field is known as the

normal beam. If the corresponding refractive indices are designated by 𝑛𝑎𝑜 and 𝑛𝑜 and l is the

distance in the PLZT element covered by the light, then there is a difference in optical paths

for the two waves of

𝑙(𝑛𝑎𝑜 − 𝑛𝑜 )

This corresponds to a phase displacement of

l
∆= 2π (nao − no ) (1)
λ
Where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light in vacuum. (Here: 𝝀 = 632.8 nm)
It can also be shown that the phase displacement is proportional to length I and the square of

polarization P. If we anticipate that the polarization is a linear function of the electric field

strength E and the proportionality factor is designated by 2πk, then the following relation is

obtained:

∆= 2πKlE 2 (2)
K is kerr constant.
E can be expressed by the applied voltage V and the inter-electrode distance d
V
E= (3)
d

The luminous intensity I behind the analyzer is obtained for the given experimental apparatus

(polarizer and analyzer crossed and at 45° to the electric field on the PLZT element) from the

relationship (1):

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Δ
I = Io sin2 (4)
2
𝐼𝑜 is the luminous behind the analyser when the polarizer and the analyser are aligned in the

same direction and the electric field on the PLZT element is zero. After substituting (2) in (4)

and using (3), the followings is obtained:

πKlV 2
I = Io sin2 (5)
d2
Solving the equation for V 2 gives:

d2 I
V2 = sin−1 √ (6)
πKl Io

From eq (2)

I
Δ = 2 sin−1 √ (7)
Io

Substitute (7) in (6)

d2
V2 = Δ (8)
2πKl
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 (9)
Compare (8) and (9)
𝑦 = 𝑉2
𝑥=Δ
d2
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = (10)
2πKl
By plotting V 2 against Δ an approximately straight line is obtained and the Kerr constant can

be derived from its slope, because the geometrical dimensions l and d for the Kerr cell (PLZT

element) are known.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Results and Discussion

1. The relative luminous intensity behind the analyser is measured as a function of the

voltage V applied to the PLZT element.

Tab1e 1 shows the experimentally measured values. The corresponding graphic is shown

in Fig. 3. The phase shift is clearly indicated as well as the voltages for which maxima and

minima of luminous intensity are observed. At a voltage of 615 Volt the luminous intensity

reaches a maximum for the first time. In this case the normal and extraordinary beam are

phase-shifted by 180°. 615 Volt is therefore the “half-wave voltage”. It is a function of the

PLZT element composition and of the temperature.

2. In Fig. 4 the square of the voltage applied to the PLZT element is represented as a

function of the phase-shift between normal and extraordinary beam. By linear

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 2
regression a straight line was found whose slope is 1.9 × 103 . Using Equ. (6)
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

m
we find with I = 1.5 mm and d = 1.4 mm a value of 2.0 × 10−9 volt2 for the Kerr

constant of this element.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Table 1: Voltage V across the PLZT-element, light intensity I behind the analyzer and phase

shift ∆ between normal and extraordinary beam. Measured maximum current Io =0.881 µA.

Voltage Square Intensity Relative Phase shift (∆) Phase shift Phase shift
(V) Voltage (I) luminous (∆) (∆)
𝑰
(V2) intensity ∆= 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 √ measured Actual
𝐈 𝑰𝒐
(𝐈)
𝐨
Volts [Volts]2 [µA] [Degree] [Degree] [Degree]
300 90000 0.042 0.047673099 25.225 25.225 25.225
350 122500 0.044 0.049943246 25.829 25.829 25.829
400 160000 0.055 0.062429058 28.940 28.940 28.940
450 202500 0.088 0.099886493 36.851 36.851 36.851
500 250000 0.148 0.167990919 48.396 48.396 48.396
550 302500 0.256 0.290578888 65.243 65.243 65.243
600 360000 0.387 0.439273553 83.030 83.030 83.030
650 422500 0.590 0.66969353 109.848 109.848 109.848
700 490000 0.694 0.787741203 125.143 125.143 125.143
750 562500 0.740 0.839954597 132.846 132.846 132.846
800 640000 0.697 0.791146425 125.621 125.621 234.379(360-∆)
850 722500 0.465 0.527809308 93.195 93.195 266.805(360-∆)
900 810000 0.199 0.225879682 56.758 56.758 303.242(360-∆)
950 902500 0.180 0.20431328 53.749 53.749 306.250(360-∆)
1000 1000000 0.441 0.500567537 90.072 90.072 450.072(360+∆)
1050 1102500 0.640 0.726447219 116.938 116.938 476.938(360+∆)
1100 1210000 0.568 0.6447219 106.832 106.832 613.167(720-∆)
𝑰
Phase Shift [D] Calculated Phase shift using: 𝚫 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏
𝑰𝒐
25 26 29 37 48 65 83 110 125 133 234 267 303 306 450 477 613
1.0 1.0

0.9 0.9
Relative Intensity Strength [I/Io]

Relative Intensity Strength [I/Io]

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0
HWV 754.05884 volts HWV 1050 volts
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Voltage [V]

Figure 3: Relative luminous intensity I/I0 behind the analyzer as a function of the voltage U

applied to the PLZT element and the phase-shift ∆ between normal and extraordinary beam.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

I
Plot the graph of vs V (volt) in Fig. 3 indicate clearly the phase shift as well as the voltages
Io

for which maxima and minima of luminous intensity are observed. Determine the voltage at

which the luminous intensity reaches a maximum for the first time. At this voltage the normal

and extraordinary beam are phase-shifted by 180°. It is therefore the ″half wave voltage″

(HWV). The experimentally determined value of HWV is 754 volts. It is a function of the

PLZT element composition and of the temperature. As applied voltage greater than half wave

voltage, horizontally wave again start turning to vertical orientation. Hence intensity of light

start reducing as seen in detector.

When Polarizer at 0°, V=0 (At PLZT), Analyser at 0°, Then Intensity of light is maximum

(Io = 0.881 µA) detected on detector and corresponding measurement of current (µA) on

multi-meter.

When Polarizer at 0°, V=0 (At PLZT), Analyser at 90° (Condition is called cross condition),

then Intensity of light is minimum detected on detector and corresponding measurement of

current is minimum (µA) on multi-meter.

When Polarizer at 0°, V=300 volts (At PLZT), Analyser at 90° (Condition is called cross

condition), then current is minimum corresponding to minimum intensity of light.

At 0° phase shift there is linearly (vertically) polarized light. At 90° phase shift we get circular

polarized light. At 180° phase shift there is linearly (horizontally) polarized light. At phase

shift of other than mentioned angle there is elliptical polarized light.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Phase shift [D]

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Experimental measured values V2 vs D

1200000 Line of best fit 1200000

Equation y = a + b*x
Intercept 173803.84012 ± 30525.44219
1000000 Slope 1919.24976 ± 115.85142 1000000
Square voltage [V2]

Square voltage [V2]

800000 𝐝𝟐 800000
𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 =
𝟐𝛑𝐊𝐥
Dimensions of Kerr cell:
600000 600000
d=1.4 mm l=1.5 mm
(𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )𝟐
𝐊=
400000 (𝟏. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )(𝟑𝟔𝟎)(𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) 400000
𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝐊=
𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔
200000 200000
−𝟗
𝐦
𝐊 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭 𝟐
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Phase shift [D]

Figure 4: Square of the voltage applied to the PLZT-element as a function of the phase-shift

between normal and extraordinary beam.

Note Kerr constant value may vary for different histories and different elements. Higher the

value of Kerr constant indicates that the cut-off voltage is less (means voltage require to

transmit light is less).

Applications
Kerr Electro-optic Effect: The Kerr effect is also used in Kerr electro-optic devices, where

an applied electric field induces a change in the refractive index of a material, allowing the

modulation and control of light. Kerr electro-optic devices, such as modulators and switches,

are employed in telecommunications, optical signal processing, and laser systems .

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

All-optical switching: All-optical switches based on the Kerr effect can operate at ultrafast

speeds, as the response of the Kerr effect is typically on the order of picoseconds or

femtoseconds. This makes them highly suitable for high-speed optical communication systems,

where data transmission rates are continuously increasing [7].

Optical Kerr Effect Microscopy: The optical Kerr effect can be utilized in microscopy

techniques to study the properties of materials. Optical Kerr effect microscopy measures the

change in the polarization state of light as it passes through a sample under an applied electric

field. This technique provides valuable information about the molecular orientation and

dynamics of the sample, making it useful in materials science, chemical analysis, and biological

imaging [8].

Viva voice

Question 1

Why PLZT crystal placed at 45 degree?

Answer:
If PLZT is not at 45 degree the switching of the cell will still work as I checked it

experimentally (Switching means, when the phase shift becomes 180 degree or its integral

multiple the light on the detector becomes on/off) means phase shift still takes place, but not

so effectively perhaps and the half wave voltage will be increased perhaps. Because in that case

we will not be able to take effective advantage of anisotropy associated to PLZT crystal.

Question 2

What is indicated by Kerr constant?

Answer

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

 KERR EFFECT

Kerr constant also known as the electro-optic coefficient indicates the strength of the Kerr

effect in a material. Higher values of the Kerr constant allow complete transmission to be

achieved with a smaller applied electric field. Subsequently, high kerr constant means

relatively low voltage are enough to pass the light from Kerrcell.

Question 3
What are the limitations of using nitrobenzene as Kerr cell?
Answer
Nitrobenzene, is poisonous and injurious to health. It classified as a toxic compound and should

be handled with appropriate safety measures.

References

[1] Dave Hutchings, “Kerr Cell - The birth of optoelectronics.”

http://web.eng.gla.ac.uk/groups/opto/Kerr.html (accessed Jun. 07, 2023).

[2] Rudiger poschotta, “Kerr effect.” https://www.rp-photonics.com/kerr_effect.html (accessed

Jun. 07, 2023).

[3] H. I. Takechi and K. Arii, “Three-Dimensional Electric Field Vector Measurements in

Nitrobenzene Using Kerr Effect,” Jpn J Appl Phys, vol. 33, no. 4R, p. 2066, 1994, doi:
10.1143/JJAP.33.2066.

[4] J Philip and T A Prasada Rao, “A high-voltage pulse measuring system based on the Kerr
effect,” Meas Sci Technol, vol. 2, no. 6, p. 565, 1991, doi: 10.1088/0957-0233/2/6/014.

[5] M. Moreno, “Kerr Effect,” 2018.

[6] “LEP 2.6.02 Kerr effect.”

[7] P. Weinberger, “John Kerr and his effects found in 1877 and 1878,” Philos Mag Lett, vol. 88,
no. 12, pp. 897–907, Dec. 2008, doi: 10.1080/09500830802526604.

[8] D G Tyson and B R Jennings, “Measurement of the ‘optical’ Kerr effect induced by
nanosecond laser pulses,” J Phys D Appl Phys, vol. 24, no. 5, p. 645, 1991, doi: 10.1088/0022-
3727/24/5/001.

Muhammad Mustafa Department of Physics UET, Lahore 2022-Ph.D-Phy-08

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