Material Science (KOE042) NOTES Unit-2

UNIT-II

Ferrous Alloys:

The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram – phases, invariant reactions – microstructure of slowly

cooled steels – eutectoid steel, hypo and hypereutectoid steels – effect of alloying elements on
the Fe-C system – diffusion in solids – Fick’s laws – phase transformations – T-T-T-diagram
for eutectoid steel – pearlitic, baintic and martensitic transformations – tempering of martensite
– steels – stainless steels – cast irons.

1. THE IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM: T

The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram, also known as the iron-carbon phase diagram or simply
the Fe-C diagram, is a graphical representation that illustrates the various phases and their
compositions that can exist in an iron-carbon alloy system at equilibrium as a function of
temperature and carbon content. The Fe-C diagram is of significant importance in the field of
metallurgy and materials science, particularly in the understanding and control of steel
microstructures and properties. It provides essential information about the phase
transformations that occur in iron-carbon alloys during cooling or heating processes, and helps
determine the resulting microstructure and mechanical properties.

The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is important for several reasons:

1) Phase Transformation Understanding: The diagram provides a visual representation of

the phase transformations that occur during cooling or heating of iron-carbon alloys. It
helps predict the microstructure that will form at different temperatures and carbon
contents.
2) Microstructure Control: By manipulating the cooling rate and alloy composition, the
iron-carbon diagram aids in controlling the microstructure of steels. This control allows for
the production of materials with specific mechanical properties, such as hardness, strength,
toughness, and ductility.
3) Heat Treatment Design: The diagram is used to design heat treatment processes, such as
annealing, quenching, and tempering, to achieve desired microstructures and properties in
steel. Heat treatments can be tailored to alter the phase proportions, refine grain structures,
and enhance mechanical properties.
4) Material Selection: The Fe-C diagram assists in selecting appropriate steel grades for
specific applications. By understanding the relationships between composition,
microstructure, and properties, engineers can choose steels with optimal combinations of
strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and other desired characteristics.

In summary, the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is a fundamental tool for understanding and
manipulating the microstructure and properties of iron-carbon alloys, particularly steels. Its

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Material Science (KOE042) NOTES Unit-2

application extends to fields such as materials engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, and the
design of structural components and machinery.

The phases of the iron-carbon (Fe-C) diagram, also known as the iron-carbon equilibrium
diagram, represent the different combinations of iron and carbon compositions that can exist at
equilibrium under specific temperature conditions. The diagram is primarily used to understand
the behavior of steels, which are iron-carbon alloys with small amounts of other alloying
elements.

The phases depicted in the Fe-C diagram include:

Ferrite (α-iron):

• Ferrite is a solid solution of carbon in body-centered cubic (BCC) iron.

• It has a maximum solubility of about 0.022% carbon at 727°C (1341°F) and decreases
with decreasing temperature.
• Ferrite is a relatively soft and ductile phase.

Austenite (γ-iron):

• Austenite is a solid solution of carbon in face-centered cubic (FCC) iron.

• It forms at high temperatures above 912°C (1674°F) and is stable up to the A3
temperature.
• Austenite has a higher carbon solubility than ferrite, with a maximum solubility of
about 2.14% carbon at 1147°C (2097°F).
• It is non-magnetic and has a relatively high strength and toughness compared to ferrite.

Cementite (iron carbide, Fe₃C):

• Cementite is an iron carbide compound with a fixed composition of 6.67% carbon.

• It is a hard and brittle phase that exists as a distinct compound in the Fe-C system.
• Cementite is often found as a second phase in steels and forms in eutectoid and
hypereutectoid compositions.

Pearlite:

• Pearlite is a lamellar microstructure consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and

cementite.
• It forms during the eutectoid reaction in the Fe-C system.
• Pearlite is a common microstructure in many steels and exhibits improved strength and
hardness compared to ferrite.

Apart from these primary phases, the Fe-C diagram also provides information about other
regions, such as the eutectoid and hypoeutectoid/ hypereutectoid regions, as well as the

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temperature ranges associated with specific transformations, such as the eutectoid temperature
(727°C or 1341°F).

The Fe-C diagram is divided into three regions: the ferrite region, the austenite region, and the
cementite region. Each region corresponds to specific temperature and carbon content ranges.

a) Ferrite Region:

The ferrite region is located at low carbon concentrations and lower temperatures. Ferrite is a
solid solution of carbon in body-centered cubic (BCC) iron. It has relatively low strength and
hardness but is ductile and magnetic. The maximum solubility of carbon in ferrite is about
0.022% at 727°C (1341°F). As the temperature decreases or the carbon content increases
beyond the solubility limit, ferrite transforms into other phases.

b) Austenite Region:

The austenite region is located at higher temperatures and higher carbon concentrations.
Austenite is a solid solution of carbon in face-centered cubic (FCC) iron. It is non-magnetic
and has higher strength and toughness compared to ferrite. The maximum solubility of carbon

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in austenite is about 2.14% at 1147°C (2097°F). Austenite is stable at high temperatures but
transforms into other phases as the temperature decreases.

c) Cementite Region:

The cementite region corresponds to high carbon concentrations. Cementite (Fe₃C) is a

compound consisting of iron and carbon with a fixed composition of 6.67% carbon. It is a hard
and brittle phase that often exists as a second phase in steels.

Phase Transformations in the Fe-C Diagram:

a) Eutectoid Reaction:

At the eutectoid composition of 0.76% carbon and the eutectoid temperature of 727°C
(1341°F), the eutectoid reaction occurs. It involves the transformation of austenite into a
mixture of ferrite and cementite, forming a microstructure known as pearlite. Pearlite consists
of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite and is a common microstructure in many steels.

b) Eutectic Reaction:

At the eutectic composition of 4.30% carbon and the eutectic temperature of 1147°C (2097°F),
the eutectic reaction occurs. It involves the simultaneous solidification of austenite into two
phases: austenite and cementite. The resulting microstructure consists of a network of
cementite embedded in an austenitic matrix.

c) Peritectic Reaction:

The peritectic reaction involves the combination of solid austenite and cementite to form a
single-phase austenite. The composition of the peritectic reaction varies with temperature, and
the transformation occurs at the peritectic temperature.

d) Eutectoid Cementite Transformation:

The eutectoid cementite transformation occurs at a composition of 6.67% carbon and a

temperature of 1130°C (2066°F). It involves the conversion of cementite into austenite.

These phase transformations and reactions in the Fe-C diagram play a crucial role in
determining the microstructure and properties of steels. By controlling the cooling rate and
alloy composition during heat treatment, it is possible to manipulate the phase transformations
and obtain desired microstructures and properties in steels.

2. INVARIANT REACTION:
In the iron-carbon (Fe-C) equilibrium diagram, there are several invariant reactions that
involve the simultaneous transformation of one phase into two or more phases at a fixed
temperature and composition. These invariant reactions play a significant role in

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determining the microstructure and properties of steels. Let's discuss some of the important
invariant reactions in the Fe-C diagram:

a) Eutectoid Reaction:
• Composition: 0.76% Carbon
• Temperature: 727°C (1341°F)
• Phases Involved: Austenite → Pearlite
The eutectoid reaction occurs at the eutectoid composition of 0.76% carbon and the
eutectoid temperature of 727°C (1341°F). It involves the transformation of austenite into
a mixture of ferrite and cementite, known as pearlite. During this reaction, the carbon
diffuses out of the austenite to form cementite, while the remaining iron forms ferrite. The
resulting microstructure of pearlite consists of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite,
giving it a characteristic lamellar appearance.

b) Eutectic Reaction:
• Composition: 4.30% Carbon
• Temperature: 1147°C (2097°F)
• Phases Involved: Austenite → Austenite + Cementite
The eutectic reaction occurs at the eutectic composition of 4.30% carbon and the eutectic
temperature of 1147°C (2097°F). It involves the simultaneous solidification of austenite
into two phases: austenite and cementite. The resulting microstructure consists of a
network of cementite embedded in an austenitic matrix.

c) Peritectic Reaction:
• Composition: Varies with temperature
• Phases Involved: Austenite + Cementite → Austenite
The peritectic reaction occurs when solid austenite and cementite combine to form a
single-phase austenite. The composition of the peritectic reaction varies with temperature,
and the transformation occurs at the peritectic temperature.

d) Eutectoid Cementite Transformation:

• Composition: 6.67% Carbon
• Temperature: 1130°C (2066°F)
• Phases Involved: Cementite → Austenite
The eutectoid cementite transformation involves the conversion of cementite into
austenite. This reaction occurs at a composition of 6.67% carbon and a temperature of
1130°C (2066°F). It is a high-temperature transformation, and upon cooling, the austenite
can subsequently undergo the eutectoid reaction to form pearlite.

These invariant reactions are crucial for understanding the phase transformations that
occur during heat treatment and processing of steels. They determine the resulting
microstructure and properties of the material. The control of heat treatment parameters,

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such as temperature and cooling rate, allows for the manipulation of these reactions,
resulting in the desired microstructure and properties of the final steel product.

It's important to note that the invariant reactions mentioned above represent only a subset
of the complex phase transformations that can occur in the Fe-C system. The Fe-C diagram
also includes regions where partial transformations and solid solution phases exist, which
contribute to the diversity of microstructures and properties observed in different steel
compositions and heat treatment conditions.
3. MICROSTRUCTURE OF SLOWLY COOLED STEELS
When steels are slowly cooled, the microstructure that forms are primarily determined by
the phase transformations that occur during cooling. Let's discuss the microstructure and
phase transformations in slowly cooled steels:

Ferrite-pearlite Microstructure:
The microstructure that typically forms in slowly cooled steels is known as ferrite-pearlite.
As the steel cools, the first phase transformation that occurs is the eutectoid reaction, where
austenite transforms into pearlite. Pearlite is a lamellar structure consisting of alternating
layers of ferrite and cementite. The ferrite phase is a solid solution of carbon in iron, while
the cementite phase is an iron carbide (Fe₃C).

In the ferrite-pearlite microstructure, the ferrite phase forms as the primary phase,
surrounding the pearlite colonies. The amount and distribution of pearlite in the
microstructure depend on factors such as the carbon content of the steel, the cooling rate,
and the time allowed for the transformation to occur. Higher carbon content and slower
cooling rates result in increased pearlite content.

The ferrite phase in the microstructure is relatively soft, ductile, and has lower strength
compared to pearlite. On the other hand, pearlite provides increased hardness, strength,
and wear resistance to the steel.

Bainite Microstructure:
In addition to ferrite-pearlite, another microstructure that can form during slow cooling is
bainite. Bainite is a fine-grained microstructure composed of ferrite and a small amount of
cementite. It forms at temperatures between those required for pearlite and martensite
formation.

The formation of bainite involves the diffusion of carbon and the rearrangement of the
crystal structure. The fine-grained nature of bainite gives it improved strength and
toughness compared to pearlite. It is often desired in certain applications where a balance
between strength and ductility is required.

Martensite Transformation:

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If the cooling rate is sufficiently rapid, the austenite can transform into martensite, a hard
and brittle phase. Martensite formation occurs without diffusion, resulting in a highly
strained and supersaturated structure. The high hardness and strength of martensite make
it desirable for applications requiring high wear resistance and hardness, but it is relatively
brittle.

During the cooling of steels, it's important to note that the phase transformations are time
and temperature-dependent. The rate of cooling affects the microstructure formed, as faster
cooling rates tend to favour the formation of harder phases like martensite, while slower
cooling rates favour the formation of softer phases like ferrite and pearlite.

Overall, the microstructure of slowly cooled steels is primarily characterized by ferrite-

pearlite, with the possibility of bainite formation depending on the cooling conditions.
Understanding these microstructural features and the associated phase transformations is
crucial for tailoring the properties of steels to meet specific requirements in various
applications.
DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN Fe-C DIAGRAM:
A. Eutectoid Alloys:

Eutectoid steel is a type of steel that undergoes a specific phase transformation known
as the eutectoid reaction. It refers to an iron-carbon alloy with a specific composition
at which the eutectoid reaction occurs during cooling. The eutectoid composition of
steel is approximately 0.76% carbon.

At high temperatures above the eutectoid temperature (approximately 727°C or

1341°F), the microstructure of eutectoid steel consists of a single phase called austenite
(refer point ‘a’ in figure). Austenite is a solid solution of carbon in iron with a face-
centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure. As the temperature of the eutectoid steel
decreases, nucleation sites form within the austenite. These sites act as starting points
for the formation of cementite, which is an iron carbide (Fe₃C) phase rich in carbon.
The nucleation of cementite occurs heterogeneously at impurities, grain boundaries, or
other defects within the material. Once nucleation occurs, the cementite particles start
to grow within the austenite matrix. This growth process involves the diffusion of
carbon atoms from the surrounding austenite to the growing cementite particles. As a
result, the carbon content in the austenite decreases.

As the carbon diffuses out of the austenite, the remaining iron-rich matrix transforms
into ferrite, which is a solid solution of carbon in iron with a body-centered cubic
(BCC) crystal structure. This transformation occurs via a diffusion-controlled process.
The transformation of austenite to ferrite continues until the carbon concentration in
the remaining austenite reaches the eutectoid composition (approximately 0.76%
carbon). The growth of cementite and the transformation to ferrite occur
simultaneously, resulting in the formation of a lamellar microstructure known as
pearlite (refer point ‘b’ in figure). Pearlite consists of alternate layers of ferrite and
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cementite. The formation of pearlite is completed when all the remaining austenite has
transformed into ferrite and cementite.

Eutectoid steel has a balanced combination of strength and ductility due to the presence
of pearlite in its microstructure. The ferrite phase provides ductility and toughness,
while the cementite phase contributes to hardness and wear resistance. The proportion
and size of the pearlite in the microstructure can be influenced by factors such as the
cooling rate, time allowed for transformation, and alloying elements present in the
steel.

Eutectoid steel is widely used in various applications, including automotive

components, machinery parts, tools, and construction materials. Its properties can be
further enhanced by heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering, which
can refine the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of the steel. It's
important to note that eutectoid steel is just one type of steel within the broader
classification of steels. Steels can have different compositions and undergo various
phase transformations depending on their carbon content and the presence of alloying
elements.

B. Hypereutectoid Alloys:

Hyper eutectoid steel is a type of steel that contains a carbon content higher than the
eutectoid composition, which is approximately 0.76% carbon. In hyper eutectoid
steels, the carbon content typically ranges from 0.76% to around 2.14% carbon.

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At elevated temperatures, on point ‘g’, above the eutectoid temperature (900°C), the
microstructure of the hypereutectoid alloy consists of a single phase called austenite.
Austenite is a solid solution of carbon in face-centered cubic (FCC) iron. As the alloy
cools below the eutectoid temperature, nucleation of the new phases begins.
Nucleation sites form where carbon atoms begin to cluster and arrange themselves to
create small particles of cementite (Fe₃C) at point ‘h’. Once nucleation occurs, the
cementite particles grow and continue to form. The growth of cementite proceeds by
the diffusion of carbon atoms from the surrounding austenite, which gradually depletes
the carbon concentration in the austenite matrix. As carbon atoms diffuse out of the
austenite, the remaining iron-rich matrix transforms into a mixture of cementite and a
ferrite-rich phase. The ferrite-rich phase consists of a solid solution of carbon in iron
with a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure.

The transformation starts at the austenite grain boundaries and progresses inward,
leading to the formation of cementite along the boundaries and ferrite in the interior.
The amount of cementite formed increases with higher carbon content in the alloy. It's
important to note that the transformation of hypereutectoid alloys occurs at a lower
temperature compared to the eutectoid transformation in hypoeutectoid alloys.

The mechanical properties of hyper eutectoid steel are influenced by the presence of
cementite. Cementite is a hard and brittle phase, which can contribute to increased
hardness and wear resistance of the steel. However, it can also reduce ductility and
toughness. The distribution, size, and morphology of the cementite particles within the
matrix play a crucial role in determining the overall properties of the steel.

Hyper eutectoid steels find applications in areas where high hardness and wear
resistance are desired, such as in the production of cutting tools, bearings, and gears.
Heat treatment processes, such as quenching and tempering, can be applied to further
refine the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of hyper eutectoid
steels.It's important to note that the specific composition and properties of hyper
eutectoid steel can vary depending on the alloying elements present and the specific
heat treatment applied.

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C. Hypoeutectoiod Alloys:

A hypoeutectoid alloy refers to an alloy system in which the composition lies below
the eutectoid composition. In the context of the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system, a
hypoeutectoid alloy contains less than 0.76% carbon. Initially, as the temperature
decreases, the liquid steel begins to solidify. The primary phase that forms during
solidification is ferrite. The ferrite phase starts nucleating and growing throughout the
liquid steel. As the temperature continues to decrease, the remaining liquid steel
composition approaches the eutectoid composition. At a specific temperature known
as the eutectoid temperature (727°C or 1341°F for plain carbon steels), a eutectoid
reaction occurs. This reaction involves the transformation of the remaining austenite
into a mixture of ferrite and a new phase called proeutectoid cementite. The ferrite that
presents in the pearlite is called ‘Eutectoid Ferrite’, whereas the other ferrite present in
microstructure is known as proeutectoid ferrite.

Proeutectoid cementite forms as a result of the eutectoid reaction and is present as

discrete particles within the ferrite matrix. Its formation is dependent on the cooling
rate and the carbon content of the steel. The proeutectoid cementite particles act as
nucleation sites for further transformations. As the cooling continues, the proeutectoid
cementite particles act as nucleation sites for the growth of pearlite. Pearlite is a
lamellar microstructure consisting of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. The
growth of pearlite occurs through the diffusion of carbon atoms from the proeutectoid
cementite into the surrounding ferrite matrix.

The microstructure of a hypoeutectoid alloy consists of ferrite as the major phase and
a dispersed phase of cementite. The exact distribution and morphology of cementite
depend on factors such as the cooling rate, time allowed for transformation, and
alloying elements present in the system. Hypoeutectoid alloys often exhibit improved

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ductility and toughness compared to eutectoid and hypereutectoid alloys. This is

because the presence of ferrite, which is a relatively ductile phase, contributes to the
overall mechanical properties of the alloy. The dispersed cementite particles can
provide strengthening, hardness, and wear resistance.

Hypoeutectoid alloys are commonly used in various engineering applications,

including structural steels, automotive components, and machinery parts. By adjusting
the carbon content and alloying elements, it is possible to control the mechanical
properties and tailor the microstructure of hypoeutectoid alloys to meet specific
requirements in different industries.

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4. INFLUENCE OF OTHER ALLOYING ELEMNTS ON Fe-C DIAGRAM

Alloying elements have a significant impact on the properties and microstructure of the
iron-carbon (Fe-C) system. They can alter the phase transformations, solubility of carbon,
and mechanical properties of steels. The addition of other alloying elements shifts the
position of eutectoid with respect to the temperature and %C as well as shown in figure.

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Here are some common alloying elements and their effects on the Fe-C system:
Manganese (Mn):
• Manganese is a commonly used alloying element in steels.
• It increases the hardenability of steels, allowing for deeper and more uniform
hardening during heat treatment.
• Manganese also enhances the strength and toughness of steels by solid solution
strengthening and grain refinement.
• It promotes the formation of fine-grained ferrite and reduces the transformation
temperature for pearlite formation.
Nickel (Ni):
• Nickel is known for its ability to increase the strength and toughness of steels,
particularly at low temperatures.
• It stabilizes the austenite phase and increases the hardenability of steels.
• Nickel also improves resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
• In some high-nickel alloys, such as austenitic stainless steels, nickel promotes the
formation of an austenitic microstructure.
Chromium (Cr):
• Chromium is primarily used as an alloying element in stainless steels.
• It improves the corrosion resistance of steels by forming a passive oxide layer on
the surface.
• Chromium also enhances the hardenability and strength of steels.
• In high-chromium steels, it can promote the formation of complex carbides, which
contribute to high wear resistance.
Molybdenum (Mo):
• Molybdenum is often added to steels to improve their strength, hardenability, and
high-temperature stability.
• It forms carbides that increase the hardness and strength of steels.
• Molybdenum also enhances the corrosion resistance and creep resistance of steels
at elevated temperatures.
Vanadium (V):
• Vanadium is commonly used as a microalloying element in high-strength low-
alloy (HSLA) steels.
• It refines the grain size of ferrite and improves the strength, toughness, and
weldability of steels.
• Vanadium carbides provide precipitation hardening, which enhances the wear
resistance and high-temperature strength of steels.
Tungsten (W):
• Tungsten is added to steels to improve their high-temperature strength, hardness,
and wear resistance.
• It forms carbides that enhance the hardness and wear resistance of steels.
• Tungsten is commonly used in tool steels and high-speed steels.

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These are just a few examples of alloying elements and their effects on the Fe-C system. Each
alloying element has specific interactions with the iron-carbon matrix, which can modify the
phase transformations and resulting microstructures. By carefully selecting and controlling the
composition of alloying elements, it is possible to tailor the properties of steels to meet specific
application requirements, such as improved strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, or high-
temperature stability.

5. DIFFUSION IN SOLID:
In materials science, diffusion refers to the process of atomic or molecular movement
within a solid. It is the net transport of particles from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration, resulting in the gradual mixing or homogenization of the
material. Diffusion plays a crucial role in various phenomena, such as phase
transformations, grain growth, chemical reactions, and the overall microstructural
evolution of materials.
5.1 Classification of Solid Solution:
In solids, there are generally three main types or mechanisms of diffusion:
i) Interstitial Diffusion: This type of diffusion occurs when smaller atoms or
impurity atoms diffuse through the interstitial sites (spaces) between the atoms of
the host lattice. Interstitial diffusion is generally faster than other types of diffusion
because the interstitial sites provide relatively larger spaces for atoms to move. It is
commonly observed in metals and alloys.

ii) Vacancy Diffusion: Vacancy diffusion, also known as self-diffusion, is the

movement of atoms within a crystal lattice by exchanging positions with vacancies
(empty lattice sites). Atoms in the lattice move from one site to another by hopping
into adjacent vacancies. This mechanism is prominent at elevated temperatures
where the thermal energy facilitates atomic motion. Vacancy diffusion plays a
significant role in the diffusion of atoms in many crystalline materials.

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iii) Grain Boundary Diffusion: Grain boundary diffusion occurs along the boundaries
between individual crystalline grains in a polycrystalline material. Grain boundaries
act as diffusion paths for atoms to move from one grain to another. The presence of
grain boundaries increases the diffusion rate compared to diffusion within the grains
themselves. Grain boundary diffusion is particularly important in materials with a
fine-grained microstructure or when diffusion occurs predominantly along grain
boundaries.

It's worth noting that these diffusion mechanisms can coexist in various materials, and the
dominant mechanism depends on factors such as temperature, crystal structure, and the
presence of impurities. Additionally, in certain cases, diffusion can be influenced by other
factors such as surface diffusion (diffusion along the surface of a solid) or volume diffusion
(diffusion within the bulk of a material). The specific diffusion mechanism involved in a
particular material and condition can be determined through experimental observations and
theoretical modeling.

6. FICK'S LAW OF DIFFUSION:

Formulated by German physiologist Adolf Fick in the 19th century, describes the diffusion
flux, which is the rate at which particles diffuse through a solid material. Fick's law can be
expressed as follows:

J = -D * (dC/dx)

Where:
J is the diffusion flux (amount of substance diffusing per unit area per unit time),
D is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity, which is a material-specific property related to the
mobility of particles,
dC/dx is the concentration gradient, representing the change in concentration with respect to
distance.

Essentially, Fick's law states that the diffusion flux is proportional to the concentration gradient
and the diffusion coefficient. The negative sign indicates that diffusion occurs in the direction
of decreasing concentration.

Fick's law is applicable to various diffusion scenarios, including both steady-state and non-
steady-state diffusion. Steady-state diffusion occurs when the concentration gradient remains
constant over time, resulting in a constant diffusion flux. Non-steady-state diffusion, on the

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other hand, occurs when the concentration gradient changes with time, leading to a time-
dependent diffusion flux.

It's important to note that Fick's law assumes ideal conditions, such as uniform diffusion paths,
a constant diffusion coefficient, and isotropic materials. In reality, diffusion processes can be
influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, defects, and the presence of impurities.
Consequently, material scientists often consider these additional factors and employ more
advanced diffusion models to accurately describe diffusion behavior in specific materials or
conditions.

7. PHASE TRANSFORMATION:

Phase transformation in materials science refers to the process by which a material undergoes
a change in its atomic or molecular arrangement, resulting in a transformation from one phase
to another. A phase is a region of a material with uniform composition and structure. Phase
transformations can occur in response to changes in temperature, pressure, or other external
conditions. There are several types of phase transformations, including:

1) Solid-Solid Phase Transformations: These transformations involve changes in the crystal

structure of a solid material. Examples include allotropic transformations (e.g.,
transformation of diamond to graphite) and polymorphic transformations (e.g.,
transformation between different crystal structures of a metal).
2) Solid-Liquid Phase Transformations: These transformations occur when a solid material
melts to become a liquid or when a liquid material solidifies to form a solid. Examples
include the melting and solidification of metals during casting or the phase transformation
of water from ice to liquid water.
3) Solid-Gas Phase Transformations: These transformations involve the conversion of a
solid material directly to a gaseous state or vice versa. Examples include sublimation (solid
to gas) and deposition (gas to solid).

The mechanisms behind phase transformations can vary depending on the specific
transformation and the material involved. However, some common mechanisms include:

1) Nucleation: Nucleation is the initial formation of a new phase within a parent phase. It
occurs when a critical number of atoms or molecules come together in a favorable
arrangement to form a nucleus of the new phase. Nucleation can be heterogeneous (on pre-
existing surfaces or impurities) or homogeneous (in the bulk of the material).
2) Growth: After nucleation, the new phase grows by the addition of atoms or molecules to
the existing nucleus. Growth can occur by diffusion of atoms through the parent phase or
by the aggregation of smaller nuclei.
3) Diffusion: Diffusion plays a crucial role in many phase transformations. It involves the
movement of atoms or molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low
concentration. Diffusion enables the rearrangement of atoms or molecules required for the
formation of the new phase.

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The understanding and control of phase transformations are essential in materials science and
engineering for various reasons:

Microstructure Control: Phase transformations influence the microstructure of materials,

including the grain structure, crystallographic orientation, and distribution of different phases.
Microstructure significantly impacts the mechanical, electrical, thermal, and other properties
of materials.

Property Enhancement: By designing and manipulating phase transformations, materials can

be tailored to exhibit desired properties. For example, heat treatments can be employed to
increase the hardness, strength, or toughness of materials.

Phase Stability: Understanding phase transformations helps determine the stability of different
phases at specific conditions. This knowledge is crucial for material selection, design, and
performance evaluation, especially in applications where phase stability affects long-term
reliability.

In summary, phase transformations involve the change of a material from one phase to another
due to external conditions. They are critical in controlling the microstructure and properties of
materials, and their mechanisms involve nucleation, growth, and diffusion. Understanding and
manipulating phase transformations enable the development of materials with tailored
properties for various applications.

8. STEEL:
Steel is an alloy primarily composed of iron and carbon, along with small amounts of other
elements. It is a versatile material widely used in various industries due to its strength,
durability, and ability to be easily shaped and formed. The carbon content in steel plays a
crucial role in determining its properties and behavior. Based on the carbon percentage,
steel can be classified into the following categories:

1) Low Carbon Steel: Low carbon steel, also known as mild steel, typically contains
a carbon percentage ranging from 0.05% to 0.25%. It has relatively low strength
but is highly ductile and easily weldable. Low carbon steel is commonly used in
construction, automotive, and general fabrication applications.

2) Medium Carbon Steel: Medium carbon steel contains a carbon percentage

ranging from 0.25% to 0.60%. It offers higher strength and hardness compared to
low carbon steel while still maintaining good machinability and weldability.
Medium carbon steel is often used in machinery, structural components, and
railway applications.

3) High Carbon Steel: High carbon steel has a carbon percentage ranging from
0.60% to 1.5%. It has excellent strength, hardness, and wear resistance but is less
ductile and more brittle than low and medium carbon steels. High carbon steel is
commonly used in cutting tools, springs, and high-strength wire.
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4) Ultra-High Carbon Steel: Ultra-high carbon steel contains a carbon percentage

above 1.5%. It is exceptionally hard and has excellent wear resistance, making it
suitable for specialized applications such as knives, blades, and tools that require
extreme hardness.

It's important to note that these classifications are not rigid and can vary depending on the
specific standards and applications. Other alloying elements, such as manganese, silicon, and
chromium, may also be present in varying amounts to further enhance the steel's properties.

Low Carbon Steel:

Construction: Low carbon steel is widely used in construction for structural components, such
as beams, columns, and reinforcement bars.

Automotive: It is used in the manufacturing of car bodies, panels, and chassis due to its
formability and weldability.

General Fabrication: Low carbon steel is commonly used in general fabrication applications
like welding, machining, and forming for various products and components.

Medium Carbon Steel:

Machinery and Equipment: Medium carbon steel is utilized in the production of gears, shafts,
axles, and machine components that require higher strength and hardness.

Railway Applications: It is used for the construction of railway tracks, wheels, and components
that can withstand heavy loads and wear.

High Carbon Steel:

Cutting Tools: High carbon steel, due to its excellent hardness and wear resistance, is
commonly used in the production of cutting tools like drills, saw blades, and lathe tools.

Springs: It is ideal for manufacturing springs, such as coil springs and leaf springs, which
require high tensile strength and resilience.

High-Strength Wire: High carbon steel wire finds application in products like piano wire, guitar
strings, and wire ropes, where strength and durability are essential.

Ultra-High Carbon Steel:

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Knives and Blades: Ultra-high carbon steel, with its exceptional hardness and edge retention,
is frequently used in the production of knives, blades, and cutting tools that require superior
sharpness and durability.

It's important to note that these are general applications, and the use of carbon steel can vary
based on specific requirements and industry standards. Additionally, other factors like heat
treatment, surface coatings, and alloying elements can further expand the range of applications
for each type of carbon steel.

9. TTT Diagram:

The Time-Temperature-Transformation (T-T-T) diagram, also known as the C-Curve, is a

graphical representation that illustrates the transformation of austenite (a solid solution of iron
and carbon) into different microstructures at various temperatures and time intervals. The T-T-
T diagram is specifically used to understand the phase transformations in eutectoid steel, which
has a eutectoid composition of approximately 0.76% carbon.

Pearlite Transformation:

At temperatures above the eutectoid temperature, when austenite exists, the T-T-T diagram
shows that upon cooling, pearlite forms. Pearlite is a lamellar structure composed of alternating
layers of ferrite and cementite. The transformation of austenite into pearlite occurs in two
stages:

a) First, the nucleation of pearlite colonies takes place. Nucleation sites form within the
austenite matrix, and small pearlite grains start to grow.

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Material Science (KOE042) NOTES Unit-2

b) Next, the pearlite growth stage occurs. The pearlite colonies continue to grow, and the
transformation of austenite into pearlite is completed. The resulting microstructure is composed
of a fine-grained mixture of ferrite and cementite.

Bainite Transformation:

When austenite is rapidly cooled within a specific temperature range on the T-T-T diagram,
the transformation into bainite occurs. Bainite is a microstructure consisting of a mixture of
ferrite and a fine, needle-like form of cementite called Fe₃C. The transformation of austenite
into bainite occurs more rapidly than the transformation into pearlite. Bainite formation
involves the following stages:

a) Nucleation: Nucleation sites form within the austenite matrix, and small bainite grains start
to grow.

b) Growth: The bainite grains grow further, forming the characteristic acicular (needle-like)
structure.

Bainite microstructures exhibit improved strength and toughness compared to pearlite, making
them desirable for certain applications.

Martensite Transformation:

At even higher cooling rates, austenite can transform directly into martensite, bypassing the
pearlite and bainite transformations. Martensite is a hard and brittle microstructure
characterized by a non-equilibrium arrangement of carbon and iron atoms. The transformation
into martensite occurs rapidly and is influenced by the cooling rate rather than the temperature.
The process involves a diffusionless transformation, where the carbon atoms are trapped in the
lattice of the transforming austenite, resulting in a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in
iron. Martensite is distinguished by its needle-like or plate-like morphology and high hardness.

In summary, the T-T-T diagram for eutectoid steel illustrates the transformation of austenite
into different microstructures, including pearlite, bainite, and martensite, based on cooling rates
and temperature ranges. The diagram provides valuable information for heat treatment
processes and helps in understanding the resulting mechanical properties of the steel.

10. TEMPERING OF MARTENSITE:

Tempering is a heat treatment process performed on martensite, a hard and brittle

microstructure formed by the rapid cooling of austenite. The purpose of tempering
martensite is to reduce its hardness, improve its toughness, and relieve internal stresses.
This process involves reheating the martensite to a specific temperature range and holding
it at that temperature for a designated period, followed by cooling.

During the tempering process, several changes occur within the martensite structure:

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Material Science (KOE042) NOTES Unit-2

Reduction in Hardness: Tempering reduces the hardness of martensite by allowing the

transformation of some of the supersaturated carbon atoms into iron carbides (Fe₃C). This
reduces the carbon content in the martensite and decreases its overall hardness.

Increased Toughness: The tempering process promotes the formation of fine carbide
particles within the martensite matrix. These carbide particles act as barriers to dislocation
movement, enhancing the material's toughness and resistance to brittle fracture. The
presence of these particles helps prevent crack propagation and improves the material's
ability to absorb energy before failure.

Stress Relief: Tempering helps relieve the internal stresses that are inherently present in
martensite due to the rapid cooling process. By heating the martensite to a specific
temperature and holding it there, the stress within the microstructure is gradually released,
reducing the risk of cracking or distortion.

The tempering process typically involves several stages:

Heating: The martensite is heated to a temperature below its lower critical temperature,
usually between 150°C and 600°C, depending on the desired properties. The temperature
range determines the resulting hardness and toughness of the material.

Holding: The martensite is held at the tempering temperature for a specific period,
allowing the transformation and diffusion of carbon within the microstructure to occur.

Cooling: After the desired time at the tempering temperature, the martensite is cooled,
often in air or by quenching in a suitable medium, to room temperature.

The specific temperature and time parameters for tempering depend on the desired material
properties and the specific application requirements. Different tempering temperatures and
times can produce different combinations of hardness, toughness, and strength in the final
material.

In summary, tempering of martensite is a heat treatment process that modifies the

microstructure to reduce hardness, increase toughness, and relieve internal stresses. It is a
crucial step in the heat treatment of martensitic steels to optimize their mechanical
properties for specific applications.

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11. CAST IRON:

Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content higher than that of carbon steel.
It typically contains 2% to 6.67% carbon, along with varying amounts of silicon, manganese,
sulfur, and phosphorus. The higher carbon content gives cast iron its distinctive properties and
characteristics.

Composition:

Carbon: 2% to 6.67%

Silicon: 1% to 3%

Manganese: 0.1% to 1%

Sulfur: 0.02% to 0.15%

Phosphorus: 0.1% to 1%

Applications of Cast Iron:

Castings: The exceptional fluidity and excellent castability of cast iron make it ideal for
producing complex and intricate castings, such as engine blocks, pipes, fittings, and automotive
parts.

Cookware: Cast iron's ability to distribute heat evenly and retain it for longer periods makes it
popular for the production of cookware, including skillets, pots, and pans.

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Material Science (KOE042) NOTES Unit-2

Machine Components: Cast iron is used for producing machine components, such as gears,
pulleys, and heavy-duty machine bases, where high strength, wear resistance, and vibration
damping properties are required.

Pipes and Pipe Fittings: Cast iron's corrosion resistance and durability make it suitable for the
construction of pipes and pipe fittings used in plumbing, sewer systems, and water distribution
networks.

Decorative Applications: Cast iron's attractive appearance and ornamental designs make it
commonly used for architectural elements like fences, railings, and decorative castings.

Differences between Cast Iron and Carbon Steel:

Carbon Content: Cast iron has a higher carbon content (2% to 4%) compared to carbon steel,
which typically contains less than 2% carbon. The higher carbon content gives cast iron its
characteristic hardness and brittleness.

Strength and Hardness: Cast iron is generally harder and more brittle than carbon steel. It has
higher compressive strength but lower tensile strength compared to carbon steel.

Castability: Cast iron has excellent fluidity and castability, making it suitable for intricate
castings. Carbon steel is not as easily cast due to its lower fluidity.

Heat Retention: Cast iron has superior heat retention properties, allowing it to distribute heat
evenly and retain it for longer periods. Carbon steel does not retain heat as effectively.

Corrosion Resistance: Cast iron has good corrosion resistance due to the formation of a
protective layer of graphite on its surface. Carbon steel is more prone to corrosion and requires
protective coatings or treatments.

Overall, cast iron's higher carbon content and unique properties make it well-suited for
applications that require strength, durability, and castability, while carbon steel offers a broader
range of mechanical properties and applications due to its lower carbon content.

12. Stainless Steel:

Stainless steel is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. It contains at least
11% chromium and may contain elements such as carbon, other nonmetals and to obtain other
desired properties. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion results from the chromium, which
forms a passive film that can protect the material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen.

The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many
applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can
be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction
material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills, chemical plants, water
treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products.

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Material Science (KOE042) NOTES Unit-2

The biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to both aluminium and copper, and
comparable to glass. Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use
of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.

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