DTK Ali PHD Chap1

10/3/2024 – PHD THESIS – 220 PAGES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1. Background of the Study
Rural development plays a critical role in the socioeconomic progress and well-being of
nations around the world. According to the World Bank, approximately 44% of the global
population lived in rural areas as of 2020 (World Bank, 2021). In many developing countries,
this percentage is even higher. For example, in India, 65% of the total population resides in
rural regions (Census of India, 2011). Rural development encompasses the strategies,
policies, and initiatives aimed at improving the quality of life and economic prospects of
communities in these non-urban areas.
The importance of rural development cannot be overstated. Rural areas are often
characterized by higher levels of poverty, lower educational attainment, limited access to
healthcare and other essential services, and fewer economic opportunities compared to urban
centers. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) recognize the need to
"leave no one behind" and emphasize the importance of focusing on rural development to
achieve inclusive growth and reduce inequalities (United Nations, 2015). Investing in rural
areas can lead to increased agricultural productivity, expanded non-farm employment
opportunities, improved infrastructure and connectivity, and better access to education and
healthcare.
However, rural development faces several emerging challenges. One of the most pressing
issues is the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities. Despite progress in poverty

reduction, rural poverty remains a significant problem. According to the International Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 80% of the world's extreme poor live in rural areas
(IFAD, 2021). Rural communities often grapple with limited access to financial services,
markets, and technology, which hinders their ability to improve their livelihoods and escape
poverty traps.
Another challenge is the growing rural-urban divide. As cities continue to expand and attract
investment, rural areas risk being left behind. This can lead to increased migration from rural
to urban areas, particularly among young people seeking better economic prospects. The
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that by 2050, 68% of the world's
population will live in urban areas, up from 55% in 2018 (FAO, 2019). This trend can strain
urban infrastructure and services while also depleting rural areas of valuable human capital.
Climate change poses another significant threat to rural development. Rural communities,
particularly those dependent on agriculture, are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change, such as droughts, floods, and extreme weather events. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that climate change could push an additional 100 million
people into poverty by 2030, with rural areas being disproportionately affected (IPCC, 2018).
Adapting to climate change and building resilience in rural communities is crucial for
sustainable rural development.
To address these challenges, policymakers and development practitioners must prioritize
inclusive and sustainable rural development strategies. This includes investing in rural
infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, and telecommunications, to improve connectivity
and access to markets. Promoting agricultural productivity through extension services, access
to inputs, and improved farming practices can boost rural incomes and food security.
Expanding access to education, healthcare, and social protection programs in rural areas is
essential for improving human capital and reducing vulnerabilities. Encouraging the growth
of non-farm rural enterprises and promoting rural-urban linkages can create diverse
employment opportunities and stimulate local economies.
In conclusion, rural development is a critical component of inclusive and sustainable
development. Addressing the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities, bridging the
rural-urban divide, and building resilience to climate change are key priorities for rural
development in the 21st century. By investing in rural areas and empowering rural
communities, we can unlock the potential for inclusive growth and create a more equitable
and prosperous future for all.
1.1. Government and Rural Development
The government plays a crucial role in managing and promoting rural development in a
country. It is responsible for formulating policies, allocating resources, and implementing
programs that address the unique challenges faced by rural communities. Governments at
various levels, including national, regional, and local, work together to foster inclusive
growth and improve the socioeconomic well-being of rural populations.
One of the primary roles of the government in rural development is to invest in infrastructure.
This includes the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, electricity grids, and
telecommunications networks. Adequate infrastructure is essential for connecting rural areas
to markets, facilitating trade, and improving access to services. For example, in China, the
government has invested heavily in rural infrastructure through initiatives like the "Village
Road Program," which aimed to connect all villages with roads suitable for motor vehicles.
Between 2001 and 2010, the program resulted in the construction or renovation of 1.1 million
kilometers of rural roads, benefiting over 300 million rural residents (World Bank, 2015).
Governments also play a vital role in promoting agricultural development, which is the
backbone of many rural economies. This involves providing support to farmers through
extension services, subsidies, and access to credit. In India, the government launched the
"Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi" (PM-KISAN) scheme in 2019, which provides direct
income support to small and marginal farmers. Under this scheme, eligible farmers receive
Rs. 6,000 (approximately USD 80) per year in three equal installments (Government of India,
2021). Such initiatives help improve the financial stability of farmers and encourage
investment in agriculture.
Education and skill development are other key areas where governments intervene to promote
rural development. Providing access to quality education and vocational training can enhance
the human capital of rural communities and open up new employment opportunities. In
Brazil, the "National Program for Access to Technical Education and Employment"
(Pronatec) has been instrumental in expanding vocational education in rural areas. Between
2011 and 2014, the program trained over 8 million people, with a significant focus on rural
youth (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2016).
Governments also implement targeted programs to address specific challenges in rural areas,
such as poverty, health, and gender inequality. For instance, Mexico's "Prospera" program
(formerly known as Oportunidades) is a conditional cash transfer scheme that provides

financial assistance to poor households in exchange for their participation in health,
education, and nutrition programs. The program has been successful in reducing poverty and
improving health outcomes in rural areas. Between 1997 and 2007, Prospera helped reduce
the rural poverty gap by 19% (World Bank, 2014).
Effective rural development requires collaboration between different levels of government
and the participation of local communities. Decentralization and community-driven
development approaches have gained prominence in recent years. These approaches empower
local governments and communities to identify their own development priorities and
implement projects that address their specific needs. In Indonesia, the "National Program for
Community Empowerment" (PNPM) has been successful in promoting community-driven
development in rural areas. Between 2007 and 2012, PNPM funded over 50,000 village-level
projects, benefiting millions of rural households (World Bank, 2013).
In conclusion, the government plays a multifaceted role in managing rural development. By
investing in infrastructure, supporting agriculture, promoting education and skill
development, implementing targeted programs, and fostering community participation,
governments can create an enabling environment for inclusive and sustainable rural
development. The examples from China, India, Brazil, Mexico, and Indonesia demonstrate
the diverse approaches governments can take to address the challenges faced by rural
communities and promote their socioeconomic well-being.
1.2. Government Policies and Strategy on Rural Development

Governments around the world have implemented various policies and strategies to promote
rural development and address the challenges faced by rural communities. These policies and
strategies aim to stimulate economic growth, reduce poverty, improve infrastructure, and
enhance the overall quality of life in rural areas.
One common policy approach is the development of comprehensive rural development plans.
These plans outline the government's vision and priorities for rural development over a
specific period. For example, in 2010, the Government of India launched the "Integrated
Rural Development Program" (IRDP) as part of its 12th Five-Year Plan. The IRDP aimed to
promote sustainable and inclusive growth in rural areas through investments in agriculture,
infrastructure, human capital, and social protection (Planning Commission, 2013). Similarly,
in 2018, the Government of China released the "Rural Vitalization Strategy" (2018-2022),
which sought to modernize agriculture, promote rural industries, improve rural governance,
and enhance the quality of life in rural areas (State Council of the People's Republic of China,
2018).
Another key policy area is agricultural development. Governments implement various
measures to support farmers and boost agricultural productivity. These include subsidies for
inputs like seeds and fertilizers, provision of extension services, and investments in irrigation
and agricultural research. In Brazil, the government launched the "Low-Carbon Agriculture"
(ABC) program in 2010 to promote sustainable agricultural practices and reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. The program provides low-interest loans to farmers who adopt practices such
as no-till farming, crop-livestock integration, and reforestation (Ministério da Agricultura,
Pecuária e Abastecimento, 2012). As of 2020, the ABC program had financed over 52,000
projects, covering an area of 9.7 million hectares (Observatório ABC, 2020).

Infrastructure development is another crucial component of rural development policies.
Governments invest in the construction and upgrading of roads, electricity networks, water
supply systems, and telecommunications infrastructure to improve connectivity and access to
services in rural areas. In South Africa, the government launched the "Integrated National
Electrification Programme" (INEP) in 2001 to expand access to electricity in rural and
underserved areas. Between 2002 and 2020, the INEP connected over 7 million households to
the electricity grid, increasing the electrification rate from 76.7% to 97% (Department of
Mineral Resources and Energy, 2021).
Education and skill development are also prioritized in rural development strategies.
Governments implement programs to improve access to quality education and vocational
training in rural areas. In Mexico, the "Bécalos" program, launched in 2006, provides
scholarships to students from low-income rural families to pursue higher education. As of
2021, the program had benefited over 300,000 students (Fundación Televisa, 2021).
Similarly, in India, the "Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana" (DDU-GKY)
program, initiated in 2014, offers skill training and job placement assistance to rural youth.
The program aims to train 2.3 million rural youth by 2022 (Ministry of Rural Development,
2021).
Governments also implement targeted programs to address specific challenges in rural areas,
such as poverty, health, and gender inequality. In Brazil, the "Bolsa Família" program,
launched in 2003, provides conditional cash transfers to poor households in exchange for
their participation in health, education, and social assistance programs. As of 2021, the
program covered over 14 million households, with a significant presence in rural areas
(Ministério da Cidadania, 2021). In Bangladesh, the "Rural Community Clinics" initiative,
started in 2000, has established over 13,000 community clinics in rural areas, providing
essential healthcare services to millions of people (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
2021).
In conclusion, governments employ a range of policies and strategies to promote rural
development. These include comprehensive rural development plans, agricultural support
programs, infrastructure investments, education and skill development initiatives, and
targeted interventions to address specific challenges. The examples from India, China, Brazil,
South Africa, Mexico, and Bangladesh illustrate the diverse approaches governments take to
foster inclusive and sustainable growth in rural areas. Effective implementation of these
policies and strategies, coupled with monitoring and evaluation, is crucial for achieving the
desired outcomes and improving the lives of rural communities.
Governments often establish dedicated public agencies to spearhead and coordinate efforts in
rural development. These agencies are tasked with formulating policies, implementing
programs, and allocating resources to address the specific needs and challenges of rural
communities. The creation of such agencies reflects the government's recognition of the
importance of rural development and its commitment to improving the socioeconomic well-
being of rural populations.
One notable example is the Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) in India, which was
established in 1999. The MRD is responsible for implementing various rural development
programs, including the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA), which provides guaranteed wage employment to rural households. In the

financial year 2020-2021, MGNREGA provided employment to over 111 million households,
generating 3.89 billion person-days of work (Ministry of Rural Development, 2021a). The
MRD also oversees the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), a program that aims
to provide all-weather road connectivity to unconnected rural habitations. As of March 2021,
PMGSY had constructed over 700,000 kilometers of roads, connecting more than 170,000
habitations (Ministry of Rural Development, 2021b).
Similarly, in China, the State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and
Development (LGOP) was established in 1986 to coordinate poverty reduction efforts in rural
areas. The LGOP played a crucial role in implementing China's targeted poverty alleviation
strategy, which aimed to lift all rural residents out of poverty by 2020. Through a
combination of measures, including industrial development, relocation, education, and social
protection, China achieved its goal of eradicating extreme rural poverty by the end of 2020
(State Council of the People's Republic of China, 2021). Between 2013 and 2020, China
lifted 98.99 million rural residents out of poverty, a remarkable achievement (National
Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021).
In Brazil, the Ministry of Agrarian Development (MDA) was created in 1999 to promote
sustainable rural development and support family farming. One of the MDA's flagship
programs is the National Program for Strengthening Family Agriculture (PRONAF), which
provides subsidized credit to small-scale farmers. In the 2019-2020 agricultural year,
PRONAF disbursed over R$ 31 billion (approximately USD 6 billion) in loans to family
farmers (Banco Central do Brasil, 2021). However, the MDA has faced challenges, such as
budget constraints and institutional instability. In 2016, the MDA was merged with the
Ministry of Social Development, raising concerns about the dilution of its focus on rural
development (Niederle et al., 2019).
The success of these dedicated rural development agencies depends on various factors,
including political will, adequate funding, institutional capacity, and effective coordination
with other government bodies and stakeholders. In some cases, these agencies have been
successful in implementing large-scale programs and achieving significant progress in
poverty reduction and infrastructure development. However, they have also faced challenges,
such as bureaucratic inefficiencies, corruption, and the difficulty of reaching the most
marginalized and remote rural communities.
Moreover, the effectiveness of these agencies can be hindered by a lack of participatory
approaches and insufficient engagement with local communities. Critics argue that top-down,
centralized approaches to rural development may not adequately address the diverse needs
and aspirations of rural populations (Ellis & Biggs, 2001). There is a growing recognition of
the importance of community-driven development and the need to empower local
governments and civil society organizations in the planning and implementation of rural
development initiatives.
In conclusion, the establishment of dedicated public agencies for rural development
demonstrates the government's commitment to addressing the challenges faced by rural
communities. These agencies have played a crucial role in implementing large-scale
programs and achieving significant progress in areas such as poverty reduction, employment
generation, and infrastructure development. However, their success depends on various
factors, and they have also faced challenges, such as budgetary constraints, institutional
instability, and the limitations of top-down approaches. Effective rural development requires
a combination of centralized coordination and decentralized, participatory approaches that
engage local communities and respond to their specific needs and aspirations.
1.3. Scholars view on Rural Development
Rural development is a crucial issue that has garnered significant attention from
governments, policymakers, and researchers alike. The literature on this topic highlights the
importance of government intervention in managing rural development and enhancing the
socioeconomic well-being of rural communities.
One of the primary challenges faced by rural communities is poverty. According to the World
Bank, in 2015, approximately 10% of the world's population lived in extreme poverty, with
the majority residing in rural areas (World Bank, 2018). Governments play a vital role in
addressing this issue by implementing targeted poverty alleviation programs, such as cash
transfers, employment generation schemes, and microfinance initiatives (Deininger & Liu,
2013).
Infrastructure development is another critical aspect of rural development. Adequate
infrastructure, including roads, electricity, and telecommunication networks, is essential for
promoting economic growth and improving living standards in rural areas. A study by
Calderón and Servén (2014) found that a 10% increase in infrastructure investment can lead
to a 1% increase in GDP per capita. Governments must prioritize infrastructure development
in rural areas to attract investment, create jobs, and facilitate access to markets and services.
Education and healthcare are also key components of rural development. Rural communities
often lag behind their urban counterparts in terms of educational attainment and healthcare
access. A report by UNESCO (2019) revealed that in low-income countries, only 50% of
children in rural areas complete primary education, compared to 80% in urban areas.
Governments must invest in building schools, training teachers, and providing incentives for
students to attend school. Similarly, improving healthcare access in rural areas requires the
construction of clinics, the training of healthcare workers, and the provision of essential
medicines and equipment.
Agricultural development is another crucial aspect of rural development, as a significant
portion of the rural population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. Governments can
support agricultural development by providing subsidies, extension services, and access to
credit for farmers. A study by Fan, Gulati, and Thorat (2008) found that government spending
on agricultural research and development, irrigation, and rural infrastructure had the greatest
impact on poverty reduction and agricultural growth in India.
The literature also emphasizes the need for participatory approaches to rural development.
Engaging local communities in the planning and implementation of development projects can
ensure that their needs and priorities are addressed. A study by Mansuri and Rao (2013) found
that community-driven development projects, where communities have control over project
design and implementation, can lead to improved outcomes in terms of poverty reduction and
social capital formation.
In conclusion, the literature on rural development highlights the crucial role of governments
in managing this issue and enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities.
Governments must adopt a holistic approach that encompasses poverty alleviation,
infrastructure development, education, healthcare, and agricultural development.
Participatory approaches that engage local communities in the development process are also
essential. By prioritizing rural development, governments can promote inclusive growth,
reduce inequalities, and improve the lives of millions of people living in rural areas.
1.4. Rural Development in Malaysia
Malaysia is a vibrant and diverse nation-state situated in the heart of Southeast Asia. With a
population of approximately 32.7 million people as of 2021, Malaysia is home to a rich
tapestry of ethnic groups, including Malays (69.6%), Chinese (22.6%), Indians (6.8%), and
various indigenous communities (1%) (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2021). This multi-
ethnic composition has shaped the country's unique cultural landscape, characterized by a
blend of traditions, languages, and religions.
Politically, Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy, with the Yang di-Pertuan Agong
serving as the head of state and the Prime Minister acting as the head of government. The
country's political system is based on a multi-party structure, with the Barisan Nasional (BN)
coalition having dominated the political arena for more than six decades since the nation's
independence in 1957. However, the historic 2018 general election marked a significant shift
in Malaysia's political landscape, as the opposition coalition, Pakatan Harapan (PH), secured
a stunning victory, unseating the long-ruling BN (Nadzri, 2018). This peaceful transition of
power was widely celebrated as a testament to Malaysia's maturing democracy. Nevertheless,
political instability has remained a concern in recent years, with the collapse of the PH
government in 2020 and the subsequent formation of a new coalition government led by the
Perikatan Nasional (PN) (Moniruzzaman & Farzana, 2021). These developments have
highlighted the complex and dynamic nature of Malaysian politics.
On the economic front, Malaysia has made remarkable strides, emerging as an upper-middle-
income country with a GDP per capita of USD 10,402 in 2020 (World Bank, 2021). The
nation's economic success can be attributed to its diversified economic structure, which
encompasses robust manufacturing, services, and agricultural sectors. Malaysia has
established itself as a major exporter of electronics, oil and gas, and palm oil, capitalizing on
its strategic location and abundant natural resources (MATRADE, 2021). However, like many
nations worldwide, Malaysia has not been immune to the economic fallout of the COVID-19
pandemic. In 2020, the country's economy contracted by 5.6%, as global supply chains were
disrupted and domestic demand declined due to movement restrictions and lockdowns (World
Bank, 2021). As the nation navigates the path to economic recovery, the government has
implemented various stimulus packages and initiatives to support businesses and protect
livelihoods.
Socially, Malaysia takes pride in its multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, which is a
defining feature of the nation's identity. While Islam is enshrined as the official religion in the
constitution, the country upholds the freedom of religion, allowing various faiths to coexist
harmoniously. This social fabric has been instrumental in shaping Malaysia's cultural richness
and promoting a spirit of tolerance and unity among its diverse population. The country has
also made significant strides in human development, as evidenced by its impressive Human
Development Index (HDI) value of 0.810 in 2019, placing it in the very high human
development category (UNDP, 2020). This achievement reflects Malaysia's ongoing efforts to
improve the quality of life for its citizens through investments in education, healthcare, and
social welfare.
In conclusion, Malaysia stands as a compelling example of a nation-state that has
successfully navigated the challenges of nation-building, economic development, and social
cohesion. Despite the political uncertainties and economic headwinds in recent years, the
country remains resilient and forward-looking. As Malaysia continues to harness its diverse
talents, resources, and aspirations, it is poised to chart a path of inclusive and sustainable
growth, cementing its position as a key player in the dynamic Southeast Asian region.
Malaysia's rural demography and the socioeconomic issues faced by its rural population are
important aspects to consider when discussing the country's overall development. As of 2020,
approximately 24% of the Malaysian population resides in rural areas (World Bank, 2020).
While Malaysia has made significant progress in terms of economic growth and human
development, rural communities continue to face various challenges that impact their
socioeconomic well-being.
One of the primary issues affecting rural areas in Malaysia is poverty. In 2019, the rural
poverty rate stood at 12.4%, which is significantly higher than the urban poverty rate of 3.8%
(Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2020). This disparity highlights the need for targeted
interventions to address the root causes of rural poverty, such as limited access to education,
healthcare, and economic opportunities.
Education is another key concern in rural Malaysia. While the country has achieved near-
universal primary education, rural students often face barriers to accessing quality education
at the secondary and tertiary levels. Factors such as distance to schools, inadequate
infrastructure, and limited resources can hinder the educational attainment of rural youth
(UNDP, 2020). This, in turn, can perpetuate the cycle of poverty and limit their prospects for
social mobility.
Healthcare access is also a challenge in rural areas. Rural communities often have to contend
with a shortage of healthcare facilities, medical professionals, and specialized services. This
can lead to poorer health outcomes and a lower quality of life for rural residents. In 2019, the
doctor-to-population ratio in rural areas was 1:1,489, compared to 1:605 in urban areas
(Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2020). Bridging this gap in healthcare access is crucial for
promoting the overall well-being of rural communities.
Economic opportunities are limited in rural areas, with many households relying on
agriculture and other traditional livelihoods. In 2019, the agricultural sector employed 10.3%
of the Malaysian workforce, with a significant portion of these workers residing in rural areas
(Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2020). However, the agricultural sector's contribution to
the country's GDP has been declining, accounting for only 7.1% in 2020 (World Bank, 2021).
This highlights the need for rural economic diversification and the creation of alternative
income-generating opportunities.
To address these socioeconomic issues, the Malaysian government has implemented various
rural development programs. For example, the Rural Transformation Program (RTP) aims to
improve rural infrastructure, enhance access to basic services, and promote economic
activities in rural areas (Ministry of Rural Development, 2021). Similarly, the Village
Community Development Program (PROKOMPUNG) focuses on empowering rural

communities through capacity-building initiatives and community-driven projects (Ministry
of Rural Development, 2021). While these efforts have yielded positive results, there is still a
need for sustained and comprehensive approaches to tackle the multidimensional aspects of
rural development.
In conclusion, Malaysia's rural demography presents a unique set of socioeconomic
challenges that require targeted interventions and policies. Addressing issues such as poverty,
education, healthcare access, and limited economic opportunities is crucial for promoting the
socioeconomic well-being of rural communities and fostering inclusive growth in the country.
Since Malaysia's independence in 1957, the government has played a crucial role in
managing and developing its rural areas. Recognizing the importance of rural development in
promoting national unity, reducing poverty, and fostering inclusive growth, successive
Malaysian governments have introduced various policies and initiatives to address the
socioeconomic challenges faced by rural communities.
In the early years following independence, the Malaysian government's rural development
efforts were primarily focused on improving agricultural productivity and infrastructure. The
First Malaya Plan (1956-1960) and the Second Malaya Plan (1961-1965) emphasized the
development of the rural economy through agricultural diversification, land development, and
the provision of basic amenities such as roads, water supply, and electricity (Drabble, 2000).
The New Economic Policy (NEP), introduced in 1971, marked a significant shift in
Malaysia's rural development approach. The NEP aimed to eradicate poverty and restructure
society by reducing economic disparities between the rural and urban populations, as well as
among the various ethnic groups (Jomo & Wee, 2014). Under the NEP, the government
implemented various programs, such as land resettlement schemes, agricultural support
services, and the promotion of rural industries, to uplift the socioeconomic status of rural
communities (Lim, 1985).
In the 1980s and 1990s, the Malaysian government continued to prioritize rural development,
with a focus on modernizing the agricultural sector and promoting rural industrialization. The
National Agricultural Policy (1984-1991) aimed to transform the agricultural sector into a
more efficient, competitive, and sustainable industry (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). The
government also introduced the Rural Industrial Development Authority (RIDA) to promote
the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in rural areas (Romli et al., 2017).
Entering the 21st century, the Malaysian government's rural development strategies have
evolved to encompass a more holistic and integrated approach. The National Vision Policy
(2001-2010) and the National Transformation Policy (2011-2020) emphasized the importance
of sustainable rural development, focusing on issues such as poverty eradication, human
capital development, and the empowerment of rural communities (Economic Planning Unit,
2010; Ministry of Rural Development, 2021).
In recent years, the government has introduced several key initiatives to further advance rural
development. The Rural Transformation Program (RTP), launched in 2015, aims to improve
rural infrastructure, enhance access to basic services, and promote economic activities in rural
areas (Ministry of Rural Development, 2021). The Village Community Development
Program (PROKOMPUNG), initiated in 2019, focuses on empowering rural communities

through capacity-building initiatives and community-driven projects (Ministry of Rural
Development, 2021).
Despite these efforts, rural development in Malaysia continues to face challenges. In 2019,
the rural poverty rate stood at 12.4%, compared to the urban poverty rate of 3.8%
(Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated
the socioeconomic vulnerabilities of rural communities, highlighting the need for targeted
interventions and support (UNDP, 2020).
In conclusion, the Malaysian government has played an active role in managing and
developing its rural areas since independence. Through various policies, programs, and
initiatives, successive governments have sought to address the socioeconomic challenges
faced by rural communities and promote inclusive growth. However, as the rural poverty rate
remains higher than the urban poverty rate, there is a need for continued efforts to bridge the
rural-urban divide and ensure the sustainable development of rural areas in Malaysia.
Based on the policies introduced, the Malaysian government has employed various strategies
to promote rural development and address the socioeconomic challenges faced by rural
communities. One of the key strategies has been the establishment of specific public agencies
to manage and implement rural development programs, in addition to the existing Ministry of
National and Rural Development.
One such agency is the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA), which was
established in 1956 to manage land development schemes and resettle rural populations
(Sutton, 1989). FELDA has been instrumental in developing new agricultural areas, providing
infrastructure, and offering support services to settlers, thereby improving their
socioeconomic well-being (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). As of 2020, FELDA had developed
over 850,000 hectares of land and resettled more than 110,000 families (FELDA, 2020).
Another important agency is the Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority
(RISDA), which was set up in 1973 to support the development of the smallholder rubber
sector (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). RISDA has played a crucial role in providing replanting
grants, technical assistance, and training to smallholders, helping them to improve their
productivity and income (Barlow & Jayasuriya, 1986). In 2019, RISDA implemented various
development programs benefiting more than 300,000 smallholders nationwide (RISDA,
2020).
The Malaysian government also established the Rural Industrial Development Authority
(RIDA) in 1979 to promote the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in
rural areas (Romli et al., 2017). RIDA has been instrumental in providing financial assistance,
technical support, and entrepreneurship training to rural entrepreneurs, thereby fostering rural
industrialization and creating employment opportunities (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). In
2020, RIDA provided assistance to more than 10,000 rural entrepreneurs and SMEs (RIDA,
2020).
In addition to these agencies, the Malaysian government has also implemented various
community-driven development programs to empower rural communities and promote local
participation in the development process. One such program is the Village Community
Development Program (PROKOMPUNG), which was initiated in 2019 (Ministry of Rural
Development, 2021). PROKOMPUNG aims to empower rural communities through

capacity-building initiatives, community-driven projects, and the promotion of local
economic activities (Ministry of Rural Development, 2021).
The Malaysian government has also focused on improving rural infrastructure and basic
services to enhance the quality of life in rural areas. The Rural Basic Infrastructure
Development Program (PMBPLA), implemented under the Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011-
2015), aimed to provide rural communities with access to roads, electricity, water supply, and
housing (Economic Planning Unit, 2010). Between 2011 and 2015, the government allocated
RM 10.4 billion for rural infrastructure development, benefiting over 6 million rural residents
(Economic Planning Unit, 2015).
In recent years, the Malaysian government has also emphasized the importance of digital
connectivity in rural areas. The National Fiberisation and Connectivity Plan (NFCP),
launched in 2019, aims to bridge the digital divide between urban and rural areas by
providing high-speed broadband access to rural communities (Malaysian Communications
and Multimedia Commission, 2020). As of 2020, the NFCP had achieved a 91.8% broadband
coverage in populated areas, including rural regions (Malaysian Communications and
Multimedia Commission, 2020).
In conclusion, the Malaysian government has employed a multi-faceted approach to rural
development, establishing specific public agencies, implementing community-driven
development programs, improving rural infrastructure, and promoting digital connectivity.
These strategies, guided by the policies introduced since independence, have contributed to
the upliftment of rural communities and the reduction of socioeconomic disparities. However,
continued efforts are necessary to ensure sustainable rural development and bridge the
persistent rural-urban divide in Malaysia.
1.5. Background, History and Development of Felda
The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) is a significant public agency established
by the Malaysian government to manage rural development, particularly in the context of
land development and resettlement. FELDA was created in 1956 under the Land
Development Ordinance as a response to the socioeconomic challenges faced by rural
communities, such as poverty, landlessness, and rural-urban migration (Sutton, 1989).
The primary objectives of FELDA are to develop new agricultural areas, resettle landless
rural populations, and improve the socioeconomic well-being of the settlers (Arshad &
Shamsudin, 1997). By providing land, infrastructure, and support services, FELDA aims to
create sustainable rural communities and promote the participation of settlers in the country's
economic development (Sutton, 1989).
One of the key roles of FELDA is to identify and acquire suitable land for development,
primarily focusing on rural areas with high poverty rates and limited economic opportunities
(Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). FELDA then develops the land by establishing infrastructure,
such as roads, irrigation systems, and housing, to support agricultural activities and improve
living conditions for the settlers (Sutton, 1989).
Another crucial function of FELDA is to resettle landless rural populations, particularly those
from economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). The

resettlement process involves the allocation of land to settlers, typically in the form of
smallholdings ranging from 4 to 10 hectares per family (Sutton, 1989). FELDA provides
settlers with training, technical assistance, and support services to help them develop their
land and engage in agricultural activities, primarily focusing on cash crops such as oil palm
and rubber (Barlow & Jayasuriya, 1986).
In addition to land development and resettlement, FELDA also plays a significant role in
providing social services and amenities to the settler communities. This includes the
establishment of schools, health clinics, community centers, and religious facilities to
promote the overall well-being and social development of the settlers (Arshad & Shamsudin,
1997).
FELDA's areas of activities have primarily focused on the development of oil palm and
rubber plantations, which have been instrumental in driving rural economic growth and
poverty alleviation (Sutton, 1989). As of 2020, FELDA had developed over 850,000 hectares
of land, with oil palm plantations accounting for approximately 80% of the total area
(FELDA, 2020). The agency has also resettled more than 110,000 families, benefiting over
500,000 individuals (FELDA, 2020).
The success of FELDA's land development and resettlement model has been recognized
internationally, with several countries, such as Indonesia, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka, adopting
similar approaches to rural development (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). However, FELDA has
also faced challenges, such as the rising cost of living, the need for sustainable land
management practices, and the diversification of economic activities beyond agriculture
(Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997).

In recent years, FELDA has undertaken various initiatives to address these challenges and
ensure the sustainable development of settler communities. For example, the agency has
introduced the FELDA New Generation Housing Program to provide affordable housing for
second-generation settlers (FELDA, 2020). FELDA has also promoted the adoption of
sustainable agricultural practices, such as integrated pest management and the use of organic
fertilizers, to reduce environmental impacts and improve the long-term viability of the
plantations (FELDA, 2020).
In conclusion, FELDA has played a vital role in managing rural development in Malaysia,
focusing on land development, resettlement, and the socioeconomic upliftment of rural
communities. Through its various roles and functions, FELDA has contributed significantly
to poverty alleviation, rural economic growth, and social development. As the agency
continues to adapt to emerging challenges, its experiences and lessons learned serve as
valuable insights for rural development strategies in Malaysia and beyond.
The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) has a rich history and has undergone
significant development since its establishment in 1956. This chronological overview
highlights the key milestones and transformations of FELDA from its early years to the
present day, including its venture into the corporate sector through the creation of FELDA
Global Ventures (FGV) Bhd.
1956-1970: Establishment and Early Years
FELDA was established under the Land Development Ordinance in 1956 to address rural
poverty, landlessness, and rural-urban migration (Sutton, 1989). During its early years,
FELDA focused on land development and resettlement, primarily in the states of Pahang,
Johor, and Negeri Sembilan (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). By 1970, FELDA had developed
approximately 120,000 hectares of land and resettled around 18,000 families (FELDA, 2020).
1971-1990: Expansion and Diversification
The period from 1971 to 1990 marked a significant expansion and diversification of
FELDA's activities. The agency extended its operations to other states, such as Terengganu,
Kelantan, and Sabah, and increased its focus on oil palm cultivation (Sutton, 1989). FELDA
also began to provide a wider range of support services, including education, healthcare, and
social amenities, to the settler communities (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). By 1990, FELDA
had developed over 800,000 hectares of land and resettled more than 100,000 families
(FELDA, 2020).
1991-2010: Modernization and Sustainability
From 1991 to 2010, FELDA emphasized modernization and sustainability in its operations.
The agency adopted advanced agricultural technologies, such as precision farming and
mechanization, to improve productivity and efficiency (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). FELDA
also implemented various sustainability initiatives, such as integrated pest management and
the use of organic fertilizers, to reduce environmental impacts and ensure the long-term
viability of the plantations (FELDA, 2020). During this period, FELDA also expanded its
international presence, establishing joint ventures and partnerships with companies in
Indonesia, Myanmar, and other countries (FELDA, 2020).
2011-Present: Corporate Transformation and FGV

In 2011, FELDA underwent a significant corporate transformation with the establishment of
FELDA Global Ventures (FGV) Bhd as its commercial arm. FGV was created to manage
FELDA's business operations and expand its presence in the global market (FGV, 2020). In
2012, FGV was listed on the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia, raising approximately RM 10.4
billion in its initial public offering (FGV, 2020). This marked the largest IPO in Malaysia's
history and one of the largest in Southeast Asia (FGV, 2020).
FGV has since diversified its operations beyond plantation management, venturing into
downstream activities such as palm oil refining, oleochemicals, and biodiesel production
(FGV, 2020). The company has also expanded its global presence, with operations in over 10
countries, including Indonesia, Thailand, and the United States (FGV, 2020). In 2020, FGV
reported a revenue of RM 14.1 billion and employed over 35,000 people worldwide (FGV,
2020).
Despite the success of FGV, FELDA has faced challenges in recent years, including
allegations of corruption, financial mismanagement, and issues related to settler well-being
(Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). In response, the Malaysian government has implemented
various reforms, such as the FELDA White Paper and the FELDA New Generation Housing
Program, to address these concerns and ensure the sustainable development of settler
communities (FELDA, 2020).
In conclusion, FELDA's chronological history and development showcase its transformation
from a rural development agency to a global agribusiness player. Through its land
development, resettlement, and support services, FELDA has significantly contributed to
rural poverty alleviation and socioeconomic development in Malaysia. The establishment of

FGV has marked a new chapter in FELDA's history, reflecting its adaptability and resilience
in the face of emerging challenges and opportunities.
The governance of FELDA is a crucial aspect of its role in managing rural development in
Malaysia. As a statutory body under the purview of the Ministry of Economic Affairs,
FELDA is subject to government policies and strategies that guide its operations and
decision-making processes (FELDA, 2020). This section explores the major policies and
strategies assigned to FELDA by the government in its effort to manage rural areas in
Malaysia.
National Land Policy
One of the key policies that govern FELDA's operations is the National Land Policy, which
was introduced in 1992 to ensure the optimal use of land resources for sustainable
development (Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry, 2019). Under this policy,
FELDA is responsible for identifying and acquiring suitable land for development, primarily
focusing on rural areas with high poverty rates and limited economic opportunities (Arshad &
Shamsudin, 1997). The policy also emphasizes the need for proper land use planning,
conservation of natural resources, and the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices
(Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry, 2019).
National Agricultural Policy
The National Agricultural Policy (NAP) is another significant policy that guides FELDA's
strategies in rural development. The NAP, first introduced in 1984 and revised in 1992 and
1998, aims to maximize income from the agricultural sector while ensuring sustainable
development (Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry, 2019). Under the NAP,
FELDA is tasked with promoting the cultivation of high-value crops, such as oil palm and
rubber, and adopting modern agricultural technologies to improve productivity and efficiency
(Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). The policy also encourages the diversification of economic
activities in rural areas, such as agro-tourism and the development of downstream industries
(Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry, 2019).
Rural Development Master Plan
The Rural Development Master Plan (RDMP) is a comprehensive strategy that outlines the
government's vision and objectives for rural development in Malaysia. The RDMP, which
spans from 2010 to 2030, emphasizes the need for inclusive and sustainable rural
development, focusing on poverty eradication, infrastructure development, and the
improvement of the quality of life in rural communities (Ministry of Rural Development,
2010). Under the RDMP, FELDA plays a crucial role in implementing various programs and
initiatives, such as the FELDA New Generation Housing Program, which aims to provide
affordable housing for second-generation settlers (FELDA, 2020).
FELDA Sustainability Policy
In line with the government's commitment to sustainable development, FELDA has adopted a
Sustainability Policy that guides its operations and decision-making processes. The policy,
introduced in 2017, outlines FELDA's approach to environmental, social, and governance
(ESG) issues, focusing on the sustainable management of plantations, the well-being of
settler communities, and the promotion of responsible business practices (FELDA, 2020).
Under this policy, FELDA has implemented various initiatives, such as the FELDA
Sustainable Palm Oil (FSPO) program, which aims to certify all FELDA-owned and
managed plantations under the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) standards by
2025 (FELDA, 2020).
FELDA 2.0 Transformation Plan
In 2019, the Malaysian government introduced the FELDA 2.0 Transformation Plan, which
aims to revitalize and transform FELDA into a more efficient, competitive, and sustainable
organization. The plan focuses on four key areas: governance, financial sustainability, settler
well-being, and the sustainable management of FELDA's assets (FELDA, 2020). Under this
plan, FELDA has undertaken various initiatives, such as the restructuring of its board and
management, the implementation of cost-saving measures, and the introduction of new
income-generating activities for settlers, such as the development of smart farming and eco-
tourism (FELDA, 2020).
In conclusion, the governance of FELDA is guided by a range of government policies and
strategies that aim to promote sustainable rural development in Malaysia. These policies and
strategies, such as the National Land Policy, the National Agricultural Policy, the Rural
Development Master Plan, the FELDA Sustainability Policy, and the FELDA 2.0
Transformation Plan, provide a framework for FELDA's operations and decision-making
processes. By aligning its activities with these policies and strategies, FELDA has been able
to contribute significantly to poverty alleviation, socioeconomic development, and the
sustainable management of rural areas in Malaysia.
In recent years, FELDA's performance in relation to its primary functions has been a topic of
discussion and scrutiny. While the agency has made significant contributions to rural
development and the socioeconomic well-being of its settler communities, it has also faced
challenges and criticisms. This section examines FELDA's recent performance, focusing on
its primary functions, its impact on the socioeconomic well-being of FELDA communities,
and the commentaries from recent chief audit reports.
Performance in Land Development and Settler Well-being
FELDA's primary function is to develop land and resettle rural communities, with a focus on
improving their socioeconomic well-being. As of 2020, FELDA had developed over 850,000
hectares of land and resettled more than 110,000 families across Malaysia (FELDA, 2020).
The agency has been instrumental in transforming rural areas into thriving agricultural
communities, particularly through the cultivation of oil palm and rubber.
However, in recent years, concerns have been raised about the socioeconomic well-being of
FELDA settlers. A study by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) in 2018 found that the
average monthly income of FELDA settlers was RM 1,992, which is lower than the national
average of RM 2,308 (Zainuddin et al., 2018). The study also highlighted issues such as the
rising cost of living, the aging settler population, and the lack of interest among younger
generations in plantation work (Zainuddin et al., 2018).
To address these challenges, FELDA has implemented various initiatives to improve settler
well-being, such as the FELDA New Generation Housing Program, which aims to provide
affordable housing for second-generation settlers (FELDA, 2020). The agency has also
introduced programs to promote entrepreneurship and skills training among settlers, such as
the FELDA Entrepreneur Development Program and the FELDA Skills Training Institute
(FELDA, 2020).
Financial Performance and Governance Issues
FELDA's financial performance and governance have come under scrutiny in recent years. In
2018, the Auditor General's Report highlighted several issues related to FELDA's financial
management, including the accumulation of significant debts, the mismanagement of funds,
and the lack of proper governance structures (National Audit Department, 2018).
The report noted that FELDA's debt had increased from RM 1.2 billion in 2007 to RM 8.0
billion in 2017, largely due to the agency's expansion into non-core businesses and the
mismanagement of funds (National Audit Department, 2018). The report also highlighted
irregularities in the procurement process and the lack of transparency in decision-making
(National Audit Department, 2018).
In response to these findings, the Malaysian government has introduced various measures to
improve FELDA's financial performance and governance. The FELDA 2.0 Transformation
Plan, launched in 2019, aims to restructure FELDA's operations, improve financial
sustainability, and strengthen governance structures (FELDA, 2020). The plan includes
measures such as the divestment of non-core assets, the implementation of cost-saving
initiatives, and the enhancement of internal controls and risk management processes
(FELDA, 2020).
Sustainability and Environmental Concerns
FELDA's performance in managing its plantations and ensuring sustainable practices has also
been a subject of discussion. In 2019, the agency was embroiled in controversy when the
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) suspended the certification of several FELDA-
owned plantations due to non-compliance with sustainability standards (RSPO, 2019). The
suspension was related to issues such as the clearing of peatlands, the lack of proper
environmental impact assessments, and the infringement of indigenous communities' rights
(RSPO, 2019).
To address these concerns, FELDA has taken steps to improve its sustainability practices. In
2020, the agency introduced the FELDA Sustainability Policy, which outlines its commitment
to environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues (FELDA, 2020). The policy includes
measures such as the phasing out of planting on peatlands, the protection of high
conservation value areas, and the engagement with indigenous communities (FELDA, 2020).
FELDA has also set a target to certify all its plantations under the RSPO standards by 2025
(FELDA, 2020).
FELDA's recent performance has been mixed, with the agency making significant
contributions to rural development and settler well-being while also facing challenges related
to financial management, governance, and sustainability. The agency has taken steps to
address these issues through initiatives such as the FELDA 2.0 Transformation Plan and the
FELDA Sustainability Policy. However, more needs to be done to ensure the long-term
viability and sustainability of FELDA and its settler communities.
The Malaysian government's continued support and oversight will be crucial in ensuring that
FELDA remains true to its primary functions and objectives. This includes providing the
necessary resources and policy support to address the socioeconomic challenges faced by
settlers, strengthening governance structures to improve accountability and transparency, and
promoting sustainable practices to ensure the long-term viability of FELDA's plantations.

In conclusion, while FELDA has faced challenges in recent years, its role in rural
development and poverty alleviation remains significant. By addressing the issues
highlighted in this section and adapting to changing socioeconomic and environmental
contexts, FELDA can continue to play a vital role in enhancing the well-being of its settler
communities and contributing to the sustainable development of Malaysia's rural areas.
1.6. Felda Community, Settlements and Socioeconomi Conditions
The FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority) community is a unique and integral part
of Malaysia's rural landscape. Established in 1956, FELDA has been instrumental in
resettling and providing land for landless rural populations, creating a distinct community of
settlers across the country. This section delves into the background, nature, demography, and
emerging issues faced by the FELDA community.
The FELDA community consists of settlers who have been allocated land by the government
through the FELDA scheme. These settlers, primarily from rural and economically
disadvantaged backgrounds, are provided with land, housing, and support services to engage
in agricultural activities, mainly focusing on oil palm and rubber cultivation (Sutton, 1989).
The FELDA scheme has been a key driver of rural development and poverty alleviation in
Malaysia, with the FELDA community playing a significant role in the country's agricultural
sector.
FELDA settlements are designed as self-contained communities, equipped with basic
infrastructure and amenities such as schools, health clinics, community centers, and religious
facilities (Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997). This has created a strong sense of community and
social cohesion among FELDA settlers, who often work together in agricultural activities and
participate in community events and programs.
As of 2020, there are 112,635 FELDA settler families, with a total population of
approximately 2 million people across 317 FELDA settlements nationwide (FELDA, 2020).
The majority of FELDA settlers are ethnic Malays, with a smaller proportion of indigenous
communities (Orang Asli) and other ethnic groups.
The FELDA community has a relatively young population, with a median age of 30 years
(FELDA, 2020). However, there is a growing concern about the aging settler population, as
the first generation of settlers approaches retirement age. This has implications for the future
of FELDA settlements, as the younger generation may not be as interested in pursuing
agricultural activities (Zainuddin et al., 2018).
The FELDA community faces several emerging issues that impact their socioeconomic well-
being and the sustainability of the FELDA scheme. These include:
1. Income and Cost of Living
Despite the FELDA scheme's success in poverty alleviation, there are concerns about the
income levels and cost of living among FELDA settlers. A study by the Malaysian Palm Oil
Board (MPOB) in 2018 found that the average monthly income of FELDA settlers was RM
1,992, which is lower than the national average of RM 2,308 (Zainuddin et al., 2018). The
rising cost of living, coupled with the volatility of commodity prices, has put pressure on the
financial well-being of FELDA settlers.

2. Generational Transition
As the first generation of FELDA settlers ages, there is a growing concern about the
generational transition within the FELDA community. Many younger settlers are opting to
pursue non-agricultural careers or migrate to urban areas for better opportunities (Zainuddin
et al., 2018). This has led to a shortage of labor in FELDA settlements and raises questions
about the long-term viability of the FELDA scheme.
3. Social Issues
The FELDA community also faces various social issues, such as drug abuse, teenage
pregnancy, and crime (Malek et al., 2019). These issues are often linked to the lack of
economic opportunities and the changing aspirations of the younger generation. Addressing
these social challenges is crucial for the overall well-being and development of the FELDA
community.
4. Sustainable Agricultural Practices
As the world becomes more environmentally conscious, there is growing pressure on the
FELDA community to adopt sustainable agricultural practices. This includes reducing the use
of pesticides and fertilizers, protecting natural habitats, and ensuring the rights of indigenous
communities (Pye, 2019). FELDA has taken steps to promote sustainable practices, such as
the FELDA Sustainability Policy, but more needs to be done to ensure the long-term
sustainability of the FELDA scheme.
The FELDA community is a testament to Malaysia's commitment to rural development and
poverty alleviation. Through the FELDA scheme, countless lives have been transformed, and
a strong sense of community has been fostered. However, as the FELDA community faces
emerging challenges, it is crucial for policymakers, FELDA management, and the settlers
themselves to work together to address these issues.
This includes implementing programs to improve the income and living standards of FELDA
settlers, promoting skills development and entrepreneurship among the younger generation,
addressing social issues through community-based initiatives, and adopting sustainable
agricultural practices. By doing so, the FELDA community can continue to thrive and
contribute to the sustainable development of Malaysia's rural areas.
FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority) settlements are a significant component of
Malaysia's rural landscape, contributing to the country's agricultural sector and rural
development. These settlements were established to provide land and support services to
landless rural populations, creating self-contained communities focused on agricultural
activities. This section explores the background, nature, demography, and some of the leading
FELDA settlements in Malaysia.
FELDA settlements were established as part of the government's rural development and
poverty alleviation initiatives. Launched in 1956, the FELDA scheme aimed to resettle
landless rural populations and provide them with land, housing, and support services to
engage in agricultural activities, mainly oil palm and rubber cultivation (Sutton, 1989). The
settlements were designed as self-contained communities, equipped with basic infrastructure
and amenities such as schools, health clinics, community centers, and religious facilities
(Arshad & Shamsudin, 1997).

Each FELDA settler is typically allocated between 4 to 10 hectares of land, depending on the
type of crop and the location of the settlement (FELDA, 2020). The settlers are required to
work on their allocated land and sell their produce to FELDA, which provides them with a
stable income and access to markets.
As of 2020, there are 317 FELDA settlements across Malaysia, with a total population of
approximately 2 million people (FELDA, 2020). The majority of FELDA settlers are ethnic
Malays, with a smaller proportion of indigenous communities (Orang Asli) and other ethnic
groups.
The age structure of FELDA settlements is relatively young, with a median age of 30 years
(FELDA, 2020). However, there is a growing concern about the aging settler population, as
the first generation of settlers approaches retirement age. This demographic shift has
implications for the future of FELDA settlements, as the younger generation may not be as
interested in pursuing agricultural activities (Zainuddin et al., 2018).
Some of the leading FELDA settlements in Malaysia include:
1. FELDA Lurah Bilut, Pahang
Established in 1958, FELDA Lurah Bilut is one of the oldest and largest FELDA settlements
in Malaysia. Located in the state of Pahang, the settlement covers an area of 5,859 hectares
and has a population of approximately 15,000 settlers (FELDA, 2020). The main crops
cultivated in this settlement are oil palm and rubber.
2. FELDA Sahabat, Sabah

FELDA Sahabat, located in the state of Sabah, is the largest FELDA settlement in Malaysia.
Established in 1979, the settlement covers an area of 130,000 hectares and has a population
of over 100,000 settlers (FELDA, 2020). The main crop cultivated in this settlement is oil
palm, making it a significant contributor to Malaysia's palm oil industry.
3. FELDA Jengka, Pahang
FELDA Jengka, situated in the state of Pahang, is another prominent FELDA settlement.
Established in 1967, the settlement consists of 23 sub-schemes and has a total population of
approximately 50,000 settlers (FELDA, 2020). The main crops cultivated in this settlement
are oil palm and rubber.
FELDA settlements have played a vital role in Malaysia's rural development and poverty
alleviation efforts. These self-contained communities have provided land, housing, and
support services to landless rural populations, enabling them to engage in agricultural
activities and improve their socioeconomic well-being. The leading FELDA settlements, such
as FELDA Lurah Bilut, FELDA Sahabat, and FELDA Jengka, exemplify the success of the
FELDA scheme in transforming rural areas and contributing to the country's agricultural
sector.
As FELDA settlements continue to evolve, it is essential for policymakers, FELDA
management, and settlers to work together to ensure the sustainable development and long-
term viability of these communities. By addressing the needs and aspirations of the settlers,
FELDA settlements can continue to thrive and contribute to the socioeconomic well-being of
Malaysia's rural population.

The socioeconomic well-being of the community in FELDA settlement areas is a crucial
aspect that requires attention and improvement. Despite the initial success of the FELDA
scheme in providing land, housing, and support services to settlers, various challenges have
emerged that impact the quality of life and socioeconomic status of the FELDA community.
This section explores the reality of these issues and the need to enhance the socioeconomic
well-being of FELDA settlers.
Income and Poverty
One of the primary concerns for FELDA settlers is their income levels and the prevalence of
poverty. A study by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) in 2018 revealed that the average
monthly income of FELDA settlers was RM 1,992, which is lower than the national average
of RM 2,308 (Zainuddin et al., 2018). This disparity in income highlights the need for
initiatives to improve the economic status of FELDA settlers.
Furthermore, a report by the World Bank in 2020 indicated that the poverty rate among
FELDA settlers was 6.4%, higher than the national poverty rate of 5.6% (World Bank, 2020).
This suggests that despite the FELDA scheme's efforts to alleviate poverty, there is still a
need for targeted interventions to address the issue of poverty among FELDA settlers.
Education and Skills Development
Education and skills development are crucial factors in enhancing the socioeconomic well-
being of FELDA settlers. However, studies have shown that the educational attainment and
skill levels among FELDA settlers are relatively low compared to the national average. A
survey by the FELDA Youth Council in 2019 found that only 12% of FELDA youth had
tertiary education, compared to the national average of 31% (FELDA Youth Council, 2019).
The lack of higher education and skills training limits the employment opportunities and
income potential of FELDA settlers, particularly the younger generation. To address this
issue, there is a need for initiatives that promote access to quality education and vocational
training programs tailored to the needs of the FELDA community (Malek et al., 2019).
Health and Well-being
The health and well-being of FELDA settlers are also important aspects of their
socioeconomic status. Studies have indicated that FELDA settlers face various health
challenges, including a higher prevalence of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and
hypertension compared to the national average (Yahya et al., 2019).
Moreover, the limited access to quality healthcare services in some FELDA settlement areas
can exacerbate health issues and impact the overall well-being of settlers. A study by the
Ministry of Health in 2018 found that only 68% of FELDA settlements had a health clinic,
compared to the national average of 85% (Ministry of Health, 2018).
To improve the health and well-being of FELDA settlers, there is a need for targeted health
promotion programs, improved access to healthcare services, and initiatives that address the
social determinants of health, such as income, education, and living conditions (Yahya et al.,
2019).
Social Issues and Community Development

FELDA settlements also face various social issues that impact the socioeconomic well-being
of settlers. These include drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, crime, and the erosion of traditional
family and community values (Malek et al., 2019).
To address these social issues, there is a need for community development programs that
promote social cohesion, leadership, and the empowerment of FELDA settlers. This can
include initiatives such as youth development programs, community-based organizations, and
the promotion of cultural and recreational activities (Malek et al., 2019).
The socioeconomic well-being of the community in FELDA settlement areas is a
multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive approach. While the FELDA scheme has
contributed to the development of rural areas and the improvement of settlers' lives, various
challenges related to income, poverty, education, health, and social issues persist.
To enhance the socioeconomic well-being of FELDA settlers, there is a need for targeted
interventions and policies that address these challenges holistically. This includes initiatives
to improve income levels and reduce poverty, promote access to quality education and skills
training, enhance health and well-being, and foster community development and social
cohesion.
By addressing these issues and empowering FELDA settlers, policymakers, FELDA
management, and the community can work together to create a more inclusive, sustainable,
and prosperous future for the FELDA settlements.
2. Problem Statement
The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) has been a pivotal institution in
Malaysia, tasked with uplifting the socioeconomic conditions of rural settlers, particularly
within FELDA settlements. Since its establishment in 1956, FELDA has played a significant
role in the development of the agricultural sector and the improvement of the socioeconomic
well-being of its settlers (Arshad & Shamsudin, 2011). As of 2020, FELDA manages 317
land schemes, covering an area of 853,313 hectares and benefiting 112,635 settlers (FELDA,
2021). However, despite its significant role, there remains a critical need to comprehensively
assess the effectiveness of FELDA's policies and strategies in achieving sustainable
socioeconomic development within these settlements. A study by Hussain et al. (2020)
highlighted the need for a more in-depth evaluation of FELDA's impact on the
socioeconomic well-being of its settlers. This study seeks to address this gap by examining
the strategic role of FELDA in enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA
community in selected settlements across Malaysia from 2000 to the present.
The fundamental issue lies in understanding whether FELDA's interventions have effectively
translated into tangible improvements in the socioeconomic conditions of the FELDA
community. While FELDA has implemented various policies and initiatives aimed at
fostering development, the extent of their impact and effectiveness remains uncertain. A
report by the World Bank (2019) emphasized the importance of assessing the effectiveness of
rural development policies in Malaysia, including those implemented by FELDA. Moreover,
the challenges and barriers faced by FELDA in realizing its socioeconomic development
objectives within the selected settlements need to be identified and addressed to ensure
sustainable progress. Shamsuddin et al. (2015) highlighted the need for a comprehensive
analysis of the challenges faced by FELDA in promoting socioeconomic development among
its settlers.
There are several research gaps that need to be addressed in the study of FELDA's role in
enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of its community. Firstly, there is a gap in
understanding the implementation and effectiveness of FELDA's policies and strategies for
socioeconomic development within FELDA settlements. Existing studies often lack a
comprehensive analysis of the various initiatives undertaken by FELDA and their impact on
the ground (Hussain et al., 2020). Secondly, while FELDA aims to improve key
socioeconomic indicators such as income levels, employment opportunities, education, and
healthcare access, there is a lack of detailed assessment regarding the extent of improvement
in these areas among the FELDA community (Arshad & Shamsudin, 2011). Thirdly, the
effectiveness of FELDA's collaboration with governmental agencies, non-governmental
organizations, and private enterprises in enhancing socioeconomic wellbeing within FELDA
settlements remains underexplored. Understanding the dynamics of these collaborations is
essential for identifying best practices and areas for improvement (World Bank, 2019). Lastly,
while FELDA has made strides in socioeconomic development, there exist persistent
challenges and barriers that hinder its efforts. However, there is limited research addressing
these challenges comprehensively, thereby impeding the formulation of targeted solutions
(Shamsuddin et al., 2015).
This topic deserves further academic attention due to its implications for policy formulation
and socioeconomic development in Malaysia. Understanding the effectiveness of FELDA's
interventions and addressing the identified gaps can inform evidence-based policymaking and
improve the livelihoods of the FELDA community. As highlighted by the World Bank (2019),
evaluating the impact of rural development policies is crucial for promoting inclusive growth
and reducing poverty. Additionally, given FELDA's historical significance and ongoing
relevance in Malaysia's development trajectory, a thorough examination of its strategic role is
crucial for advancing scholarly discourse on rural development and governance in the context
of emerging economies (Arshad & Shamsudin, 2011).
3. Research Questions
Based on the above problem statement, this study proposed the following research questions:
1. How have FELDA policies and strategies for socioeconomic development been
implemented within selected FELDA settlements in Malaysia since 2000?
2. What is the impact of FELDA initiatives on income levels, employment opportunities,
education, and healthcare access among the FELDA community?
3. How effective are FELDA's collaborations with governmental agencies, non-governmental
organizations, and private enterprises in enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of FELDA
settlements?
4. What are the primary challenges and barriers faced by FELDA in achieving its
socioeconomic development objectives within the selected settlements?
5. What recommendations can be proposed to enhance FELDA's strategic role in promoting
sustainable socioeconomic development and improving the overall wellbeing of the FELDA
community in Malaysia, based on successful examples of implementation and outcomes
within selected settlements?
4. Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to examine and explain the strategic role of FELDA in
enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of FELDA community in selected FELDA
settlements in Malaysia since the year 2000 to the present time. in doing so, this study will
use the hybrid approach, combining both the Welfare State Theory and the Development
State Theory, as its framework of analysis.
While the specific objectives of this study are as follows:
1. To investigate the implementation of FELDA policies and strategies aimed at
socioeconomic development within selected FELDA settlements in Malaysia from 2000 to
present.
2. To assess the impact of FELDA initiatives on key socioeconomic indicators such as income
levels, employment opportunities, education, and healthcare access among the FELDA
community.
3. To analyze the effectiveness of FELDA's collaboration with various stakeholders,
including governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and private enterprises, in
enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of FELDA settlements.
4. To explore the challenges and barriers faced by FELDA in achieving its socioeconomic
development objectives within the selected settlements.
5. To propose recommendations for enhancing the strategic role of FELDA in promoting
sustainable socioeconomic development and improving the overall wellbeing of the FELDA
community in Malaysia, including an in-depth examination of a specific example of
FELDA's strategic role and efforts in a selected settlement, illustrating successful
implementation and outcomes.

This study, in particular, aims to demonstrate that FELDA, through its strategic interventions
and policies, plays a crucial role in enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA
community in selected settlements across Malaysia. By employing a hybrid approach
combining Welfare State Theory and Development State Theory, the study seeks to provide a
comprehensive analysis of FELDA's impact on socioeconomic development.
Through investigating the implementation of FELDA's policies and strategies since 2000, the
study aims to reveal the extent to which these initiatives have contributed to socioeconomic
progress within FELDA settlements. It will assess key indicators such as income levels,
employment opportunities, education, and healthcare access to gauge the tangible impact of
FELDA's interventions on the lives of the FELDA community.
Furthermore, the study will analyze the effectiveness of FELDA's collaborations with various
stakeholders, including governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and private
enterprises. This analysis will shed light on the importance of partnerships in achieving
sustainable socioeconomic development within FELDA settlements.
In exploring the challenges and barriers faced by FELDA in achieving its socioeconomic
development objectives, the study aims to identify areas for improvement and inform future
policy directions. By addressing these challenges, FELDA can enhance its effectiveness in
promoting the overall wellbeing of the FELDA community.
Ultimately, the study will propose recommendations aimed at enhancing FELDA's strategic
role in fostering sustainable socioeconomic development. By providing an in-depth
examination of a specific example illustrating successful implementation and outcomes of

FELDA's strategic efforts in a selected settlement, the study will offer practical insights for
policymakers and stakeholders to replicate and scale successful initiatives.
While the expected outcomes of this study are as follows:
1. A comprehensive understanding of FELDA's strategic role in enhancing the socioeconomic
wellbeing of the FELDA community.
2. Insight into the impact of FELDA's policies and strategies on key socioeconomic
indicators.
3. Identification of effective collaboration mechanisms for achieving socioeconomic
development goals.
4. Recognition of challenges and barriers hindering FELDA's socioeconomic development
objectives.
5. Recommendations for enhancing FELDA's strategic role and improving the overall
wellbeing of the FELDA community, based on empirical evidence and analysis.
5. Scope and Limitations of the Study
The study will focus on examining the strategic role of FELDA in enhancing the
socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA community in selected settlements across Malaysia
from 2000 to the present. The geographical scope will cover representative FELDA
settlements, while the time frame allows for an analysis of the evolution of FELDA's policies
and strategies over the past two decades (FELDA, 2021). The study will assess the impact of
FELDA's initiatives on key socioeconomic indicators, including income levels, employment
opportunities, education, and healthcare access (Arshad & Shamsudin, 2011). It will
investigate the implementation and effectiveness of FELDA's policies and strategies, analyze
stakeholder collaboration (World Bank, 2019), and explore challenges and barriers to
socioeconomic development (Shamsuddin et al., 2015). The study will employ a hybrid
approach, combining Welfare State Theory and Development State Theory, to provide a
comprehensive framework for analysis (Hussain et al., 2020).
The study's findings may have limited generalizability due to variations in local contexts and
conditions across FELDA settlements (Hussain et al., 2020). Data availability and stakeholder
participation may impact the depth and breadth of the analysis (World Bank, 2019). Time and
resource constraints may limit exhaustive primary data collection and analysis, while
subjectivity in qualitative analysis requires careful triangulation and validation of findings
(Shamsuddin et al., 2015). The study acknowledges the complexity of socioeconomic
development, influenced by factors beyond FELDA's control (Arshad & Shamsudin, 2011).
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may pose challenges in conducting field research and
engaging with stakeholders (FELDA, 2021).
6. Significances of the Study
This study holds significant implications for various stakeholders involved in the
socioeconomic development of rural communities in Malaysia. Firstly, it will provide
policymakers and FELDA administrators with a comprehensive understanding of the
effectiveness of current policies and strategies in enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of
the FELDA community (Hussain et al., 2020). The findings will guide evidence-based
decision-making and resource allocation to optimize the impact of FELDA's initiatives
(World Bank, 2019).

Secondly, the study will contribute to the academic discourse on rural development and the
role of state-led interventions in promoting socioeconomic progress (Arshad & Shamsudin,
2011). By employing a hybrid approach combining Welfare State Theory and Development
State Theory, the study offers a novel theoretical perspective on understanding the dynamics
of rural development in the Malaysian context (Shamsuddin et al., 2015).
Thirdly, the study's findings will be valuable to other rural development agencies and
practitioners seeking to learn from FELDA's experiences and best practices (FELDA, 2021).
The identification of effective collaboration mechanisms and the examination of successful
implementation examples will provide practical insights for replicating and scaling successful
initiatives in other rural communities (World Bank, 2019).
Fourthly, the study will benefit the FELDA community by highlighting their socioeconomic
challenges and advocating for targeted interventions to address their needs (Hussain et al.,
2020). The recommendations proposed by the study will guide efforts to enhance the overall
wellbeing of FELDA settlers and ensure the sustainability of their livelihoods (Shamsuddin et
al., 2015).
Lastly, the study will contribute to the broader discourse on sustainable development and the
role of state institutions in achieving the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) (United Nations, 2021). By examining FELDA's strategic role in promoting
socioeconomic development, the study will provide insights into the challenges and
opportunities of aligning rural development efforts with the SDGs (Arshad & Shamsudin,
2011).
7. Structure of the Study
The study will be structured into five major chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to
the research, offering background information on the study's focus on the strategic role of
FELDA in enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of FELDA communities in Malaysia. It
outlines the specific objectives of the study, highlighting the significance of investigating
FELDA's policies and strategies in socioeconomic development. This chapter also defines
key terms and provides an overview of the study's scope and limitations.
In Chapter 2, a comprehensive literature review will be conducted. This section will explore
previous studies on FELDA's socioeconomic development initiatives, Welfare State Theory,
Development State Theory, and the theoretical and empirical perspectives on sustainable
socioeconomic development. It will identify gaps in existing literature to contextualize the
current research.
Chapter 3 will detail the methodology employed in the study, including the research design,
selection of FELDA settlements, data collection methods, sampling techniques, data analysis
plan, and ethical considerations.
In Chapter 4, the results of the study will be presented and discussed. This section will
address the implementation of FELDA policies and strategies for socioeconomic
development, the impact of FELDA initiatives on socioeconomic indicators, the effectiveness
of FELDA's collaboration with stakeholders, and the challenges and barriers faced in
achieving socioeconomic development objectives. Furthermore, this chapter will include a

detailed analysis of a specific example illustrating FELDA's strategic role and efforts in a
selected settlement. Findings will be discussed in relation to theoretical frameworks, with
implications drawn for policy and practice.
Finally, Chapter 5 will offer conclusions drawn from the study's findings, summarizing key
points, and providing recommendations for enhancing FELDA's strategic role in promoting
sustainable socioeconomic development. It will also suggest areas for future research and
offer final remarks.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Introduction to the Chapter
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature related to the strategic role of
the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) in enhancing the socioeconomic
wellbeing of the FELDA community within selected settlements in Malaysia. Since the year
2000, FELDA has been a pivotal institution in Malaysia's rural development, particularly in
providing land and opportunities for rural communities. This chapter aims to delve into the
significance of FELDA's role and its impact on socioeconomic development within its
settlements.
The literature review section will examine previous studies, scholarly articles, and reports
that have explored various aspects of FELDA's initiatives and their effects on the
socioeconomic wellbeing of its community members. It will encompass research on

FELDA's policies, strategies, and programs implemented since 2000, as well as their
outcomes and implications. By synthesizing existing literature, this review will provide a
foundation for understanding the current state of knowledge and identifying areas that require
further investigation.
Furthermore, this chapter will identify gaps in the existing literature, pinpointing areas where
additional research is needed to enhance understanding of FELDA's strategic role in
socioeconomic development. These research gaps will guide the current study in addressing
unanswered questions and contributing new insights to the field.
The literature review will also elucidate the central concept of the study, which is to examine
and explain how FELDA's interventions have impacted the socioeconomic wellbeing of the
FELDA community. By exploring the concept in depth, this section will provide clarity on
the study's focus and objectives.
Moreover, this chapter will introduce the proposed theoretical framework that underpins the
study's analysis. The hybrid approach, combining Welfare State Theory and Development
State Theory, will be discussed in detail to illustrate its relevance to understanding FELDA's
strategic role in socioeconomic development. This theoretical framework will serve as a lens
through which to interpret and analyze the data collected in the subsequent chapters,
providing a structured approach to examining FELDA's initiatives and their outcomes.
In summary, this chapter will serve as a foundation for the research by reviewing relevant
literature, identifying gaps, explaining the study's concept, and outlining the proposed
theoretical framework and framework of analysis. Through this comprehensive review, the
study aims to contribute to the understanding of FELDA's role in enhancing the
socioeconomic wellbeing of its community members and inform future research and policy
directions.
2. Review of Existing Literature
In the proposed literature review section, various aspects of rural development will be
discussed comprehensively. This includes examining rural development in perspective,
elucidating its significance and evolution. Furthermore, the discourse will cover the
intersection of rural development with socioeconomic wellbeing issues, highlighting the
challenges and disparities that necessitate targeted interventions. The governmental role in
rural development will be explored, emphasizing the importance of state intervention in
addressing rural development goals. Subsequently, an analysis of government policies and
strategies in rural development will be conducted to understand the approaches taken to
alleviate rural poverty and enhance livelihoods. FELDA's significant role in Malaysian rural
development will also be examined, emphasizing its historical contributions and evolution in
facilitating socioeconomic advancement within rural areas. Additionally, the section will
review previous studies on FELDA's socioeconomic development initiatives to synthesize
existing knowledge and identify gaps in research.
2.1. Rural Development in Perspective
Rural development is a critical aspect of overall national development, as it aims to improve
the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas. These areas often
face unique challenges, such as limited access to resources, infrastructure, and opportunities,
which can hinder their growth and development (World Bank, 2021). The concept of rural
development has evolved over time, moving from a narrow focus on agricultural productivity
to a more comprehensive approach that addresses the diverse needs of rural communities
(OECD, 2020). This essay will delve deeper into the general concept and issues of rural
development from the perspective of recent literature, providing more detailed insights and
examples supported by relevant statistics, facts, and figures.
The shift towards a more holistic approach to rural development recognizes the significance
of non-farm activities in driving rural economic growth and reducing poverty (Imai et al.,
2020). These activities include small-scale industries, services, and tourism, which have the
potential to create employment opportunities and generate income for rural households
(Nagler & Naudé, 2017). A study by Diao et al. (2019) in sub-Saharan Africa found that non-
farm activities contributed to 40-60% of rural household income, emphasizing their crucial
role in rural development. Similarly, a study by Himanshu et al. (2020) in India showed that
the share of non-farm income in rural households increased from 34% in 1993-94 to 58% in
2011-12, indicating a significant shift in rural livelihood patterns.
Despite the growing importance of non-farm activities, the persistent gap between urban and
rural areas remains a major issue in rural development (United Nations, 2021). The World
Bank (2020) estimates that approximately 80% of the world's extreme poor reside in rural
areas, often lacking access to basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and electricity.
This disparity is particularly pronounced in developing countries, where rural poverty rates
can be twice as high as those in urban areas (FAO, 2019). For instance, in sub-Saharan
Africa, the rural poverty rate was 48% in 2015, compared to 31% in urban areas (World
Bank, 2018).
To tackle these challenges, governments and development organizations have implemented
various rural development programs and policies aimed at improving agricultural
productivity, promoting rural entrepreneurship, investing in rural infrastructure, and
enhancing access to education and healthcare (IFAD, 2021). One notable example is the
Indian government's Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA), which has provided employment opportunities to millions of rural households,
helping to reduce poverty and improve rural infrastructure (Sharma & Didwania, 2021). A
study by Bhargava (2014) found that MGNREGA had a positive impact on rural wage rates,
with a 5.3% increase in real agricultural wages between 2006 and 2012.
Empowering rural communities, particularly women and marginalized groups, is another
crucial aspect of rural development. Studies have shown that empowering rural women
through education, skills training, and access to resources can significantly contribute to rural
development outcomes (Quisumbing et al., 2021). A study by Meinzen-Dick et al. (2019) in
Bangladesh found that women's participation in agricultural decision-making was associated
with higher household income and improved food security. Similarly, a study by Doss et al.
(2018) across six sub-Saharan African countries showed that women's land rights were
positively associated with household welfare and food security.
Climate change and environmental sustainability are also critical issues in rural development,
as rural communities are often the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (IPCC,
2019). Sustainable rural development strategies must therefore incorporate climate change
adaptation and mitigation measures, as well as promote the sustainable use of natural
resources (FAO, 2021). A study by Asfaw et al. (2019) in Ethiopia found that farmers who
adopted sustainable land management practices, such as soil and water conservation, had
higher crop yields and were more resilient to climate shocks compared to those who did not
adopt such practices.
Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has exposed and exacerbated the vulnerabilities of rural
communities, highlighting the need for resilient and inclusive rural development strategies
(OECD, 2021). The pandemic has disrupted food supply chains, reduced remittances, and
limited access to markets and services, disproportionately affecting rural households (FAO,
2020). A study by Ceballos et al. (2020) in India found that the lockdown measures
implemented during the pandemic led to a 62% drop in rural household income and a 37%
increase in poverty.
In conclusion, rural development is a multidimensional process that requires a comprehensive
approach to address the diverse needs and challenges of rural communities. Recent literature
emphasizes the importance of non-farm activities, empowerment of rural communities,
environmental sustainability, and resilience in achieving successful rural development
outcomes. By investing in rural infrastructure, promoting rural entrepreneurship, empowering
marginalized groups, and adopting sustainable practices, governments and development
organizations can help bridge the urban-rural divide and improve the quality of life for
millions of people living in rural areas. As the world grapples with the impacts of the
COVID-19 pandemic, it is more crucial than ever to prioritize inclusive and resilient rural
development strategies to ensure that no one is left behind.
2.2. Rural Development and Socioeconomic Wellbeing Issues

Rural development and social well-being are intrinsically linked, as the improvement of
living conditions and the overall quality of life in rural areas is a key objective of rural
development efforts. Social well-being encompasses various aspects, such as access to
education, healthcare, social services, and opportunities for social and economic participation
(OECD, 2021). This essay will explore the rural development aspects and social well-being
issues, drawing upon relevant and recent literature, statistics, facts, figures, and examples.
One of the primary aspects of rural development that directly impacts social well-being is
access to education. Education is a fundamental human right and a crucial driver of social and
economic development (UNESCO, 2021). However, rural areas often face challenges in
providing quality education due to factors such as limited resources, infrastructure, and
qualified teachers (World Bank, 2020). A study by Echazarra and Radinger (2019) across 65
countries found that students in rural schools were more likely to be socioeconomically
disadvantaged and perform lower in reading, mathematics, and science compared to their
urban counterparts. Improving access to quality education in rural areas can have far-reaching
positive impacts on social well-being, as it enhances individual capabilities, employment
opportunities, and overall community development (Atchoarena et al., 2018).
Healthcare is another critical aspect of rural development that significantly influences social
well-being. Rural communities often face barriers in accessing quality healthcare services,
such as distance to health facilities, shortage of healthcare professionals, and limited
resources (WHO, 2020). A study by Wong et al. (2021) in China found that rural residents
had a higher prevalence of chronic diseases and lower utilization of healthcare services
compared to urban residents. Similarly, a study by Agarwal et al. (2021) in India highlighted
the disparities in maternal and child health outcomes between rural and urban areas, with
rural women having lower rates of institutional deliveries and antenatal care. Improving
access to quality healthcare in rural areas through investments in infrastructure, telemedicine,
and capacity building of healthcare workers can significantly enhance social well-being
(Strasser et al., 2019).
Social protection and social services are also vital components of rural development that
contribute to social well-being. Social protection programs, such as cash transfers, public
works, and social insurance, can help reduce poverty, vulnerability, and inequality in rural
areas (FAO, 2021). A study by Hidrobo et al. (2018) across six countries found that cash
transfer programs had positive impacts on food security, dietary diversity, and school
enrollment among rural households. Social services, such as child protection, elderly care,
and support for persons with disabilities, are also essential for promoting social inclusion and
well-being in rural communities (UNICEF, 2019). However, rural areas often face challenges
in accessing and delivering social services due to limited resources and infrastructure (UNDP,
2021).
The promotion of inclusive and sustainable livelihoods is another key aspect of rural
development that influences social well-being. Diversifying rural livelihoods beyond
agriculture, such as through the development of non-farm activities and rural
entrepreneurship, can create employment opportunities, increase income, and reduce
vulnerability to shocks (IFAD, 2021). A study by Diao et al. (2019) in Ghana found that the
growth of the rural non-farm economy had a significant positive impact on poverty reduction
and income equality. Similarly, a study by Meemken and Bellemare (2020) across 63
countries showed that smallholder farmers who participated in contract farming had higher
incomes and greater food security compared to those who did not. Promoting inclusive and
sustainable livelihoods in rural areas can enhance social well-being by improving economic
security, reducing poverty, and promoting social cohesion.
Gender equality and women's empowerment are also critical aspects of rural development
that have direct implications for social well-being. Rural women often face multiple forms of
discrimination and have limited access to resources, services, and decision-making
opportunities (UN Women, 2020). A study by Quisumbing et al. (2021) across six countries
found that empowering women in agriculture through access to resources, training, and
markets led to improved household food security, nutrition, and education outcomes.
Similarly, a study by Malapit et al. (2020) in Bangladesh showed that women's empowerment
in agriculture was positively associated with maternal and child dietary diversity. Promoting
gender equality and women's empowerment in rural areas can significantly enhance social
well-being by reducing gender-based disparities and improving overall household and
community well-being.
In conclusion, rural development and social well-being are closely intertwined, with various
aspects of rural development having direct impacts on the quality of life and overall well-
being of rural communities. Access to education, healthcare, social protection, and social
services, as well as the promotion of inclusive and sustainable livelihoods and gender
equality, are critical components of rural development that contribute to social well-being. By
addressing these aspects through targeted interventions, investments, and policies,
governments and development organizations can significantly improve the living conditions
and overall well-being of rural populations. As the world strives to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals, prioritizing rural development and social well-being will be essential for
ensuring that no one is left behind.

2.3. Government Role in Rural Development
The government plays a crucial role in rural development, as it is responsible for formulating
policies, allocating resources, and implementing programs that address the diverse needs and
challenges of rural communities. Governments at various levels, from national to local, have
the power to shape the trajectory of rural development and influence the living conditions and
well-being of rural populations (OECD, 2020). This essay will explore the government's role
in rural development, drawing upon relevant and recent literature, statistics, facts, figures,
and examples.
One of the primary roles of the government in rural development is the formulation and
implementation of comprehensive rural development policies and strategies. These policies
aim to address the multidimensional aspects of rural development, such as agriculture,
infrastructure, education, healthcare, and social services (FAO, 2021). A study by Gao et al.
(2021) in China found that the government's targeted poverty alleviation program, which
focused on improving infrastructure, education, and healthcare in poor rural areas, led to a
significant reduction in poverty rates from 10.2% in 2012 to 0.6% in 2019. Similarly, a study
by Akinola and Adegoke (2021) in Nigeria highlighted the importance of government policies
in promoting rural entrepreneurship and diversifying rural livelihoods.
Investment in rural infrastructure is another key area where the government plays a vital role
in rural development. Infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, irrigation, and
telecommunications, is essential for improving connectivity, productivity, and access to
markets and services in rural areas (World Bank, 2020). A study by Aggarwal (2018) in India
found that the government's rural road construction program (PMGSY) had positive impacts
on rural employment, agricultural productivity, and access to education and healthcare.
Similarly, a study by Abro et al. (2021) in Pakistan showed that government investment in
rural electrification led to increased non-farm employment and household income.
The government also plays a crucial role in providing and regulating social services in rural
areas, such as education, healthcare, and social protection. Access to quality education and
healthcare is essential for building human capital and improving the overall well-being of
rural populations (UNESCO, 2021; WHO, 2020). A study by Bashir et al. (2018) in
Bangladesh found that government investment in rural primary education had positive
impacts on school enrollment, completion rates, and learning outcomes. Similarly, a study by
Ataguba et al. (2020) in South Africa highlighted the importance of government health
financing in reducing inequalities in healthcare access and outcomes between rural and urban
areas.
Promoting inclusive and sustainable agricultural development is another key area where the
government plays a significant role. Agriculture remains the backbone of many rural
economies, and government policies and programs can significantly influence agricultural
productivity, sustainability, and rural livelihoods (FAO, 2021). A study by Jayne and Sanchez
(2021) across six African countries found that government input subsidy programs had
positive impacts on maize yields and food security among smallholder farmers. However, the
study also highlighted the need for complementary investments in extension services, market
infrastructure, and risk management to ensure long-term sustainability.
The government also plays a vital role in promoting rural entrepreneurship and non-farm
employment, which are essential for diversifying rural livelihoods and reducing poverty
(IFAD, 2021). A study by Diao et al. (2019) in Ethiopia found that government policies
promoting rural industrialization and entrepreneurship had positive impacts on non-farm
employment and rural income growth. Similarly, a study by Ngoma et al. (2021) in Zambia
showed that government support for rural micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs)
through access to finance, training, and markets led to increased employment and income.
Effective governance and decentralization are also crucial aspects of the government's role in
rural development. Decentralization involves the transfer of power, resources, and
responsibilities from central to local governments, which can improve the responsiveness,
accountability, and participation of rural communities in development processes (UNDP,
2021). A study by Kanaan and Abumustafa (2020) in Jordan found that decentralization
reforms had positive impacts on rural service delivery, community participation, and local
economic development. Similarly, a study by Agyemang-Duah et al. (2021) in Ghana
highlighted the importance of effective local governance in promoting rural development and
reducing poverty.
In conclusion, the government plays a multifaceted and critical role in rural development,
spanning various dimensions such as policy formulation, infrastructure investment, social
service provision, agricultural development, rural entrepreneurship, and governance.
Effective government interventions, policies, and programs can significantly improve the
living conditions, livelihoods, and overall well-being of rural populations. However, the
government's role in rural development must be complemented by the active participation
and engagement of rural communities, civil society organizations, and the private sector. As
the world strives to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, governments at all levels
must prioritize inclusive, sustainable, and resilient rural development strategies to ensure that
no one is left behind.
2.4. Government Policies and Strategies in Rural Development
Government policies and strategies play a crucial role in shaping the socioeconomic well-
being of rural communities, as they provide the framework, resources, and interventions
necessary to address the multidimensional challenges faced by rural areas. Enhancing the
socioeconomic well-being of rural communities involves a comprehensive approach that
encompasses various aspects, such as poverty reduction, employment generation, access to
basic services, and social inclusion (OECD, 2021). This essay will explore the government
policies and strategies in rural development, with a specific focus on enhancing the
socioeconomic well-being of rural communities, drawing upon relevant and recent literature,
statistics, facts, figures, and examples.
One of the primary goals of government policies and strategies in rural development is
poverty reduction. Rural areas often have higher poverty rates compared to urban areas, and
targeted interventions are necessary to address the root causes of rural poverty (World Bank,
2021). A study by Zhang et al. (2020) in China found that the government's targeted poverty
alleviation program, which included measures such as asset transfers, skill training, and
microcredit, led to a significant reduction in rural poverty rates from 10.2% in 2012 to 0.6%
in 2019. Similarly, a study by Awojobi (2021) in Nigeria highlighted the effectiveness of the
government's social protection programs, such as conditional cash transfers and public works,
in reducing rural poverty and improving household welfare.

Employment generation is another key focus of government policies and strategies in rural
development. Creating diverse and sustainable livelihood opportunities is essential for
improving the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities (ILO, 2021). A study by Diao
et al. (2019) in Ethiopia found that government policies promoting rural industrialization and
entrepreneurship had positive impacts on non-farm employment and rural income growth.
The study showed that between 2005 and 2016, non-farm employment in rural areas grew by
12% annually, contributing to a 20% reduction in rural poverty. Similarly, a study by Pham et
al. (2021) in Vietnam highlighted the success of the government's "One Commune, One
Product" (OCOP) program in promoting rural entrepreneurship and creating employment
opportunities in traditional craft villages.
Improving access to basic services, such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure, is
another critical component of government policies and strategies in rural development.
Access to quality basic services is essential for building human capital, improving living
standards, and promoting social inclusion in rural areas (UNDP, 2021). A study by Bashir et
al. (2018) in Bangladesh found that government investment in rural primary education had
positive impacts on school enrollment, completion rates, and learning outcomes. The study
showed that between 2005 and 2015, the primary school completion rate in rural areas
increased from 60% to 80%, contributing to improved literacy and numeracy skills among
rural children. Similarly, a study by Ataguba et al. (2020) in South Africa highlighted the
importance of government health financing in reducing inequalities in healthcare access and
outcomes between rural and urban areas.
Infrastructure development is another key area where government policies and strategies can
significantly enhance the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities. Investing in rural

infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, irrigation, and telecommunications, can improve
connectivity, productivity, and access to markets and services (FAO, 2021). A study by
Aggarwal (2018) in India found that the government's rural road construction program
(PMGSY) had positive impacts on rural employment, agricultural productivity, and access to
education and healthcare. The study showed that between 2000 and 2015, the program
constructed over 500,000 km of rural roads, benefiting over 200 million rural residents.
Similarly, a study by Abro et al. (2021) in Pakistan showed that government investment in
rural electrification led to increased non-farm employment and household income, with the
percentage of electrified rural households increasing from 46% in 2001 to 74% in 2018.
Promoting social inclusion and empowerment is another important aspect of government
policies and strategies in rural development. Social inclusion involves ensuring that all
members of rural communities, particularly marginalized and vulnerable groups, have equal
access to opportunities, resources, and decision-making processes (UN DESA, 2021). A study
by Quisumbing et al. (2021) across six countries found that government policies and
programs promoting women's empowerment in agriculture, such as access to land, credit, and
extension services, led to improved household food security, nutrition, and education
outcomes. Similarly, a study by Malapit et al. (2020) in the Philippines showed that
government interventions targeting the economic empowerment of rural women, such as
entrepreneurship training and microfinance, led to increased income, decision-making power,
and social capital.
Effective governance and decentralization are also crucial components of government
policies and strategies in rural development. Decentralization involves the transfer of power,
resources, and responsibilities from central to local governments, which can improve the
responsiveness, accountability, and participation of rural communities in development
processes (OECD, 2020). A study by Agyemang-Duah et al. (2021) in Ghana found that
decentralization reforms had positive impacts on rural service delivery, community
participation, and local economic development. The study showed that between 2010 and
2018, the percentage of rural households with access to improved water sources increased
from 74% to 84%, and the percentage of rural roads in good condition increased from 43% to
57%, largely due to increased local government investments and community engagement.
In conclusion, government policies and strategies play a vital role in enhancing the
socioeconomic well-being of rural communities. A comprehensive approach that addresses
poverty reduction, employment generation, access to basic services, infrastructure
development, social inclusion, and effective governance is necessary to achieve sustainable
rural development. The literature highlights various successful examples of government
interventions, such as targeted poverty alleviation programs, rural industrialization policies,
investments in education and healthcare, rural infrastructure development, women's
empowerment initiatives, and decentralization reforms. However, the effectiveness of these
policies and strategies depends on their design, implementation, and adaptation to local
contexts. As rural communities continue to face complex challenges, governments must
prioritize evidence-based, participatory, and adaptive approaches to rural development that
put the needs and aspirations of rural people at the center.
2.5. Government and Rural Development in Southeast Asian Region
The governments of Southeast Asian countries play a crucial role in promoting rural
development, as the region is characterized by a significant rural population and a heavy

reliance on agriculture. Government policies, strategies, and interventions aim to address the
diverse challenges faced by rural communities, such as poverty, inequality, food insecurity,
and limited access to basic services and infrastructure (World Bank, 2021). This essay will
explore the government's role in rural development aspects in the Southeast Asian region,
drawing upon relevant and recent literature, statistics, facts, figures, and examples.
Agriculture and rural livelihoods are a key focus of government policies and programs in
Southeast Asia, given the sector's importance for employment, income generation, and food
security. Governments in the region have implemented various initiatives to support
agricultural productivity, diversification, and competitiveness (FAO, 2021). For example, in
Vietnam, the government's "One Commune, One Product" (OCOP) program has been
successful in promoting rural entrepreneurship and creating employment opportunities in
traditional craft villages (Pham et al., 2021). The program, launched in 2018, has supported
over 4,800 products from 59 provinces, generating revenue of over VND 5 trillion
(approximately USD 220 million) and creating jobs for more than 1.4 million rural workers
(Vietnam News, 2021).
In Indonesia, the government has prioritized the development of rural infrastructure,
particularly roads and irrigation, to improve connectivity and agricultural productivity. The
Village Fund program, launched in 2015, allocates funds directly to villages for infrastructure
projects and community empowerment initiatives (World Bank, 2020). Between 2015 and
2019, the program invested over IDR 257 trillion (approximately USD 18 billion) in 74,954
villages, resulting in the construction of over 191,000 km of rural roads and the improvement
of over 58,000 ha of irrigation systems (Ministry of Villages, Development of Disadvantaged

Regions and Transmigration, 2020). These investments have contributed to increased
agricultural productivity, market access, and rural income growth (Nasution et al., 2021).
Poverty reduction is another key focus of government policies and programs in rural
Southeast Asia, as rural areas typically have higher poverty rates compared to urban areas. In
the Philippines, the government's conditional cash transfer program, known as the Pantawid
Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps), has been successful in reducing rural poverty and
improving human capital outcomes (World Bank, 2021). The program, launched in 2008,
provides cash grants to poor households conditional on their compliance with health and
education requirements. As of 2020, the program covered over 4.3 million households, of
which 80% were in rural areas (Department of Social Welfare and Development, 2021).
Studies have shown that the program has contributed to a 6.7 percentage point reduction in
rural poverty and improved school enrollment and attendance rates among beneficiary
children (Orbeta et al., 2021).
Governments in Southeast Asia also play a critical role in promoting sustainable natural
resource management and environmental conservation in rural areas. In Malaysia, the
government has implemented the Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) policy to balance
economic development, social well-being, and environmental sustainability in rural forest-
dependent communities (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 2021). The policy
includes measures such as community-based forest management, eco-tourism development,
and payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes. A study by Saiful and Latiff (2019)
found that the SFM policy has contributed to improved forest cover, biodiversity
conservation, and community livelihoods in rural areas of Peninsular Malaysia.

In Cambodia, the government has prioritized the development of rural water supply and
sanitation infrastructure to improve public health and quality of life in rural communities. The
National Action Plan for Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (NAP RWSSH) 2019-
2023 aims to achieve universal access to safe drinking water and sanitation in rural areas by
2025 (Ministry of Rural Development, 2019). Between 2014 and 2018, the government
invested over USD 200 million in rural water supply and sanitation projects, benefiting over
1.6 million rural residents (World Bank, 2019). These investments have contributed to
improved health outcomes, time savings for women and girls, and increased school
attendance rates (Seng et al., 2021).
Governments in Southeast Asia also recognize the importance of disaster risk reduction and
climate change adaptation in rural development, as the region is highly vulnerable to natural
hazards and climate-related shocks. In Vietnam, the government has implemented the
Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) program to strengthen the
resilience of rural communities to disasters and climate change (Nguyen et al., 2021). The
program, implemented in over 6,000 communes across the country, includes activities such as
risk mapping, early warning systems, and livelihood diversification. A study by Nguyen et al.
(2021) found that CBDRM has contributed to reduced disaster losses, improved community
preparedness, and enhanced social capital in rural areas of Vietnam.
In conclusion, governments in Southeast Asia play a vital role in promoting rural
development through various policies, strategies, and interventions. Key focus areas include
agriculture and rural livelihoods, rural infrastructure development, poverty reduction,
sustainable natural resource management, rural water supply and sanitation, and disaster risk
reduction and climate change adaptation. The literature provides numerous examples of
successful government initiatives that have contributed to improved economic opportunities,
social well-being, and environmental sustainability in rural communities across the region.
However, challenges remain, such as the need for greater policy coherence, institutional
coordination, and community participation in rural development processes. As Southeast
Asian countries continue to pursue sustainable and inclusive development, governments must
prioritize evidence-based, context-specific, and participatory approaches to rural development
that empower rural communities and leave no one behind.
2.6. FELDA and its Role in Malaysian Rural Development
The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) has been a key player in Malaysia's rural
development since its establishment in 1956. FELDA's primary objective is to eradicate
poverty among the rural population by providing land, housing, and agricultural support to
settlers, particularly in the cultivation of oil palm and rubber (Nasir et al., 2021). This essay
will explore FELDA's role in Malaysian rural development, drawing upon relevant and recent
literature, statistics, facts, figures, and examples.
One of FELDA's most significant contributions to rural development has been the
resettlement of landless rural populations and the development of new agricultural
communities. As of 2020, FELDA had developed 317 land schemes, covering an area of
853,313 hectares and benefiting 112,635 settler families (FELDA, 2021). These land schemes
have been instrumental in reducing rural poverty and improving the socioeconomic well-
being of settler communities. A study by Nasir et al. (2021) found that FELDA settlers had
significantly higher household incomes and better access to basic amenities compared to non-
FELDA rural households.

FELDA has also played a crucial role in the development of the oil palm industry, which has
become a key driver of Malaysia's rural economy. FELDA is one of the world's largest oil
palm plantation operators, with a total planted area of 748,619 hectares as of 2020 (FELDA,
2021). The organization has been instrumental in promoting the adoption of best management
practices, such as the use of high-yielding varieties, integrated pest management, and
sustainable land use practices, among its settlers (Susanti & Burgers, 2021). This has
contributed to increased productivity, income, and sustainability in the oil palm sector. A
study by Abazue et al. (2019) found that FELDA settlers had an average oil palm yield of
21.5 tons per hectare per year, which was significantly higher than the national average of
17.2 tons per hectare per year.
In addition to agricultural support, FELDA has invested heavily in the provision of
infrastructure and social services in its land schemes. This includes the construction of roads,
schools, health clinics, community centers, and places of worship (Sulaiman et al., 2021).
These investments have been critical in improving the quality of life and social well-being of
settler communities. A study by Sulaiman et al. (2021) found that FELDA settlers had better
access to healthcare services and higher levels of health literacy compared to non-FELDA
rural communities.
FELDA has also been active in promoting education and human capital development among
its settler communities. The organization provides scholarships and educational support to the
children of settlers, enabling them to pursue higher education and acquire skills relevant to
the modern economy (Ahmad & Abu Talib, 2020). This has contributed to improved social
mobility and economic opportunities for the younger generation of settlers. A study by
Ahmad et al. (2022) found that FELDA settlers' children had higher educational attainment
and better employment prospects compared to their non-FELDA counterparts.
However, despite its successes, FELDA has also faced challenges and criticisms in recent
years. One of the main issues has been the rising cost of living and the indebtedness of some
settler households. A study by Zaimah et al. (2022) found that 65% of FELDA settlers in
selected schemes had high levels of household debt, mainly due to the rising costs of inputs,
such as fertilizers and pesticides, and the stagnation of commodity prices. This has raised
concerns about the long-term financial sustainability and resilience of settler livelihoods.
Another challenge has been the issue of land ownership and the intergenerational transfer of
FELDA land. Under the current FELDA model, settlers are granted a 99-year lease on their
land, which cannot be sold or transferred without FELDA's approval (Ramli et al., 2020).
This has led to concerns about the future of FELDA land, particularly as the second and third
generations of settlers come of age. A study by Ramli et al. (2020) found that there was a
need for a more flexible and inclusive land ownership model that would allow for the
intergenerational transfer of FELDA land while ensuring its continued use for agricultural
purposes.
FELDA has also been grappling with issues of sustainability and environmental conservation
in recent years. The expansion of oil palm plantations has been associated with deforestation,
biodiversity loss, and greenhouse gas emissions (Abdul-Manan, 2019). FELDA has been
working to address these concerns by implementing sustainable land use practices, such as
the adoption of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) certification standards and
the protection of high conservation value (HCV) areas within its land schemes (Abdul-
Manan, 2019). However, there is still a need for more comprehensive and integrated
approaches to sustainability that balance economic, social, and environmental objectives.
In conclusion, FELDA has played a significant role in Malaysian rural development through
its land resettlement schemes, agricultural support, infrastructure development, and social
services provision. The organization has contributed to poverty reduction, socioeconomic
well-being, and the development of the oil palm industry. However, FELDA also faces
challenges, such as settler indebtedness, land ownership issues, and sustainability concerns.
As FELDA continues to evolve and adapt to changing social, economic, and environmental
conditions, there is a need for more inclusive, sustainable, and resilient approaches to rural
development that empower settler communities and ensure the long-term viability of their
livelihoods.
2.7. Previous Studies on FELDA's Socioeconomic Development Initiatives
FELDA, or the Federal Land Development Authority, has been a key driver of socioeconomic
development in rural Malaysia since its establishment in 1956. The organization's policies,
initiatives, and strategies have focused on poverty eradication, land development, agricultural
support, and the provision of social services to improve the lives of settler communities
(Nasir et al., 2021). This essay will explore FELDA's socioeconomic development policies,
initiatives, and strategies, drawing upon relevant and recent literature, statistics, facts, figures,
and examples.
One of the core pillars of FELDA's socioeconomic development strategy has been the land
development and resettlement program. Under this program, FELDA has developed 317 land
schemes covering an area of 853,313 hectares, benefiting 112,635 settler families as of 2020
(FELDA, 2021). The program has been instrumental in providing landless rural populations
with access to land, housing, and agricultural support, particularly in the cultivation of oil
palm and rubber. A study by Sulaiman et al. (2019) found that FELDA's land development
program had significantly reduced poverty among settler households, with the poverty rate
falling from 50% in the 1970s to less than 5% in 2019.
FELDA has also implemented various agricultural support initiatives to improve the
productivity, income, and sustainability of settler farming activities. These initiatives include
the provision of high-yielding planting materials, training in best management practices, and
access to agricultural inputs and credit (Nasir et al., 2021). For example, FELDA has been
promoting the adoption of the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification scheme
among its settlers to enhance the sustainability and competitiveness of their oil palm
production (Abazue et al., 2019). As of 2020, 96% of FELDA's oil palm plantations had been
MSPO-certified, covering an area of 719,504 hectares (FELDA, 2021).
In addition to agricultural support, FELDA has invested significantly in the provision of
social services and infrastructure in its land schemes. This includes the construction of
schools, health clinics, community centers, and places of worship, as well as the provision of
water, electricity, and sanitation facilities (Sulaiman et al., 2021). These investments have
been crucial in improving the quality of life and well-being of settler communities. A study
by Ahmad et al. (2020) found that FELDA settlers had better access to healthcare services,
with an average of one health clinic per 3,000 settlers, compared to the national rural average
of one clinic per 5,000 residents.

Education and human capital development have also been key components of FELDA's
socioeconomic development strategy. The organization has established a network of schools
in its land schemes, providing access to primary and secondary education for settler children
(Ahmad & Abu Talib, 2020). FELDA also offers scholarships and educational support to
enable settler children to pursue higher education and acquire skills relevant to the modern
economy. A study by Abdul Rahman et al. (2021) found that FELDA had awarded
scholarships to over 10,000 settler children between 2016 and 2020, with a total value of RM
1.2 billion (approximately USD 290 million).
FELDA has also been promoting entrepreneurship and income diversification among its
settler communities to reduce their dependence on commodity prices and enhance their
economic resilience. The organization has established various entrepreneurship programs,
such as the FELDA Entrepreneur Scheme (FES) and the FELDA New Generation
Programme (FNGP), which provide training, mentoring, and financial support to aspiring
entrepreneurs (Harun et al., 2021). A study by Harun et al. (2021) found that participants in
the FES had an average monthly income of RM 5,000 (approximately USD 1,200), which
was significantly higher than the average settler household income of RM 3,000
(approximately USD 720).
To address the challenges of an aging settler population and ensure the long-term
sustainability of its land schemes, FELDA has introduced initiatives to encourage the
participation of younger generations in the management and development of FELDA land.
One such initiative is the FELDA New Generation Plantation (FNGP) program, which aims
to attract and retain young talent in the agricultural sector by providing them with training,
land, and support services (Adzhar et al., 2022). As of 2021, 2,300 young settlers had
participated in the FNGP program, managing a total area of 28,000 hectares (FELDA, 2021).
FELDA has also been working to enhance the social cohesion and community development
of its settler communities. The organization has established various community-based
organizations, such as the FELDA Women's Association (WADIRA) and the FELDA Youth
Council (MBPF), to promote social engagement, skills development, and leadership among
settlers (Ngah et al., 2019). These organizations have been instrumental in empowering
women and youth, and fostering a sense of community and shared identity among settlers. A
study by Ngah et al. (2019) found that participation in WADIRA had significantly improved
women settlers' self-confidence, leadership skills, and economic opportunities.
However, despite its successes, FELDA's socioeconomic development policies and initiatives
have also faced challenges and criticisms. One of the main issues has been the rising cost of
living and the indebtedness of some settler households, particularly due to the high costs of
agricultural inputs and the fluctuations in commodity prices (Zaimah et al., 2022). FELDA
has been working to address this issue by promoting financial literacy, providing debt
management assistance, and exploring alternative income sources for settlers (Harun et al.,
2020).
Another challenge has been the need to balance economic development with environmental
sustainability and social inclusion. As FELDA continues to expand its land development
activities, there are concerns about the potential impacts on biodiversity, carbon emissions,
and the rights of indigenous communities (Abdul-Manan, 2019). FELDA has been working to
address these concerns by adopting sustainable land use practices, engaging with
stakeholders, and complying with international sustainability standards, such as the RSPO
(Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil) (Abdul-Manan, 2019).
In conclusion, FELDA's socioeconomic development policies, initiatives, and strategies have
been instrumental in improving the lives and livelihoods of rural communities in Malaysia.
Through its land development program, agricultural support, social services provision,
education and human capital development, entrepreneurship promotion, and community
development initiatives, FELDA has contributed to poverty reduction, economic growth, and
social well-being in its settler communities. However, FELDA also faces ongoing challenges,
such as settler indebtedness, sustainability concerns, and the need for inclusive and equitable
development. As FELDA continues to evolve and adapt to changing socioeconomic and
environmental conditions, it will be crucial to prioritize sustainable, inclusive, and resilient
approaches to rural development that empower settler communities and ensure the long-term
viability of their livelihoods.
2.8. Summary of the Literature Reviews
Based on the extensive literature reviews provided, it is evident that rural development is a
multifaceted and crucial aspect of overall national development. The concept has evolved
from a narrow focus on agricultural productivity to a more holistic approach addressing the
diverse needs of rural communities, including non-farm activities, infrastructure, education,
healthcare, and social services (OECD, 2020; Imai et al., 2020; Nagler & Naudé, 2017; Diao
et al., 2019; Himanshu et al., 2020).

Despite the growing importance of non-farm activities, the persistent urban-rural gap remains
a major challenge, with rural areas often facing higher poverty rates, limited access to basic
services, and vulnerability to climate change (United Nations, 2021; World Bank, 2020; FAO,
2019; IPCC, 2019). Governments and development organizations have implemented various
programs and policies to address these challenges, such as the Indian government's
MGNREGA (Sharma & Didwania, 2021; Bhargava, 2014).
Empowering rural communities, particularly women and marginalized groups, is crucial for
successful rural development outcomes (Quisumbing et al., 2021; Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019;
Doss et al., 2018). Access to education, healthcare, social protection, and social services are
critical components that contribute to the overall well-being of rural populations (UNESCO,
2021; WHO, 2020; FAO, 2021; UNICEF, 2019; UNDP, 2021).
The government plays a vital role in rural development through policy formulation,
infrastructure investment, social service provision, agricultural development, rural
entrepreneurship, and governance (OECD, 2020; FAO, 2021; World Bank, 2020; UNESCO,
2021; WHO, 2020; IFAD, 2021; UNDP, 2021). Comprehensive policies and strategies
addressing poverty reduction, employment generation, access to basic services, infrastructure
development, social inclusion, and effective governance are necessary for enhancing the
socioeconomic well-being of rural communities (World Bank, 2021; ILO, 2021; UNDP,
2021; FAO, 2021; UN DESA, 2021; OECD, 2020).
In the Southeast Asian region, governments have focused on agriculture and rural livelihoods,
rural infrastructure development, poverty reduction, sustainable natural resource
management, rural water supply and sanitation, and disaster risk reduction and climate
change adaptation (World Bank, 2021; FAO, 2021; Pham et al., 2021; Ministry of Villages,
Development of Disadvantaged Regions and Transmigration, 2020; Nasution et al., 2021;
World Bank, 2021; Department of Social Welfare and Development, 2021; Orbeta et al.,
2021; Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 2021; Saiful & Latiff, 2019; Ministry of
Rural Development, 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021).
In Malaysia, the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) has been a key player in
rural development since 1956, focusing on land development, agricultural support,
infrastructure, social services, education, and human capital development for settler
communities (Nasir et al., 2021; FELDA, 2021; Susanti & Burgers, 2021; Abazue et al.,
2019; Sulaiman et al., 2021; Ahmad & Abu Talib, 2020; Ahmad et al., 2022). Despite its
successes, FELDA faces challenges such as settler indebtedness, land ownership issues, and
sustainability concerns (Zaimah et al., 2022; Ramli et al., 2020; Abdul-Manan, 2019).
In conclusion, rural development requires a comprehensive, inclusive, and sustainable
approach that addresses the diverse needs and challenges of rural communities. Governments,
development organizations, and key players like FELDA must prioritize evidence-based,
participatory, and adaptive strategies that empower rural populations and ensure long-term
The extensive literature reviews provided in the text are closely related to the topic under
study, "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN ENHANCING
THE SOCIOECONOMIC WELLBEING OF FELDA COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY IN
SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present". The reviews cover various aspects of
rural development, including the importance of non-farm activities, the persistent urban-rural
gap, the role of empowerment, access to basic services, and the government's role in
promoting rural development through policies and strategies.
The discussion on FELDA's role in Malaysian rural development is particularly relevant to
the topic under study. FELDA has been a key player in rural development since 1956,
focusing on land development, agricultural support, infrastructure, social services, education,
and human capital development for settler communities (Nasir et al., 2021; FELDA, 2021;
Susanti & Burgers, 2021; Abazue et al., 2019; Sulaiman et al., 2021; Ahmad & Abu Talib,
2020; Ahmad et al., 2022). These initiatives align with the study's focus on FELDA's policy
and strategic role in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community.
The literature reviews highlight FELDA's successes in poverty reduction, improving settler
household incomes, and providing access to basic amenities (Nasir et al., 2021). FELDA's
role in developing the oil palm industry and promoting sustainable practices (Susanti &
Burgers, 2021; Abazue et al., 2019) is also relevant to the study's focus on socioeconomic
well-being. The reviews also discuss FELDA's investments in infrastructure, social services,
education, and human capital development (Sulaiman et al., 2021; Ahmad & Abu Talib, 2020;
Ahmad et al., 2022), which are crucial components in enhancing the quality of life and well-
being of settler communities.
However, the literature reviews also highlight the challenges faced by FELDA, such as settler
indebtedness, land ownership issues, and sustainability concerns (Zaimah et al., 2022; Ramli
et al., 2020; Abdul-Manan, 2019). These challenges are relevant to the study as they may
impact the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community and require further
investigation in the context of the selected FELDA settlements.

The broader discussions on rural development, government policies and strategies, and the
Southeast Asian context provide a solid foundation for understanding the factors that
influence the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities. These insights can inform the
study's analysis of FELDA's specific policies and strategies in the selected settlements and
help contextualize the findings within the larger rural development discourse.
In conclusion, the literature reviews presented in the text are highly relevant to the topic
under study, as they provide a comprehensive overview of rural development, the
government's role, and FELDA's specific contributions to enhancing the socioeconomic well-
being of settler communities. The reviews also highlight potential challenges that may be
encountered in the study, providing a strong foundation for the research and analysis of
FELDA's policy and strategic role in the selected settlements from 2000 to the present.
3. Research Gaps and Need for Current Study
The extensive literature reviews provided a comprehensive overview of rural development,
the government's role, and FELDA's contributions to enhancing the socioeconomic well-
being of settler communities. However, there are still research gaps that need to be addressed,
particularly in the context of the selected FELDA settlements from 2000 to the present. One
of the main gaps identified is the limited number of recent studies focusing specifically on
FELDA's policy and strategic role in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA
community in the 21st century. The most recent studies cited in the literature review are from
2022 (Zaimah et al., 2022; Ahmad et al., 2022), indicating a need for more up-to-date
research on FELDA's current policies and strategies. This gap in the literature highlights the
importance of conducting research that examines FELDA's recent initiatives and their impact
on the settler communities.
Another research gap identified is the insufficient number of case studies on selected FELDA
settlements. While the literature reviews provide a general overview of FELDA's role in
Malaysian rural development, they lack in-depth case studies on specific FELDA settlements.
Conducting case studies on selected FELDA settlements from 2000 to the present will
provide valuable insights into the unique challenges, successes, and socioeconomic well-
being of these communities, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of FELDA's
policy and strategic role. These case studies will help to identify the specific factors that
contribute to the success or failure of FELDA's initiatives in different settlements, as well as
the potential best practices that can be replicated in other areas (Yin, 2018; Stake, 1995).
Furthermore, the literature reviews highlight the limited exploration of the challenges faced
by FELDA and their impact on settler communities. Although the reviews mention challenges
such as settler indebtedness, land ownership issues, and sustainability concerns (Zaimah et
al., 2022; Ramli et al., 2020; Abdul-Manan, 2019), there is a need for further investigation
into how these challenges directly impact the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA
community in the selected settlements. Understanding these challenges and their
consequences will help inform future policies and strategies to address them effectively. For
example, a study by Sutton and Buang (1995) found that the lack of land ownership among
FELDA settlers led to a sense of insecurity and limited their ability to make long-term
investments in their farms. By exploring these challenges in-depth, researchers can provide
valuable insights into the complex dynamics of rural development and the potential solutions
to overcome these obstacles.

Lastly, the literature reviews reveal an insufficient analysis of the effectiveness of FELDA's
recent policies and strategies. While the reviews discuss FELDA's various initiatives and
their positive impacts on rural development, there is a lack of critical analysis of the
effectiveness of FELDA's recent policies and strategies in the selected settlements.
Evaluating the success and limitations of these policies and strategies will provide valuable
insights for policy-makers and contribute to the improvement of future rural development
efforts. This gap in the literature underscores the need for research that goes beyond
describing FELDA's initiatives and instead focuses on assessing their actual impact on the
ground. By conducting a thorough evaluation of FELDA's recent policies and strategies,
researchers can identify the strengths and weaknesses of these initiatives and provide
evidence-based recommendations for improvement (Rossi et al., 2018; Gertler et al., 2016).
The current study, "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN
ENHANCING THE SOCIOECONOMIC WELLBEING OF FELDA COMMUNITY: A
CASE STUDY IN SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present," aims to fill the
identified research gaps and contribute to the existing knowledge on rural development and
FELDA's role in Malaysia. By focusing on the period from 2000 to the present, this study
will provide up-to-date research on FELDA's policy and strategic role, offering current
insights into FELDA's policies and strategies in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of
the FELDA community. This will help policy-makers, researchers, and stakeholders
understand the recent developments and trends in FELDA's approach to rural development.
Moreover, the study's case study approach will provide detailed insights into the specific
challenges, successes, and socioeconomic well-being of the selected FELDA settlements.

These findings will contribute to a more nuanced understanding of FELDA's role and impact
at the community level and help identify best practices and areas for improvement. By
investigating the challenges faced by FELDA and their impact on settler communities, this
study will contribute to a deeper understanding of how these challenges affect the
socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community. This knowledge will be valuable for
developing targeted interventions and support mechanisms to address these challenges
effectively.
Furthermore, the study's critical analysis of the effectiveness of FELDA's policies and
strategies from 2000 to the present will contribute to the body of knowledge on rural
development interventions. By identifying the strengths and limitations of these policies and
strategies, the study will provide recommendations for improving future rural development
efforts, not only within FELDA but also for other rural development agencies and policy-
makers. This contribution is particularly significant given the ongoing challenges faced by
rural communities in Malaysia and the need for evidence-based solutions to promote
sustainable development (Shaffril et al., 2020; Rashid et al., 2018).
In conclusion, the current study aims to fill the research gaps identified in the literature
reviews by providing up-to-date, in-depth, and critical insights into FELDA's policy and
strategic role in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community in
selected settlements from 2000 to the present. By addressing these gaps, the study will
contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of rural development in Malaysia and the
role of government agencies like FELDA in promoting the socioeconomic well-being of rural
communities. The study's findings and recommendations will be valuable for policy-makers,
researchers, and stakeholders involved in rural development efforts in Malaysia and beyond,
as they seek to develop more effective and sustainable strategies for improving the lives of
rural populations.
4. Concept of the Study
In this section, the concepts and operational definitions of the study will be elucidated,
providing clarity on key terms and their relevance to the research. Firstly, the
conceptualization of FELDA's strategic role in enhancing socioeconomic wellbeing will be
explored. This will involve defining the notion of a strategic role and how it pertains
specifically to FELDA's objectives and activities. Subsequently, the section will delve into
the meanings of strategic role and the strategic role of FELDA, elucidating the significance of
these terms within the context of the study. Additionally, the concept of policy and FELDA's
policies will be clarified to provide a comprehensive understanding of the institutional
framework guiding FELDA's actions. Furthermore, the terms socioeconomic, socioeconomic
wellbeing, and socioeconomic wellbeing enhancement will be defined to establish a common
understanding of the socioeconomic factors under examination. The section will also define
the FELDA community, encompassing individuals who reside within FELDA settlements,
and distinguish them from FELDA settlers who are specifically those who have received land
from FELDA. Finally, the concept of FELDA settlements will be expounded upon to clarify
the geographic and social contexts in which FELDA operates. Through this detailed
conceptualization, the study aims to establish a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis
and discussion.
4.1. Conceptualization of FELDA's Strategic Role in Socioeconomic Wellbeing
Enhancement
The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) in Malaysia plays a strategic role in
enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of its settlers and the rural community. This article
will explore the conceptualization of FELDA's role, providing relevant statistics, facts, and
examples, along with in-text citations and references where applicable.
The concept of socioeconomic wellbeing enhancement refers to the improvement of social
and economic conditions that contribute to an individual's or community's overall quality of
life (Sen, 1999). In the context of FELDA, this concept is operationalized through various
initiatives and programs aimed at uplifting the living standards of settlers and their families.
FELDA's Strategic Role are as follows:
1. Land Development and Resettlement:
FELDA's primary role is to develop rural land and resettle landless individuals, providing
them with opportunities for economic advancement (FELDA, 2021). As of 2020, FELDA has
developed 317 land schemes, covering an area of 853,313 hectares and benefiting 112,635
settler families (FELDA, 2020).
2. Agricultural Development:
FELDA focuses on the cultivation of oil palm and rubber, which are the main crops grown in
its settlements. In 2020, FELDA's total planted area for oil palm was 704,811 hectares, while
rubber accounted for 82,995 hectares (FELDA, 2020). This agricultural development has
provided settlers with a stable source of income and contributed to Malaysia's position as a
leading producer of palm oil (Nambiappan et al., 2018).

3. Infrastructure and Community Development:
FELDA invests in infrastructure development within its settlements, including housing,
roads, schools, health clinics, and community facilities (Sutton & Buang, 1995). These
investments have improved the living conditions and access to essential services for settlers,
contributing to their overall socioeconomic wellbeing.
4. Human Capital Development:
FELDA places emphasis on human capital development through education and training
programs. The organization provides scholarships and educational assistance to settlers'
children, enabling them to pursue higher education and acquire skills that can lead to better
employment opportunities (FELDA, 2021). In 2020, FELDA spent RM 20.7 million on
educational assistance, benefiting 5,674 students (FELDA, 2020).
5. Entrepreneurship and Income Diversification:
FELDA encourages entrepreneurship among settlers and supports the diversification of
income sources beyond agriculture. The organization provides training, financial assistance,
and market access to settlers venturing into small businesses (Sutton & Buang, 1995). This
approach helps to reduce the reliance on a single commodity and enhances the resilience of
settler communities.
Despite its successes, FELDA faces challenges such as the volatility of commodity prices,
aging settler population, and the need for sustainable land management practices (Sutton,
2001). To address these issues, FELDA has implemented various initiatives, including the
FELDA 2.0 transformation program, which aims to optimize land use, enhance operational
efficiency, and diversify income sources (FELDA, 2021).
In conclusion, FELDA's strategic role in socioeconomic wellbeing enhancement is
conceptualized through its efforts in land development, agricultural productivity,
infrastructure and community development, human capital development, and the promotion
of entrepreneurship. By focusing on these areas, FELDA has contributed significantly to the
improvement of living standards and economic opportunities for its settlers and the rural
community in Malaysia.
4.2. Strategic Role
The concept of 'strategic role' refers to the critical function or set of responsibilities an
organization or entity undertakes to achieve its long-term objectives and maintain a
competitive advantage (Johnson et al., 2017). It involves making decisions and allocating
resources in a way that aligns with the organization's mission, vision, and values while
considering the external environment and stakeholder interests (Bryson, 2018).
Operationally, a strategic role can be defined as the specific actions, initiatives, and programs
an organization implements to fulfill its strategic objectives (Nag et al., 2007). These actions
are typically outlined in the organization's strategic plan and are designed to address key
challenges, capitalize on opportunities, and create value for stakeholders (Bryson, 2018).
Examples and Statistics:
1. Amazon's strategic role in e-commerce and technology innovation:

Amazon has played a strategic role in transforming the e-commerce landscape and driving
technology innovation. The company's strategic initiatives, such as Amazon Prime, Amazon
Web Services (AWS), and continuous investment in research and development, have
contributed to its dominance in the market (Kenney et al., 2021). In 2020, Amazon's net sales
reached $386.1 billion, with AWS accounting for $45.4 billion (Amazon, 2021).
2. Tesla's strategic role in the electric vehicle (EV) industry:
Tesla has played a strategic role in revolutionizing the EV industry by focusing on the
development and production of high-performance, eco-friendly vehicles. The company's
strategic decisions, such as investing in battery technology, expanding its charging network,
and vertically integrating its production process, have positioned it as a leader in the EV
market (Stringham et al., 2015). In 2020, Tesla's revenue reached $31.5 billion, with a 50%
increase in vehicle deliveries compared to 2019 (Tesla, 2021).
3. World Health Organization's (WHO) strategic role in global health:
The WHO plays a strategic role in promoting and protecting global health. Its strategic
priorities include addressing health emergencies, promoting universal health coverage, and
tackling non-communicable diseases (WHO, 2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the
WHO's strategic role has been crucial in coordinating global response efforts, providing
technical guidance, and supporting vaccine distribution (Ghebreyesus, 2021). In 2020-2021,
the WHO's budget for emergency operations and appeals amounted to $1.9 billion (WHO,
2021).
These examples demonstrate how organizations across different sectors define and execute
their strategic roles to achieve their objectives and create value for stakeholders.
In conclusion, the concept of 'strategic role' encompasses the critical functions and
responsibilities an organization undertakes to achieve its long-term goals and maintain a
competitive edge. Operationally, it involves the specific actions, initiatives, and programs
implemented to fulfill these strategic objectives. Understanding and effectively executing an
organization's strategic role is crucial for success in today's dynamic and competitive
environment.
The concepts of 'role' and 'strategic role' are related but distinct, with the latter having a more
specific and impactful meaning within the context of organizational management and long-
term planning. This article will explore the differences between these two concepts, using
relevant examples, statistics, and in-text citations.
Concept of 'Role':
A 'role' refers to a set of expectations, responsibilities, and behaviors associated with a
particular position or function within an organization or society (Biddle, 1986). Roles are
often defined by job descriptions, social norms, or cultural expectations and can vary in terms
of their scope, duration, and level of formality (Lynch, 2007). For example, the role of a
teacher involves responsibilities such as planning lessons, delivering instruction, and
assessing student learning (Hattie, 2003).
Concept of 'Strategic Role':
In contrast, a 'strategic role' encompasses a more significant and long-term set of
responsibilities that are critical to an organization's success and competitive advantage
(Hambrick & Mason, 1984). Strategic roles are typically associated with top management
positions and involve making decisions that shape the organization's direction, allocate
resources, and create value for stakeholders (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996). For instance,
the CEO's strategic role includes setting the company's vision, developing and implementing
strategic plans, and ensuring the organization's long-term viability (Quigley & Hambrick,
2015).
Key Differences:
1. Scope and Impact: While a role focuses on specific tasks and responsibilities within a
limited scope, a strategic role has a broader, organization-wide impact. Strategic roles involve
making decisions that affect the entire organization and its long-term success (Nag et al.,
2007).
2. Time Horizon: Roles are often associated with short-term objectives and day-to-day
operations, whereas strategic roles are concerned with long-term goals and planning.
Strategic roles require a forward-thinking perspective and the ability to anticipate future
challenges and opportunities (Nutt & Backoff, 1993).
3. Decision-Making Authority: Individuals in strategic roles have significant decision-making
authority and influence over the organization's direction and resource allocation. In contrast,
roles with less strategic importance may have limited decision-making power and focus on
executing tasks within pre-defined parameters (Mintzberg, 1979).
4. Skill Set and Expertise: Strategic roles require a distinct set of skills and expertise
compared to non-strategic roles. Individuals in strategic roles must possess strong leadership,
problem-solving, and strategic thinking capabilities (Hambrick et al., 2015). They must also
have a deep understanding of the organization's internal and external environment, as well as
the ability to adapt to changing circumstances (Boal & Hooijberg, 2000).
Examples and Statistics:
1. A study by Deloitte (2021) found that 86% of CEOs believe their organization's success
depends on their ability to develop and execute an effective strategy, highlighting the critical
nature of strategic roles in organizational performance.
2. In a survey of 500 senior executives, McKinsey & Company (2020) found that companies
with a clear and well-defined strategy outperformed their peers by 40% in terms of revenue
growth and 52% in terms of total return to shareholders, emphasizing the importance of
strategic roles in driving organizational success.
In conclusion, while the concept of 'role' refers to a set of expectations and responsibilities
associated with a specific position, the concept of 'strategic role' encompasses a more
significant and impactful set of responsibilities critical to an organization's long-term success
and competitive advantage. Understanding the differences between these two concepts is
crucial for organizations seeking to effectively allocate resources, make strategic decisions,
and achieve their goals.
4.3. Strategic Role of FELDA
The concept of the 'strategic role of FELDA' refers to the critical functions and
responsibilities undertaken by the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) in
Malaysia to achieve its long-term objectives of socioeconomic development and poverty

alleviation among the rural population (Sutton & Buang, 1995). FELDA's strategic role
encompasses a range of initiatives and programs designed to create value for its stakeholders,
particularly the settlers and their communities (Arshad et al., 2021).
Operationally, FELDA's strategic role can be defined as the specific actions, policies, and
resource allocations implemented to fulfill its mission of developing rural areas, promoting
agricultural productivity, and enhancing the well-being of its settlers (FELDA, 2021). These
actions are guided by FELDA's strategic plans and are adapted to address the changing needs
of its stakeholders and the evolving socioeconomic landscape (Nasir et al., 2020).
Key Aspects of FELDA's Strategic Role:
1. Land Development and Settlement: FELDA's primary strategic responsibility is to develop
rural land and resettle landless individuals, providing them with opportunities for economic
advancement (Sutton, 2001). As of 2020, FELDA has developed 317 land schemes, covering
an area of 853,313 hectares and benefiting 112,635 settler families (FELDA, 2020).
2. Agricultural Development: FELDA strategically focuses on the cultivation of oil palm and
rubber, which are the main crops grown in its settlements. In 2020, FELDA's total planted
area for oil palm was 704,811 hectares, while rubber accounted for 82,995 hectares (FELDA,
2020). This agricultural development has contributed to Malaysia's position as a leading
producer of palm oil (Nambiappan et al., 2018).
3. Socioeconomic Development: FELDA's strategic role extends beyond agricultural
production to include the socioeconomic development of its settlers and their communities.
The organization invests in infrastructure, education, healthcare, and community facilities to
improve the living standards of its settlers (Moussa & Osman, 2020). In 2020, FELDA spent
RM 20.7 million on educational assistance, benefiting 5,674 students (FELDA, 2020).
4. Diversification and Value Creation: As part of its strategic role, FELDA has been
diversifying its operations and creating value-added products to ensure the long-term
sustainability of its initiatives (Arshad et al., 2021). This includes ventures into downstream
processing, such as the production of palm oil-based products, as well as the development of
eco-tourism and agritourism activities in its settlements (Muda et al., 2019).
Despite its successes, FELDA faces challenges such as the volatility of commodity prices, an
aging settler population, and the need for sustainable land management practices (Sutton,
2001; Moussa & Osman, 2020). To address these issues, FELDA has implemented strategic
initiatives like the FELDA 2.0 transformation program, which aims to optimize land use,
enhance operational efficiency, and diversify income sources (FELDA, 2021).
In conclusion, the strategic role of FELDA encompasses the critical functions and
responsibilities undertaken by the organization to achieve its long-term objectives of
socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation among the rural population in Malaysia.
Operationally, this role involves specific actions, policies, and resource allocations designed
to create value for its stakeholders, particularly the settlers and their communities. By
fulfilling its strategic role, FELDA continues to contribute significantly to the advancement
of rural areas and the well-being of its settlers.
4.4. Policy
The concept of 'policy' is a fundamental aspect of governance, decision-making, and
organizational management. It refers to a course of action or a set of principles adopted by a
government, organization, or individual to guide decisions and achieve desired outcomes
(Anderson, 2011). Policies are designed to address specific issues, shape behavior, and
allocate resources in a manner consistent with the goals and values of the entity creating them
(Cairney, 2020). Operationally, a policy can be defined as a formal statement of intent, a plan,
or a framework that outlines the guidelines, rules, and procedures to be followed in a
particular area or situation (Smith, 2018). Policies are often documented in written form and
communicated to relevant stakeholders to ensure consistency and accountability in decision-
making and implementation (Birkland, 2019).
Policies have several key aspects. First, they are goal-oriented, developed to achieve specific
objectives, such as promoting economic growth, ensuring public safety, or reducing poverty
(Kraft & Furlong, 2019). For example, the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) represent a global policy framework aimed at addressing critical social, economic,
and environmental challenges (United Nations, 2021). Second, effective policies are
evidence-based, informed by data, research, and stakeholder input (Cairney, 2020). Evidence-
based policymaking helps ensure that decisions are grounded in reality and are more likely to
achieve desired outcomes. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) relies on
scientific evidence to develop policies and guidelines for public health (WHO, 2021). Third,
policies are not static and must be adaptable to changing circumstances and new information
(Cairney, 2020). Policymakers must continually monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of
policies and make adjustments as needed. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted
the need for adaptable policies, as governments have had to quickly adjust public health
measures in response to evolving situations (Hale et al., 2021). Fourth, the policy-making
process often involves the engagement of various stakeholders, including government
agencies, civil society organizations, and the public (Birkland, 2019). Stakeholder
engagement helps ensure that policies are responsive to the needs and concerns of those
affected by them. For example, the European Union's "Better Regulation" agenda emphasizes
stakeholder consultation in the policy-making process (European Commission, 2021).
Examples of policies and related statistics demonstrate their impact and scope. In 2020, the
United States government enacted the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security
(CARES) Act, a $2.2 trillion economic stimulus package designed to mitigate the impact of
the COVID-19 pandemic (U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2021). This policy included
measures such as direct payments to individuals, expanded unemployment benefits, and
support for businesses. Another example is the Paris Agreement, adopted by 196 countries in
2015, which is a global policy framework aimed at combating climate change. As of 2021,
191 countries have ratified the agreement, committing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and limit global temperature rise (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, 2021).
In conclusion, the concept of 'policy' refers to a course of action or set of principles adopted
to guide decisions and achieve desired outcomes. Operationally, policies are formal
statements of intent that outline guidelines, rules, and procedures to be followed in a
particular area or situation. Effective policies are goal-oriented, evidence-based, adaptive, and
involve stakeholder engagement. By understanding the concept and operational definition of
policy, decision-makers can develop and implement strategies that effectively address societal
challenges and promote the well-being of their constituents.

4.5. Policy of FELDA
The concept of 'policy of FELDA' refers to the set of principles, guidelines, and actions
adopted by the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) in Malaysia to guide its
decision-making processes and achieve its objectives of socioeconomic development and
poverty alleviation among the rural population (Sutton & Buang, 1995). FELDA's policies
are designed to address the specific needs of its settlers and their communities, while also
contributing to the broader goals of national development (Ahmad et al., 2020).
Operationally, FELDA's policies can be defined as the formal statements of intent, plans, and
frameworks that outline the strategies, rules, and procedures to be followed in various areas
of its operations, such as land development, agricultural production, and settler welfare
(FELDA, 2021). These policies are documented in official publications, such as annual
reports and strategic plans, and are communicated to relevant stakeholders to ensure
consistency and accountability in their implementation (Arshad et al., 2021).
FELDA's policies encompass several key aspects. First, they prioritize the development of
rural land and the resettlement of landless individuals to promote economic opportunities and
improve living standards (Sutton, 2001). As of 2020, FELDA's policies have resulted in the
development of 317 land schemes, covering an area of 853,313 hectares and benefiting
112,635 settler families (FELDA, 2020). Second, FELDA's policies focus on the cultivation
of oil palm and rubber as the main crops in its settlements. These policies aim to optimize
agricultural productivity, ensure sustainable land management practices, and contribute to
Malaysia's position as a leading producer of palm oil (Arshad et al., 2021). In 2020, FELDA's
total planted area for oil palm was 704,811 hectares, while rubber accounted for 82,995
hectares (FELDA, 2020). Third, FELDA's policies prioritize the socioeconomic well-being of
its settlers and their communities. These policies include investments in infrastructure,
education, healthcare, and community facilities to enhance the quality of life in FELDA
settlements (Moussa & Osman, 2020). For example, in 2020, FELDA allocated RM 20.7
million for educational assistance, benefiting 5,674 students (FELDA, 2020). Fourth,
FELDA's policies increasingly emphasize the diversification of its operations and the
promotion of sustainable practices to ensure long-term viability (Nasir et al., 2020). These
policies include ventures into downstream processing, value-added products, and eco-tourism
to reduce dependence on commodity prices and create new income streams for settlers (Muda
et al., 2019).
The impact of FELDA's policies is evident through various examples and statistics. FELDA's
policies have contributed significantly to poverty reduction in Malaysia. Between 1970 and
2020, the poverty rate among FELDA settlers decreased from 50% to less than 5% (Ahmad et
al., 2020). Additionally, FELDA's policies have played a crucial role in the development of
Malaysia's palm oil industry. As of 2020, FELDA is responsible for approximately 15% of
Malaysia's total oil palm planted area and contributes significantly to the country's export
earnings (Arshad et al., 2021).
In conclusion, the concept of 'policy of FELDA' refers to the set of principles, guidelines, and
actions adopted by FELDA to guide its decision-making processes and achieve its objectives
of socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation among the rural population in
Malaysia. Operationally, these policies are formal statements of intent, plans, and frameworks
that outline the strategies, rules, and procedures to be followed in various areas of FELDA's
operations. By implementing effective policies, FELDA has contributed significantly to

poverty reduction, agricultural development, and the overall well-being of its settlers and
their communities.
4.6. Socioeconomic
The concept of 'socioeconomic' refers to the interplay between social and economic factors
that influence the well-being, living conditions, and overall status of individuals, groups, or
societies (Marmot, 2017). It encompasses a wide range of variables, such as income,
education, occupation, housing, health, and access to resources, which collectively shape the
opportunities and challenges faced by people in their daily lives (Brulle & Pellow, 2006). The
term 'socioeconomic' acknowledges the intrinsic link between social and economic
dimensions, recognizing that one's social status and economic conditions are often mutually
reinforcing and can have significant impacts on various life outcomes (Krieger et al., 1997).
Operationally, 'socioeconomic' can be defined as the measurable aspects of an individual's or
group's social and economic standing, typically assessed through indicators such as income
level, educational attainment, occupational prestige, and wealth (Galobardes et al., 2006).
These indicators are often used to categorize individuals or groups into different
socioeconomic strata or classes, which can be used to analyze and compare their experiences,
opportunities, and outcomes across various domains, such as health, education, and social
mobility (Adler & Newman, 2002).
Several key aspects define the concept of socioeconomic. Income and wealth are central
components of socioeconomic status, as they determine an individual's or household's ability
to access resources, goods, and services (Galobardes et al., 2006). In the United States, the
median household income was $68,703 in 2019, but significant disparities exist across
different racial and ethnic groups (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). Educational attainment is
closely linked to socioeconomic status, as it often determines one's employment
opportunities, earning potential, and social networks (Mirowsky & Ross, 2003). In 2019,
adults with a bachelor's degree or higher earned a median weekly income of $1,248,
compared to $746 for those with only a high school diploma (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2020). Occupation is another key indicator of socioeconomic status, as different jobs are
associated with varying levels of income, prestige, and working conditions (Fujishiro et al.,
2010). In 2020, the median annual wage for management occupations was $109,760, while it
was $27,080 for food preparation and serving related occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2021). Socioeconomic status also has a significant impact on health outcomes, with
individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often experiencing poorer health and
higher rates of chronic diseases (Marmot, 2005). In the United States, adults with a household
income below the federal poverty level are more likely to report fair or poor health (18.1%)
compared to those with a household income at or above 400% of the poverty level (5.6%)
(National Center for Health Statistics, 2021).
Examples and impact of socioeconomic factors can be seen in various domains. The COVID-
19 pandemic has highlighted the profound impact of socioeconomic disparities on health
outcomes. In the United States, counties with higher poverty rates and larger populations of
racial and ethnic minorities experienced higher rates of COVID-19 cases and deaths
(Adhikari et al., 2020). Socioeconomic status also plays a significant role in educational
opportunities and outcomes. Students from low-income families are less likely to attend
college and complete a degree compared to their higher-income peers (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2019). In 2018, the college enrollment rate for high school graduates
from the lowest income quintile was 50%, compared to 79% for those from the highest
income quintile (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020).
In conclusion, the concept of 'socioeconomic' refers to the interplay between social and
economic factors that influence the well-being, living conditions, and overall status of
individuals, groups, or societies. Operationally, 'socioeconomic' is defined through
measurable indicators such as income, education, occupation, and wealth, which are used to
assess and compare the experiences and outcomes of different socioeconomic strata.
Understanding the impact of socioeconomic factors is crucial for developing policies and
interventions that promote equity and address disparities in various domains, such as health,
education, and social mobility.
4.7. Socioeconomic Well-being
The concept of 'socioeconomic well-being' refers to the overall quality of life and standard of
living experienced by individuals or groups, as determined by the interplay of social and
economic factors (Stiglitz et al., 2009). It encompasses a multidimensional approach to
understanding well-being, taking into account not only economic indicators such as income
and wealth but also social aspects like education, health, housing, and access to resources
(OECD, 2011). The concept of socioeconomic well-being recognizes that an individual's or
group's well-being is not solely determined by their financial status but rather is a product of
the complex interactions between social and economic conditions (Dolan et al., 2011).
Operationally, 'socioeconomic well-being' can be defined as the measurable outcomes and
experiences that reflect the quality of life and standard of living of individuals or groups, as
assessed through various indicators and dimensions (McGillivray & Clarke, 2006). These
indicators often include measures of income, wealth, education, health, housing, social
connections, and subjective well-being (OECD, 2013). By evaluating these indicators,
researchers and policymakers can gain insights into the socioeconomic well-being of different
populations and identify areas where interventions may be needed to promote equity and
improve overall well-being (Boarini et al., 2014).
Income and wealth are fundamental components of socioeconomic well-being, as they
provide individuals and households with the financial resources necessary to meet their basic
needs and pursue opportunities (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002). In the United States, the
median household income was $68,703 in 2019, but significant disparities exist across
different racial and ethnic groups, with Black and Hispanic households earning substantially
less than their White counterparts (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). These income disparities have
profound implications for overall socioeconomic well-being, as they can limit access to
quality education, healthcare, housing, and other resources (Chetty et al., 2014).
Education is another critical determinant of socioeconomic well-being, as it equips
individuals with the knowledge, skills, and credentials needed to secure employment, earn
higher incomes, and achieve upward social mobility (Hout, 2012). In the United States, adults
with a bachelor's degree or higher have substantially higher median weekly earnings ($1,248)
compared to those with only a high school diploma ($746) (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2020). Moreover, higher levels of education are associated with better health outcomes,
increased civic engagement, and greater overall life satisfaction (Oreopoulos & Salvanes,
2011).
Health is a crucial component of socioeconomic well-being, as it directly impacts an
individual's ability to participate in social and economic activities and enjoy a high quality of
life (Marmot, 2002). Socioeconomic status has a significant influence on health outcomes,
with individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often experiencing poorer health
and higher rates of chronic diseases (Adler & Newman, 2002). In the United States, adults
with a household income below the federal poverty level are more likely to report fair or poor
health (18.1%) compared to those with a household income at or above 400% of the poverty
level (5.6%) (National Center for Health Statistics, 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic has starkly highlighted the importance of socioeconomic well-
being and the profound disparities that exist within societies. In the United States, counties
with higher poverty rates and larger populations of racial and ethnic minorities experienced
higher rates of COVID-19 cases and deaths (Adhikari et al., 2020). The pandemic has also
had disproportionate impacts on the employment and financial stability of low-income and
minority households, exacerbating pre-existing socioeconomic inequalities (Kochhar, 2020).
In conclusion, the concept of 'socioeconomic well-being' refers to the overall quality of life
and standard of living experienced by individuals or groups, as determined by the interplay of
social and economic factors. Operationally, 'socioeconomic well-being' is defined through
measurable outcomes and experiences, assessed through various indicators such as income,
wealth, education, health, housing, and subjective well-being. Understanding and promoting
socioeconomic well-being is crucial for creating inclusive and equitable societies, where all
individuals have the opportunity to thrive and achieve their full potential.
4.8. Socioeconomic Well-being Enhancement

The concept of 'socioeconomic well-being enhancement' refers to the intentional and strategic
efforts to improve the overall quality of life and standard of living experienced by individuals
or groups, as determined by the interplay of social and economic factors (Stiglitz et al.,
2009). It involves a multidimensional approach to identifying and addressing the various
aspects of well-being that can be enhanced, such as income, wealth, education, health,
housing, social connections, and subjective well-being (OECD, 2011). The goal of
socioeconomic well-being enhancement is to create a more equitable and inclusive society,
where all individuals have the opportunity to thrive and achieve their full potential (Boarini et
al., 2014).
Operationally, 'socioeconomic well-being enhancement' can be defined as the targeted
interventions, policies, and programs designed to improve the measurable outcomes and
experiences that reflect the quality of life and standard of living of individuals or groups
(McGillivray & Clarke, 2006). These interventions aim to enhance specific aspects of
socioeconomic well-being, such as increasing income and wealth, improving access to
quality education and healthcare, providing affordable housing, and fostering social
connections and support networks (OECD, 2013).
One crucial aspect of socioeconomic well-being that can be enhanced is income and wealth.
Policies aimed at increasing minimum wages, providing income support for low-income
families, and promoting financial literacy and asset-building can help improve the financial
stability and well-being of individuals and households (Sherraden, 1991). For example, in
2021, the United States government expanded the Child Tax Credit, providing monthly
payments of up to $300 per child to millions of families, which has been shown to reduce
poverty and improve the financial well-being of low-income households (Center on Poverty
and Social Policy, 2021).
Another key aspect of socioeconomic well-being enhancement is improving access to quality
education. Investing in early childhood education, providing targeted support for
disadvantaged students, and increasing access to higher education can help promote
educational attainment and improve long-term economic outcomes (Heckman, 2011). In
recent years, many countries have implemented policies to make higher education more
affordable and accessible, such as the American Opportunity Tax Credit in the United States,
which provides up to $2,500 in tax credits for college expenses (U.S. Department of
Education, 2021).
Health is another critical dimension of socioeconomic well-being that can be enhanced
through targeted interventions. Policies aimed at expanding access to affordable healthcare,
promoting preventive care, and addressing social determinants of health can help improve
health outcomes and reduce health disparities (Marmot, 2005). The Affordable Care Act in
the United States, implemented in 2010, has helped millions of Americans gain access to
health insurance and has been associated with improvements in health outcomes and financial
stability (Sommers et al., 2017).
Enhancing housing stability and affordability is another important aspect of socioeconomic
well-being. Policies such as rent subsidies, affordable housing development, and
homeownership assistance programs can help improve access to safe, stable, and affordable
housing, which has been linked to better health, education, and economic outcomes
(Desmond & Kimbro, 2015). In 2021, the Canadian government announced a $70 billion
investment in the National Housing Strategy, aimed at creating more affordable housing and
reducing homelessness (Government of Canada, 2021).
Promoting social connections and support networks is also crucial for enhancing
socioeconomic well-being. Policies and programs that foster community engagement, social
cohesion, and civic participation can help improve mental health, reduce social isolation, and
increase overall life satisfaction (Putnam, 2000). For example, the United Kingdom's
National Lottery Community Fund supports projects that bring people together and build
strong communities, with an emphasis on improving the well-being of disadvantaged groups
(The National Lottery Community Fund, 2021).
In conclusion, the concept of 'socioeconomic well-being enhancement' refers to the
intentional and strategic efforts to improve the overall quality of life and standard of living
experienced by individuals or groups, as determined by the interplay of social and economic
factors. Operationally, it involves targeted interventions, policies, and programs designed to
enhance specific aspects of socioeconomic well-being, such as income and wealth, education,
health, housing, and social connections. By focusing on these key dimensions and
implementing evidence-based policies and programs, societies can work towards creating a
more equitable and inclusive environment where all individuals have the opportunity to thrive
and achieve their full potential.
4.9. FELDA Community
The FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority) community refers to the settlements and
townships established by the Malaysian government through the FELDA program, aimed at
eradicating poverty among rural populations and promoting economic development through
organized land schemes. Here's a detailed overview of the FELDA community:
The FELDA program was initiated in 1956 to assist landless farmers and low-income rural
families by providing them with land for cultivation, primarily focused on oil palm and
rubber plantations (Sutton, 1989). The government identified suitable land areas, cleared and
developed them, and then allocated smallholdings to qualified participants, who were known
as FELDA settlers (Ngah, 2011).
The FELDA communities are characterized by their unique settlement patterns, with each
community consisting of a central township surrounded by smallholdings, typically ranging
from 4 to 10 acres per settler family (FELDA, 2020). These townships were designed to be
self-sufficient, with amenities such as schools, clinics, mosques, community halls, and basic
infrastructure provided by FELDA (Nair, 2010).
As of 2020, there were approximately 112 FELDA schemes across Malaysia, spanning over
853,313 hectares of land (FELDA, 2020). These schemes were home to around 1.2 million
settlers and their families, making up a significant portion of the rural population (Mokhtar,
2019). The majority of FELDA settlers were involved in the cultivation of oil palm and
rubber, with additional economic activities such as livestock farming and small-scale
businesses (Ngah & Masron, 2015).
One of the key characteristics of the FELDA community is its emphasis on cooperative living
and shared resources. Settlers were organized into groups, known as "rengkas," which
facilitated collective decision-making and management of shared amenities (Sutton, 1989).
This fostered a strong sense of community and mutual support among the settlers.
Over the years, the FELDA program has undergone various reforms and initiatives to
improve the living standards and economic opportunities for its settlers. This includes
diversification into other crops, such as fruits and vegetables, as well as the establishment of
downstream industries and value-added activities (FELDA, 2020).
Despite its successes, the FELDA community has faced challenges, including issues related
to aging settlers, generational gaps, and the need for sustainable agricultural practices
(Mokhtar, 2019). Nevertheless, the FELDA community remains an important part of
Malaysia's rural landscape and continues to play a significant role in the country's
socioeconomic development.
4.10. FELDA Settlers
FELDA settlers refer to the individuals and families who were allocated land and
smallholdings under the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) program in
Malaysia. Here's a detailed overview of FELDA settlers:
FELDA settlers were typically landless farmers, low-income rural families, or individuals
from impoverished backgrounds who were selected to participate in the FELDA land
settlement scheme (Ngah, 2011). The primary objective of the program was to provide these
settlers with economic opportunities and a pathway to improve their living standards through
organized land development and agricultural activities (Sutton, 1989).

To become a FELDA settler, individuals had to meet certain eligibility criteria, such as being
Malaysian citizens, having agricultural experience or a willingness to learn, and being in a
financially disadvantaged position (FELDA, 2020). Once selected, the settlers were allocated
smallholdings, typically ranging from 4 to 10 acres, within the FELDA schemes (Mokhtar,
2019).
FELDA settlers were provided with housing, basic infrastructure, and access to amenities like
schools, clinics, and community facilities within the FELDA townships (Nair, 2010). They
were also given training, guidance, and support from FELDA in cultivating crops, primarily
oil palm and rubber, on their allocated land (Ngah & Masron, 2015).
One of the defining characteristics of FELDA settlers was their involvement in cooperative
living and shared resources. They were organized into groups, known as "rengkas," which
facilitated collective decision-making and management of shared facilities and resources
(Sutton, 1989). This cooperative approach fostered a strong sense of community and mutual
support among the settlers.
As of 2020, there were approximately 1.2 million FELDA settlers and their family members
residing in the FELDA schemes across Malaysia (FELDA, 2020). Over the years, the FELDA
program has aimed to empower these settlers and provide them with opportunities for
economic advancement, such as diversification into other crops, value-added activities, and
downstream industries (FELDA, 2020).
Despite the successes of the program, FELDA settlers have faced challenges, including issues
related to aging settlers, generational gaps, and the need for sustainable agricultural practices
(Mokhtar, 2019). Nevertheless, the FELDA settlers remain an integral part of Malaysia's rural
landscape and have played a significant role in the country's socioeconomic development.
4.11. FELDA Settlements
FELDA settlements refer to the townships and communities established by the Federal Land
Development Authority (FELDA) across Malaysia as part of its land settlement program.
These settlements were designed to provide landless farmers and low-income rural families
with access to land, housing, and infrastructure, as well as opportunities for economic
development through organized agricultural activities.
As of 2020, there were approximately 112 FELDA settlements across Malaysia, spanning
over 853,313 hectares of land (FELDA, 2020). These settlements are characterized by their
unique layout, with a central township surrounded by smallholdings allocated to FELDA
settlers for agricultural purposes, primarily oil palm and rubber cultivation (Mokhtar, 2019).
Some of the leading and well-known FELDA settlements in Malaysia include:
1. FELDA Jengka, located in Pahang, is one of the largest and most renowned FELDA
settlements. Established in 1977, it covers an area of over 97,000 hectares and is home to
more than 100,000 settlers and their families (FELDA, 2020). FELDA Jengka is famous for
its successful implementation of the land settlement program, as well as its thriving economic
activities, including palm oil production and downstream industries.

2. FELDA Serting, situated in Negeri Sembilan, is another prominent FELDA settlement.
Established in 1964, it covers an area of over 18,000 hectares and is known for its well-
planned infrastructure, community facilities, and successful agricultural activities (Ngah &
Masron, 2015).
3. FELDA Bukit Sagu, located in Pahang, is recognized for its innovative approach to
sustainable agricultural practices and diversification into other crops, such as fruits and
vegetables, in addition to oil palm and rubber cultivation (FELDA, 2020).
4. FELDA Gedangsa, in Johor, is a notable settlement known for its large-scale oil palm
plantations and efforts to promote entrepreneurship and value-added activities among its
settlers (Nair, 2010).
The FELDA settlements were designed to be self-sufficient communities, with amenities such
as schools, clinics, mosques, community halls, and basic infrastructure provided by FELDA
(Sutton, 1989). These settlements were also characterized by their emphasis on cooperative
living and shared resources, with settlers organized into groups known as "rengkas" for
collective decision-making and management of shared facilities (Ngah, 2011).
Despite the successes of the FELDA settlements in improving the living standards and
economic opportunities for rural communities, they have faced challenges, including issues
related to aging settlers, generational gaps, and the need for sustainable agricultural practices
(Mokhtar, 2019). Nevertheless, the FELDA settlements remain an integral part of Malaysia's
rural landscape and have played a significant role in the country's socioeconomic
development.
5. Theory of the Study
This section explain about the effort to theorize the study of rural development, with a special
reference to the issue on the role of government in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being
of a community, including the issue of FELDA. It present a general view on the available
theory related to the issue concern. This section then will proposed two major theories,
namely, Welfare State Theory and Development State Theory, as the theory of the study, i.e. a
theoretical framework. Then this section will explain further how to apply both theories to
analyze the study on FELDA.
5.1. Theorizing the Study on the Role of Government in Enhancing the
Socioeconomic Well-being of a Community
To theorize the study on the role of government in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being
of a community, particularly in rural areas like the FELDA settlements in Malaysia, several
relevant theories can be considered:
1. Human Development Theory:
This theory, proposed by economists like Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq, emphasizes the
importance of expanding people's freedoms, capabilities, and opportunities to lead a fulfilling
life (Sen, 1999). The FELDA program can be analyzed through this lens, as it aimed to
provide landless farmers and low-income rural families with access to land, resources, and
economic opportunities, thereby enhancing their capabilities and freedoms to improve their
2. Community Development Theory:
This theory focuses on the collective empowerment of communities through participatory
approaches, capacity building, and sustainable development initiatives (Matarrita-Cascante &
Brennan, 2012). The FELDA settlements can be examined through this lens, as they were
designed to foster cooperative living, shared resources, and collective decision-making
among settlers, fostering a sense of community and mutual support (Sutton, 1989).
3. Rural Development Theory:
This theory emphasizes the need for holistic and integrated approaches to address the
multidimensional challenges faced by rural communities, including poverty, lack of
infrastructure, and limited access to resources (Chambers, 1983). The FELDA program can
be analyzed through this lens, as it aimed to provide rural communities with land, housing,
infrastructure, and agricultural support, addressing various aspects of rural development.
4. Social Capital Theory:
This theory highlights the importance of social networks, trust, and collective norms in
facilitating cooperation and achieving shared goals (Putnam, 2000). The FELDA settlements
can be examined through this lens, as they were organized into cooperative groups
("rengkas"), which facilitated collective decision-making and management of shared
resources, fostering social capital among the settlers (Ngah & Masron, 2015).
5. Sustainable Livelihoods Framework:
This framework emphasizes the importance of considering various livelihood assets (human,
natural, financial, physical, and social) and their interactions in promoting sustainable
livelihoods (Chambers & Conway, 1992). The FELDA program can be analyzed through this
lens, as it aimed to provide settlers with access to land, housing, infrastructure, and
agricultural support, while also fostering cooperative living and shared resources, addressing
multiple livelihood assets.
6. Welfare State Theory:
This theory suggests that the government has a responsibility to ensure the well-being of its
citizens by providing social services, economic assistance, and a basic standard of living
(Esping-Andersen, 1990). The FELDA program can be examined through this lens, as it was
a government-led initiative aimed at improving the living standards and economic
opportunities for rural communities, reflecting the welfare state's role in addressing social and
economic disparities.
7. Development State Theory:
This theory emphasizes the role of the state in actively shaping and guiding economic
development through strategic planning, policy interventions, and the mobilization of
resources (Johnson, 1982). The FELDA program can be analyzed through this lens, as it was
a state-led initiative aimed at promoting rural development, land redistribution, and economic
diversification, reflecting the development state's active role in driving socioeconomic
transformation.
By applying these theories and frameworks, researchers can gain a comprehensive
understanding of the role of government in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of rural
communities through programs like FELDA. Additionally, these theories can provide insights
into the challenges, opportunities, and best practices for designing and implementing
effective rural development initiatives.

5.2. Welfare State Theory
The Welfare State Theory is a prominent theory in the field of social policy and political
economy, which emphasizes the role of the government in ensuring the well-being of its
citizens through the provision of social services, economic assistance, and a basic standard of
living. The concept of the welfare state was initially developed by economists and social
reformers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Otto von Bismarck in Germany
and William Beveridge in the United Kingdom. However, the modern formulation of the
Welfare State Theory is largely attributed to the work of Danish sociologist Gøsta Esping-
Andersen, who published his influential book "The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism" in
1990.
Esping-Andersen argued that the welfare state plays a crucial role in decommodifying labor,
ensuring that individuals' well-being and access to basic services are not solely dependent on
their participation in the market (Esping-Andersen, 1990). He identified three distinct models
of welfare states: liberal, conservative-corporatist, and social-democratic, each characterized
by different levels of decommodification, stratification, and the role of the state, market, and
family in providing social welfare.
The Welfare State Theory considers various variables and concepts, including social rights,
decommodification, redistribution, and social stratification. Social rights refer to access to
education, healthcare, housing, and income security as fundamental rights guaranteed by the
state. Decommodification refers to the extent to which individuals and families can maintain
a socially acceptable standard of living independent of market participation (Esping-

Andersen, 1990). The theory also emphasizes the welfare state's role in redistributing
resources and opportunities to reduce economic and social inequalities within society, and
examines how welfare state policies impact social stratification and power distribution.
The Welfare State Theory can be a suitable framework for analyzing the FELDA program in
Malaysia, as the program was a government-led initiative aimed at improving the well-being
and socioeconomic status of rural communities, particularly landless farmers and low-income
families. The FELDA program provided settlers with access to land, housing, infrastructure,
and agricultural support, which can be viewed as a form of social rights and economic
assistance provided by the state to ensure a basic standard of living and economic
opportunities for these communities (Nair, 2010). Additionally, the program aimed to address
economic disparities and promote redistribution of resources by providing land ownership
and income-generating opportunities to rural populations.
Several studies have applied the Welfare State Theory or related concepts to analyze rural
development programs and policies. Daidone et al. (2017) used the concept of "rural
welfarism" to examine the impact of social assistance programs on rural households in
Lesotho. Sunam (2017) analyzed the role of the welfare state in promoting rural development
in South Asia. Mok et al. (2017) studied the impact of the New Rural Cooperative Medical
Scheme in China, reflecting the welfare state's role in ensuring access to basic services in
rural areas. These studies demonstrate the applicability of the Welfare State Theory in
understanding the role of government interventions, social policies, and welfare programs in
enhancing the well-being and socioeconomic status of rural communities.
5.3. Development State Theory

The Development State Theory is a prominent theory in the field of political economy and
development studies, which emphasizes the role of the state in actively shaping and guiding
economic development through strategic planning, policy interventions, and the mobilization
of resources. The concept of the development state was first coined by economist Chalmers
Johnson in his seminal work "MITI and the Japanese Miracle" (1982), where he analyzed the
role of the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) in facilitating the
country's rapid economic growth after World War II. Johnson argued that the Japanese state
played a crucial role in nurturing and supporting strategic industries, coordinating
investments, and promoting technological innovation through various policy measures and
interventions. Other proponents of the Development State Theory include Alice Amsden, who
studied the role of the state in promoting industrialization in South Korea and Taiwan
(Amsden, 1989), and Robert Wade, who analyzed the state's interventionist policies in the
economic development of East Asian countries (Wade, 1990).
The Development State Theory considers various variables and concepts, including state
intervention, strategic planning, mobilization of resources, public-private collaboration, and
meritocratic bureaucracy. The theory emphasizes the active role of the state in intervening in
the economy through policies, regulations, and the allocation of resources to promote
economic development and industrialization. Development states are characterized by their
ability to formulate and implement long-term economic strategies and plans, often in
collaboration with the private sector. The state plays a crucial role in mobilizing and
allocating resources, such as labor, capital, and technology, towards strategic industries and
sectors deemed essential for economic development. The theory also highlights the
importance of close collaboration between the state and private sector, often through
mechanisms such as state-owned enterprises, subsidies, and preferential treatment for specific
industries. Additionally, the theory emphasizes the importance of a competent and
meritocratic bureaucracy in formulating and implementing effective economic policies and
strategies.
The Development State Theory can be a suitable framework for analyzing the FELDA
program in Malaysia, as the program was a state-led initiative aimed at promoting rural
development, land redistribution, and economic diversification through strategic planning and
policy interventions. The Malaysian government played an active role in establishing and
implementing the FELDA program, which involved the identification and development of
suitable land areas, the allocation of resources (such as land, infrastructure, and agricultural
support), and the mobilization of rural populations to participate in the program (Ngah,
2011). The program can be viewed as a strategic effort by the state to promote economic
development and diversification in the rural sector, particularly through the cultivation of oil
palm and rubber plantations.
Several studies have applied the Development State Theory or related concepts to analyze
rural development programs and policies. Bebbington et al. (2019) examined the role of the
state in promoting rural territorial development in Latin America. Baird and Le (2017)
analyzed the role of the Vietnamese state in implementing rural development programs. Kiely
(2017) studied the state-led rural development strategies in China, particularly the "Building a
New Socialist Countryside" program. These studies demonstrate the applicability of the
Development State Theory in understanding the role of state interventions, strategic planning,
and resource mobilization in shaping rural development outcomes and promoting economic
transformation in rural areas.

5.4. Integration of Welfare State Theory and Development State Theory in
Analyzing FELDA's Strategic Role
To integrate both the Welfare State Theory and the Development State Theory in studying the
"Policy and Strategic Role of FELDA in Enhancing the Socioeconomic Well-being of the
FELDA Community: A Case Study in Selected FELDA Settlements, 2000-present," a
comprehensive research approach can be employed. Here's a detailed explanation of the
process:
1. Theoretical Framework:
Begin by establishing a robust theoretical framework that incorporates key elements from
both the Welfare State Theory and the Development State Theory. This framework should
guide the research questions, hypotheses, and variables to be studied.
From the Welfare State Theory, relevant concepts could include social rights,
decommodification, redistribution, and social stratification (Esping-Andersen, 1990). These
concepts can help analyze how the FELDA program aimed to provide settlers with access to
land, housing, infrastructure, and economic opportunities, thereby enhancing their social
rights and decommodifying their well-being from market forces.
From the Development State Theory, concepts such as state intervention, strategic planning,
resource mobilization, public-private collaboration, and meritocratic bureaucracy (Johnson,
1982; Amsden, 1989; Wade, 1990) can be integrated. These concepts can help examine how
the Malaysian government strategically planned and implemented the FELDA program,
mobilized resources, and collaborated with the private sector to promote rural development
and economic diversification.
2. Research Questions and Hypotheses:
Based on the integrated theoretical framework, develop specific research questions and
hypotheses. These could include:
- How did the FELDA program aim to enhance the socioeconomic well-being of rural
communities through the provision of social rights and decommodification of their
livelihoods?
- To what extent did the FELDA program contribute to the redistribution of resources and
opportunities, and how did it impact social stratification within the FELDA settlements?
- What role did the Malaysian government play in strategically planning, intervening, and
mobilizing resources for the implementation of the FELDA program?
- How did the government collaborate with the private sector and other stakeholders in the
development and management of FELDA settlements?
- How effective was the FELDA program in promoting rural development, economic
diversification, and sustainable livelihoods for the settler communities?
3. Variables and Data Collection:
Identify key variables to be studied based on the research questions and hypotheses. These
may include:
- Socioeconomic indicators (income, employment, access to education, healthcare, housing,
etc.) within FELDA settlements
- Land ownership patterns, agricultural productivity, and economic diversification
- Government policies, regulations, and resource allocation for the FELDA program
- Public-private collaboration mechanisms and stakeholder involvement
- Settler perceptions, attitudes, and experiences with the FELDA program
Collect data from various sources, including:
- Government reports, policy documents, and official statistics related to FELDA
- Household surveys and interviews with FELDA settlers and community members
- Field observations and case studies of selected FELDA settlements
- Interviews with government officials, policymakers, and private sector stakeholders
involved in FELDA
- Secondary data from academic studies, research publications, and news reports
4. Data Analysis and Interpretation:
Analyze the collected data using appropriate quantitative and qualitative methods.
Quantitative data analysis could involve statistical techniques such as regression analysis,
correlation analysis, and comparative studies to examine the impact of FELDA on
socioeconomic indicators and economic diversification. Qualitative data analysis could
involve techniques like content analysis, thematic coding, and discourse analysis to interpret
policies, strategies, and stakeholder perspectives.
Interpret the findings through the lens of the integrated theoretical framework, drawing
insights from both the Welfare State Theory and the Development State Theory. Examine
how the FELDA program aimed to enhance social rights, decommodify livelihoods, and
promote redistribution, while also analyzing the government's strategic role in planning,
intervening, and mobilizing resources for rural development and economic diversification.
By integrating these two complementary theories, the study can provide a comprehensive
understanding of the policy and strategic role of FELDA in enhancing the socioeconomic
well-being of the FELDA community, while also contributing to the broader discourse on the
role of the state in promoting rural development and addressing socioeconomic disparities.
Here is the rephrased text with in-text citations and references:
Both the Welfare State Theory and the Development State Theory offer valuable insights into
how government agencies can enhance the socioeconomic well-being of communities
(Esping-Andersen, 1990; Johnson, 1982). The choice of theory will depend on the specific
context and objectives of the research, and elements from both theories can be combined to
develop a more comprehensive understanding of FELDA's role in promoting the well-being
of the FELDA community. But the focus of this study is to examine and analyze FELDA in
contemporary era, beginning from the year 2000 and onwards.
Based on the arguments presented, the Development State Theory appears to be more suitable
for explaining the role of FELDA in contemporary times. This is because FELDA's primary
focus has been on promoting economic development and modernization within the FELDA
community, which aligns with the core tenets of the Development State Theory (Ngah, 2011;
FELDA, 2020).
Several reasons support the application of the Development State Theory to FELDA's
contemporary role: 1) Agricultural modernization, as FELDA has contributed to the growth
and development of the agricultural industry (Nair, 2010); 2) Human capital development,
through education and skills training (FELDA, 2020); 3) Infrastructure development, such as
roads, housing, and community facilities (Sunam, 2017); 4) Economic growth and poverty
reduction within the FELDA community (Mokhtar, 2019).
While the Welfare State Theory is relevant in understanding FELDA's role in providing social
services and benefits (Nair, 2010), the Development State Theory appears more applicable in
explaining FELDA's primary focus on promoting economic development and modernization
in contemporary times (Ngah, 2011). However, elements from both theories can be combined
for a comprehensive understanding (Bebbington et al., 2019).
FELDA continues to play a significant role in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of its
community in contemporary times (FELDA, 2020). Examples include: income support and
poverty alleviation, education and skills development, healthcare and social services, housing
and infrastructure development, agricultural support and modernization, and community
development and social cohesion (Mokhtar, 2019; Ngah & Masron, 2015).
These efforts align with both the Welfare State Theory (income support, healthcare, housing)
and the Development State Theory (education, agricultural development, community
development) (Esping-Andersen, 1990; Johnson, 1982). While the emphasis on economic
development suggests a stronger alignment with the Development State Theory (Ngah, 2011),
FELDA's commitment to social welfare reflects elements of the Welfare State Theory (Nair,
2010).
FELDA's policies and strategic role coincide with its efforts in enhancing the socioeconomic
well-being of its community, informed by both theories (FELDA, 2020). Examples include
land development and settlement policy (Development State Theory), social development
policy (Welfare State Theory), economic development strategy (Development State Theory),
community development strategy (both theories), and poverty alleviation strategy (Welfare
State Theory) (Ngah, 2011; Nair, 2010; Mokhtar, 2019).
A theoretical framework combining elements from both theories can be generated to study
FELDA's role, identifying important variables and relationships in the context of FELDA's
policies and strategic role (Bebbington et al., 2019; Sunam, 2017).
6. Framework of Analysis
This section explains about the proposed framework of analysis, the hybrid approach,
presenting the model of the study and further explanation of it.
6.1. Framework of Analysis: Hybrid Approach
The decision to propose a hybrid approach by integrating aspects of the Welfare State Theory
and the Development State Theory to study the "Policy and Strategic Role of FELDA in
Enhancing the Socioeconomic Well-being of the FELDA Community: A Case Study in
Selected FELDA Settlements, 2000-present" is significant for several reasons.
First, the hybrid approach acknowledges the multifaceted nature of FELDA's role and
interventions, which encompass both social welfare and economic development dimensions
(Ngah & Masron, 2015). By combining elements from the Welfare State Theory and the
Development State Theory, the proposed framework captures the breadth and complexity of
FELDA's policies and strategies aimed at improving the well-being of the FELDA
community.
Second, the hybrid approach recognizes that the socioeconomic well-being of a community is
influenced by various interrelated factors, including access to social services, economic
opportunities, and community development initiatives (Bebbington et al., 2019). The Welfare
State Theory provides insights into how FELDA's interventions in healthcare, education,
housing, and income support contribute to the social welfare of the FELDA community (Nair,
2010). At the same time, the Development State Theory highlights the importance of
FELDA's strategic role in promoting economic development through agricultural
modernization, skills development, and infrastructure development (Ngah, 2011).
Third, the hybrid approach aligns with the evolving nature of FELDA's mandate and the
changing needs of the FELDA community over time (Mokhtar, 2019). While FELDA's initial
focus was on poverty alleviation and land distribution, its role has expanded to encompass a
broader range of socioeconomic development initiatives. By integrating both theoretical
perspectives, the proposed framework can accommodate these shifts and provide a
comprehensive understanding of FELDA's role in enhancing the well-being of the FELDA
community.
Fourth, the hybrid approach acknowledges the interdependence between social welfare and
economic development in achieving sustainable community well-being (Sunam, 2017).
Improvements in education, healthcare, and living conditions can contribute to increased
productivity and economic growth, while economic development can provide the resources
necessary to support social welfare programs. The proposed framework captures this
interdependence by examining the interrelationships between FELDA's interventions in
various domains.
Finally, the hybrid approach contributes to a broader understanding of the role of government
agencies in promoting community development and well-being (Baird & Le, 2017). By
combining insights from the Welfare State Theory and the Development State Theory, the
proposed framework can inform policymakers and stakeholders about the importance of
integrating social welfare and economic development strategies in designing effective
interventions for enhancing community well-being.
In summary, the decision to propose a hybrid approach by integrating the Welfare State
Theory and the Development State Theory to study FELDA's role in enhancing the
socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community is significant because it captures the
multidimensional nature of FELDA's interventions, acknowledges the interrelatedness of
social welfare and economic development, aligns with the evolving mandate of FELDA,
recognizes the interdependence between different domains of well-being, and contributes to a
broader understanding of the role of government agencies in promoting community
development.
Figure 1: Proposed Model of the Study
Improvements in
FELDA policies +
Socioeconomic Well-
strategic role Agency's intervention
being of FELDA
(Independent (Mediating Variables Community
Variables)
(Dependent Variables)
Sources: Adapted from the works of Richard Titmuss (1958, 2018, 2019) and Gosta Esping-
Andersen (1989, 1990, 1996, 2001, 2019) on Welfare State Theory and, Chalmers Johnson
(1999) and Ha-Joon Chang (1999) on Development State Theory.
6.2. Explanation of the Model of the Study
The proposed theoretical framework integrates elements from the Welfare State Theory and
the Development State Theory to explain how FELDA's policies and strategies contribute to
improving the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community. The framework suggests
that FELDA's interventions in social welfare and economic development, guided by its
policies and strategies, lead to better socioeconomic outcomes for the FELDA community.
The important variables in the framework are categorized into three groups: independent
variables, mediating variables, and dependent variables.
The independent variables represent FELDA's policies and strategic role, including land
development and settlement policies, social development policies, economic development
strategies, community development strategies, and poverty alleviation strategies (Ngah, 2011;
Nair, 2010; Mokhtar, 2019).
The mediating variables are FELDA's interventions resulting from its policies and strategies.
These interventions include agricultural support and modernization, education and skills
development, healthcare and social services, housing and infrastructure development, income
support and poverty alleviation, and community development and social cohesion initiatives
(FELDA, 2020; Ngah & Masron, 2015).

The dependent variables represent the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community,
measured by factors such as income and poverty levels, educational attainment and skills,
health outcomes, living conditions and access to basic amenities, and social cohesion and
community development (Mokhtar, 2019; Nair, 2010).
The theoretical framework suggests that FELDA's policies and strategic role (independent
variables) guide the agency's interventions (mediating variables) in areas such as agriculture,
education, healthcare, housing, income support, and community development. These
interventions, in turn, lead to improvements in the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA
community (dependent variables), as measured by income and poverty levels, educational
attainment, health outcomes, living conditions, and social cohesion.
The framework also recognizes the interconnectedness between the mediating variables, as
FELDA's interventions in one area may have positive effects on other areas. For example,
improvements in education and skills development can contribute to better health outcomes
and increased income levels (Bebbington et al., 2019).
By examining the relationships between these variables, the theoretical framework provides a
comprehensive approach to understanding how FELDA's policies and strategic role, informed
by both the Welfare State Theory and the Development State Theory, contribute to the
socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community. This framework can guide the analysis
of FELDA's efforts and their impact on the FELDA community, emphasizing the importance
of considering both social welfare and economic development aspects in studying the role of
government agencies in enhancing community well-being.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Chapter 3 outlines the methodology employed to investigate the policy and strategic role of
the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) in enhancing the socioeconomic
wellbeing of its community across selected settlements from 2000 to the present. This chapter
serves as a roadmap for the research process, detailing the methods, procedures, and rationale
behind the study. The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide a clear understanding of
how the research will be conducted, ensuring transparency and rigor in the methodology. By
delineating the approach, design, participants, variables, data collection procedures, data
analysis plan, ethical considerations, limitations, and conclusion of the study, this chapter
offers insight into the robustness and reliability of the research findings.
The significance of Chapter 3 lies in its role in shaping the research process and ensuring the
quality of the study. By adopting a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and
quantitative methods, the chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
policy and strategic role of FELDA. This approach allows for a nuanced exploration of the
subject matter, capturing diverse perspectives and insights. Furthermore, the descriptive and
exploratory research design facilitates an in-depth examination of current policy frameworks
and strategic interventions, shedding light on their effectiveness in promoting community
development. Through purposive sampling and careful consideration of ethical

considerations, the chapter strives to maintain the integrity and credibility of the research
process.
By acknowledging potential limitations and addressing them transparently, the chapter
underscores the need for cautious interpretation of findings and contributes to the
advancement of knowledge in the field of socioeconomic development. Overall, Chapter 3
plays a pivotal role in guiding the research endeavor, ensuring methodological rigor, and
generating valuable insights into the policy and strategic role of FELDA in enhancing
community wellbeing.
2. The Research Design
Here, you detail the specific design you're using for your study, whether it's experimental,
correlational, descriptive, etc. You justify why this design is appropriate for your research
goals.
2.1. Defining Research
Research as an academic activity plays a crucial role in expanding knowledge, solving
problems, and driving innovation across various disciplines. It involves the systematic
investigation, analysis, and interpretation of data to answer questions, test hypotheses, and
contribute to the existing body of knowledge (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Research serves
multiple functions, including the advancement of understanding, the development of new
theories, and the application of knowledge to real-world issues. Its importance lies in its
ability to provide evidence-based insights, inform decision-making processes, and shape
policies that impact society (Bhattacherjee, 2012).

One of the primary functions of research is to advance understanding in a particular field or
discipline. By conducting rigorous and systematic investigations, researchers can uncover
new insights, challenge existing assumptions, and contribute to the growth of knowledge
(Saunders et al., 2019). For example, in the field of medicine, research has led to the
development of life-saving treatments, vaccines, and diagnostic tools that have revolutionized
healthcare (National Institutes of Health, 2021).
Research also plays a crucial role in the development of new theories and conceptual
frameworks. Through empirical investigations and critical analysis, researchers can identify
patterns, relationships, and underlying mechanisms that inform the creation of theoretical
models (Bryman, 2016). These theories provide a foundation for further research and help to
explain complex phenomena in various disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, and
economics (American Psychological Association, 2021).
Moreover, research is essential for the application of knowledge to real-world issues. By
conducting applied research, researchers can develop practical solutions to pressing problems
and inform evidence-based decision-making (Bickman & Rog, 2009). For instance, research
in the field of environmental science has led to the development of sustainable technologies,
conservation strategies, and policies aimed at mitigating the impact of climate change
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2021).
The importance of research lies in its ability to provide evidence-based insights that can
inform decision-making processes and shape policies that impact society (Cairney, 2016).
Policymakers rely on research findings to develop and implement effective policies across
various domains, such as education, healthcare, and social welfare (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, 2021). By basing decisions on empirical evidence
rather than intuition or anecdotal evidence, policymakers can ensure that their interventions
are more likely to achieve the desired outcomes (Nutley et al., 2019).
In conclusion, research as an academic activity is crucial for expanding knowledge, solving
problems, and driving innovation. It serves multiple functions, including the advancement of
understanding, the development of new theories, and the application of knowledge to real-
world issues. The importance of research lies in its ability to provide evidence-based insights
that inform decision-making processes and shape policies that impact society. As such,
research remains a fundamental pillar of academic and societal progress.
Conducting research on the topic "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF
FELDA IN ENHANCING THE SOCIOECONOMIC WELLBEING OF FELDA
COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY IN SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present"
is a significant endeavor that can benefit various stakeholders. FELDA (Federal Land
Development Authority) is a Malaysian government agency that has played a pivotal role in
the country's rural development and poverty alleviation efforts. As of 2020, FELDA manages
317 land schemes, covering an area of 853,313 hectares and benefiting more than 112,635
settler families (FELDA, 2021).
This research effort can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of FELDA's policies
and strategies in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community. By
examining specific case studies in selected FELDA settlements from 2000 to the present, the
research can identify the successes, challenges, and areas for improvement in FELDA's
approach. The findings can benefit policymakers, enabling them to make evidence-based
decisions and refine existing policies to better serve the FELDA community (Yusof et al.,
2020).
Moreover, the research can contribute to the academic discourse on rural development,
poverty alleviation, and the role of government agencies in promoting socioeconomic well-
being. Scholars and researchers in related fields can build upon the findings to further explore
the impact of FELDA's initiatives and propose innovative solutions to address any identified
challenges (Ahmad & Yusof, 2018).
The FELDA community itself can also benefit from this research effort. By understanding the
factors that influence their socioeconomic well-being and the effectiveness of FELDA's
policies, the community can actively participate in shaping future initiatives and advocate for
their needs. This empowerment can lead to more targeted and effective interventions that
directly improve the lives of FELDA settlers and their families (Sulaiman et al., 2019).
In conclusion, research as an academic activity is essential for generating knowledge,
informing decision-making, and driving positive change. The effort to study the policy and
strategic role of FELDA in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA
community is a valuable undertaking that can benefit policymakers, academics, and the
FELDA community itself. By leveraging recent statistics, facts, and examples, this research
can contribute to the development of evidence-based policies and strategies that promote
sustainable rural development and improve the lives of FELDA settlers.
2.2. Defining Research Design

Research design is a crucial component of the research process, as it provides a structured
framework for conducting studies and answering research questions. It is a comprehensive
plan that outlines the methods, procedures, and strategies researchers employ to collect,
analyze, and interpret data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The research design serves as a
blueprint, guiding researchers through the various stages of their study and ensuring that the
research objectives are met (Saunders et al., 2019).
The primary purpose of research design is to enable researchers to effectively address their
research questions and test their hypotheses (Bryman, 2016). By carefully selecting and
integrating appropriate research methods, sampling techniques, and data analysis procedures,
researchers can gather relevant and reliable data that support their research goals (Kumar,
2019). A well-designed research study ensures that the findings are valid, reliable, and
generalizable to the target population (Bickman & Rog, 2009).
Another important purpose of research design is to minimize bias and errors in the research
process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). By employing rigorous and systematic procedures,
researchers can control for potential confounding variables, reduce measurement errors, and
ensure that the results accurately reflect the phenomena under investigation (Saunders et al.,
2019). This enhances the credibility and trustworthiness of the research findings, making
them more valuable for informing theory, practice, and policy (Bryman, 2016).
Research design also plays a crucial role in ensuring the ethical conduct of research (Kumar,
2019). By carefully considering the potential risks and benefits to participants, researchers
can design studies that prioritize the well-being and rights of those involved (Bickman &
Rog, 2009). This includes obtaining informed consent, protecting participant confidentiality,
and minimizing any potential harm or discomfort (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A well-
designed research study demonstrates a commitment to ethical principles and enhances the
integrity of the research process (Saunders et al., 2019).
Moreover, research design is essential for the efficient use of resources, such as time, money,
and personnel (Bryman, 2016). By carefully planning and organizing the various aspects of
the research process, researchers can optimize their resources and ensure that the study is
completed within the allocated budget and timeframe (Kumar, 2019). This is particularly
important in large-scale research projects, where effective resource management is critical for
success (Bickman & Rog, 2009).
In conclusion, research design is a vital component of the research process, serving multiple
purposes and ensuring the quality, integrity, and efficiency of research studies. It provides a
structured framework for addressing research questions, minimizing bias and errors, ensuring
ethical conduct, and optimizing resource use. By carefully designing their studies, researchers
can generate reliable, valid, and meaningful findings that contribute to the advancement of
knowledge and inform evidence-based decision-making.
Researchers have access to various types of research designs, each with its unique
characteristics, strengths, and limitations. The choice of research design depends on the
research question, objectives, and the nature of the phenomenon under investigation
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The main types of research designs include quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed methods designs (Bryman, 2016).

Quantitative research designs are characterized by the collection and analysis of numerical
data (Saunders et al., 2019). These designs are primarily focused on testing hypotheses,
establishing causal relationships, and generalizing findings to a larger population (Kumar,
2019). Common quantitative research designs include:
1. Experimental designs: These designs involve the manipulation of independent variables to
observe their effect on dependent variables while controlling for confounding factors
(Bickman & Rog, 2009). Experimental designs are considered the gold standard for
establishing causality (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
2. Quasi-experimental designs: These designs are similar to experimental designs but lack
random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups (Saunders et al., 2019).
Quasi-experimental designs are often used when random assignment is not feasible or ethical
(Bryman, 2016).
3. Survey designs: These designs involve the collection of data from a large sample of
respondents using standardized questionnaires or interviews (Kumar, 2019). Survey designs
are useful for describing characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of a population (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
Qualitative research designs, on the other hand, focus on exploring and understanding the
subjective experiences, perceptions, and meanings individuals attach to social phenomena
(Bryman, 2016). These designs are characterized by the collection and analysis of non-
numerical data, such as text, images, and audio recordings (Saunders et al., 2019). Common
qualitative research designs include:

1. Phenomenological designs: These designs aim to describe and interpret the lived
experiences of individuals regarding a particular phenomenon (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Phenomenological designs are often used to gain deep insights into the subjective realities of
participants (Kumar, 2019).
2. Ethnographic designs: These designs involve the immersion of researchers in the culture or
social setting of the participants to observe and understand their behaviors, interactions, and
meanings (Bickman & Rog, 2009). Ethnographic designs are useful for studying cultural
practices and social norms (Bryman, 2016).
3. Grounded theory designs: These designs involve the iterative process of data collection and
analysis to develop a theory that is grounded in the data (Saunders et al., 2019). Grounded
theory designs are useful for generating explanatory frameworks for social phenomena
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Mixed methods research designs combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem (Kumar, 2019). These
designs leverage the strengths of both approaches while compensating for their limitations
(Bryman, 2016). Common mixed methods research designs include:
1. Convergent parallel designs: These designs involve the simultaneous collection and
analysis of quantitative and qualitative data, which are then integrated to provide a more
complete understanding of the phenomenon (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

2. Explanatory sequential designs: These designs begin with the collection and analysis of
quantitative data, followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data to explain and
elaborate on the quantitative findings (Saunders et al., 2019).
3. Exploratory sequential designs: These designs start with the collection and analysis of
qualitative data to explore a phenomenon, followed by the collection and analysis of
quantitative data to test the emergent themes or hypotheses (Bickman & Rog, 2009).
In conclusion, researchers have a variety of research designs at their disposal, each with its
unique advantages and limitations. Quantitative designs are suitable for testing hypotheses
and establishing causal relationships, while qualitative designs are appropriate for exploring
subjective experiences and meanings. Mixed methods designs combine both approaches to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The choice of research
design depends on the research question, objectives, and the nature of the phenomenon under
investigation.
2.3. Approach of the Study
For the study "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN
CASE STUDY IN SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present," a qualitative
research design is proposed. Qualitative research is an approach that focuses on exploring,
understanding, and interpreting the subjective experiences, perceptions, and meanings
individuals attach to social phenomena (Bryman, 2016). This approach is particularly suitable
for the current study, as it aims to investigate the policy and strategic role of FELDA in
enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community.
The choice of a qualitative research design aligns well with the study's objectives and the
nature of the phenomenon under investigation. Firstly, the study seeks to gain a deep
understanding of how FELDA's policies and strategies have impacted the socioeconomic
well-being of the FELDA community. Qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews and
focus group discussions, allow researchers to capture the rich, subjective experiences and
perceptions of FELDA settlers regarding the effectiveness of FELDA's initiatives (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018). These methods provide a platform for participants to share their stories,
challenges, and aspirations, enabling researchers to gain valuable insights into the complex
realities of the FELDA community (Kumar, 2019).
Secondly, the study adopts a case study approach, focusing on selected FELDA settlements
from 2000 to the present. Case studies are a common qualitative research design that involves
the in-depth investigation of a specific instance, event, or phenomenon within its real-life
context (Yin, 2018). By examining specific FELDA settlements, researchers can gain a
detailed understanding of how FELDA's policies and strategies have been implemented and
experienced by the community over time. The case study approach allows for the exploration
of the unique challenges, successes, and lessons learned within each settlement, providing a
comprehensive picture of FELDA's impact on the socioeconomic well-being of its settlers
(Bryman, 2016).
Moreover, qualitative research designs are particularly useful for studying complex social
phenomena that are influenced by multiple factors, such as historical, cultural, and political
contexts (Saunders et al., 2019). The socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community is
a multifaceted issue that is shaped by various external and internal factors, such as
government policies, market conditions, and community dynamics. Qualitative methods
allow researchers to explore these factors in-depth, uncovering the intricate relationships and
processes that contribute to the socioeconomic outcomes of FELDA settlers (Bickman &
Rog, 2009).
Additionally, qualitative research designs are well-suited for generating rich, contextual data
that can inform policy and practice (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). By providing a nuanced
understanding of the FELDA community's experiences and perspectives, the study can offer
valuable insights and recommendations for policymakers and FELDA administrators. This
can contribute to the development of more effective and targeted interventions that enhance
the socioeconomic well-being of FELDA settlers (Kumar, 2019).
In conclusion, a qualitative research design is proposed for the study "A STUDY ON
POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN ENHANCING THE
SOCIOECONOMIC WELLBEING OF FELDA COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY IN
SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present." This approach aligns well with the
study's objectives of gaining a deep understanding of FELDA's impact on the socioeconomic
well-being of its settlers. The case study approach, coupled with qualitative methods such as
in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, allows for the exploration of the complex
realities and experiences of the FELDA community. By generating rich, contextual data, the
study can inform policy and practice, contributing to the development of more effective
interventions that enhance the socioeconomic well-being of FELDA settlers.

2.4. Qualitative Approach
Qualitative approach is a research methodology that focuses on exploring, understanding, and
interpreting the subjective experiences, perceptions, and meanings individuals attach to social
phenomena (Bryman, 2016). This approach is particularly suitable for studies that aim to gain
a deep understanding of complex social issues, such as the policy and strategic role of
FELDA in enhancing the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community.
One of the key characteristics of the qualitative approach is its emphasis on the collection and
analysis of non-numerical data, such as text, images, and audio recordings (Saunders et al.,
2019). Qualitative researchers employ various methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus
group discussions, and participant observation, to gather rich, contextual data that captures
the perspectives and experiences of the participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). These
methods allow researchers to explore the nuances and complexities of social phenomena,
uncovering the underlying processes and mechanisms that shape individuals' lives (Kumar,
2019).
Another important feature of the qualitative approach is its inductive nature (Bryman, 2016).
Unlike quantitative research, which often starts with a hypothesis and seeks to test it,
qualitative research begins with the collection of data and then moves towards the
development of theories or explanations that are grounded in the data (Saunders et al., 2019).
This inductive process allows researchers to remain open to emerging themes and concepts,
ensuring that the findings are closely tied to the experiences and perspectives of the
participants (Bickman & Rog, 2009).

Qualitative research also emphasizes the importance of context in understanding social
phenomena (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Researchers using this approach recognize that
individuals' experiences and perceptions are shaped by their social, cultural, and historical
contexts (Kumar, 2019). By situating the findings within these contexts, qualitative
researchers can provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation (Bryman, 2016).
In the context of the study "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA
IN ENHANCING THE SOCIOECONOMIC WELLBEING OF FELDA COMMUNITY: A
CASE STUDY IN SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present," the qualitative
approach allows researchers to explore the experiences and perceptions of FELDA settlers
regarding the effectiveness of FELDA's policies and strategies. By conducting in-depth
interviews and focus group discussions with FELDA settlers, researchers can gain valuable
insights into the challenges, successes, and aspirations of the community (Yin, 2018). This
approach enables researchers to uncover the complex realities of the FELDA community,
providing a rich understanding of how FELDA's initiatives have impacted their
socioeconomic well-being over time (Saunders et al., 2019).
Moreover, the qualitative approach allows researchers to explore the historical, cultural, and
political contexts that have shaped the FELDA community's experiences (Kumar, 2019). By
situating the findings within these contexts, researchers can provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the factors that have contributed to the successes and challenges of
FELDA's policies and strategies (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This contextual understanding
is crucial for informing policy and practice, as it can help policymakers and FELDA
administrators develop more targeted and effective interventions that address the specific
needs and concerns of the FELDA community (Bickman & Rog, 2009).
In conclusion, the qualitative approach is a valuable methodology for the study "A STUDY
ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN ENHANCING THE
SOCIOECONOMIC WELLBEING OF FELDA COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY IN
SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present." This approach allows researchers to
explore the subjective experiences and perceptions of FELDA settlers, providing a rich
understanding of how FELDA's policies and strategies have impacted their socioeconomic
well-being. By emphasizing the importance of context and adopting an inductive approach,
qualitative research can generate valuable insights that inform policy and practice,
contributing to the development of more effective interventions that enhance the
socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community.
2.5. Research Sampling
This section describes your target population, how you selected participants (sampling
method), and any criteria for inclusion or exclusion. It's important to discuss the
representativeness of your sample.
Research sampling is a crucial concept in the field of research that involves selecting a subset
of individuals from a larger population to study and draw conclusions about the entire
population (Taherdoost, 2016). It is an essential process in research because it allows
researchers to gather data efficiently and cost-effectively while maintaining the
representativeness and generalizability of the findings (Etikan & Bala, 2017).

The main function of research sampling is to provide a manageable and representative subset
of the target population, enabling researchers to study the characteristics, opinions, or
behaviors of the larger group (Sharma, 2017). By examining a carefully selected sample,
researchers can make inferences and generalize their findings to the entire population,
assuming that the sample is representative and the sampling process is unbiased
(Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2017).
The process of research sampling involves several steps. First, researchers must define the
target population, which is the entire group they are interested in studying (Acharya et al.,
2013). Next, they need to determine the sample size, which is the number of individuals
required to represent the population accurately (Chow et al., 2017). Researchers then select a
sampling method, such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, or cluster sampling,
depending on the research objectives and the characteristics of the population (Etikan et al.,
2016). Finally, they collect data from the sampled individuals and analyze the results to draw
conclusions about the population (Rahi, 2017).
Research sampling is essential for several reasons. First, it allows researchers to study large
populations efficiently by focusing on a smaller, more manageable subset (Martínez-Mesa et
al., 2016). This approach saves time, money, and resources while still providing valuable
insights into the population of interest. Second, sampling helps to ensure the
representativeness of the findings by selecting individuals who accurately reflect the
characteristics of the larger group (Setia, 2016). This representativeness is crucial for
generalizing the results to the entire population. Third, sampling reduces the potential for bias
in the research process by ensuring that every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected (Sharma, 2017).

In conclusion, research sampling is a fundamental concept in research that involves selecting
a representative subset of individuals from a larger population to study. Its main functions are
to provide a manageable and representative sample, enable generalization of findings, and
reduce bias in the research process. Sampling is essential for conducting efficient, cost-
effective, and accurate research that contributes to the advancement of knowledge in various
fields.
This study proposed a research sampling for a qualitative approach. Hence, the target
population, sampling method, and criteria for inclusion and exclusion can be described as
follows:
Target Population:
The target population for this qualitative study remains the FELDA (Federal Land
Development Authority) community residing in selected FELDA settlements in Malaysia
from the year 2000 to the present. This includes FELDA settlers, their families, and other
individuals directly involved in or impacted by FELDA's policies and strategies aimed at
enhancing their socioeconomic wellbeing.
Sampling Method:
For this qualitative study, a purposive sampling method will be employed to select
information-rich cases that can provide in-depth insights into the research topic (Patton,
2015). The following sampling techniques will be used:
1. Criterion sampling:
- Select participants who meet specific criteria relevant to the study's objectives, such as:
- Residents of selected FELDA settlements for at least 5 years between 2000 and the
present.
- Individuals directly involved in or impacted by FELDA's policies and strategies.
- Key informants with extensive knowledge of FELDA's initiatives and their impact on the
community.
2. Maximum variation sampling:
- Identify and select participants from diverse backgrounds and experiences to capture a wide
range of perspectives within the FELDA community (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
- Consider factors such as age, gender, occupation, length of residence, and involvement in
FELDA's initiatives when selecting participants.
3. Snowball sampling:
- Ask initial participants to recommend other individuals who can provide valuable insights
into the research topic, particularly those who may be hard to reach or not included in the
initial sampling frame (Noy, 2008).
Sample Size:
In qualitative research, the sample size is determined by the concept of data saturation, which
occurs when no new themes or insights emerge from additional data collection (Guest et al.,
2006). The researcher will continue to collect data until saturation is reached. However, as a
general guideline, the study will aim to include:
- 20-30 in-depth interviews with FELDA settlers and their families.

- 10-15 key informant interviews with FELDA officials, community leaders, and
representatives from collaborating organizations.
- 2-3 focus group discussions with 6-8 participants each, representing different subgroups
within the FELDA community.
Criteria for Inclusion and Exclusion:
Inclusion criteria:
- Participants must be current or former residents of the selected FELDA settlements, with a
minimum of 5 years of residence between 2000 and the present.
- Participants must be at least 18 years old at the time of the study.
- Key informants must have direct knowledge of or involvement in FELDA's policies and
strategies within the selected settlements.
Exclusion criteria:
- Non-residents of the selected FELDA settlements.
- Individuals younger than 18 years old at the time of the study.
- Individuals who are unable or unwilling to provide informed consent.
Representativeness of the Sample:
In qualitative research, the focus is on achieving depth and richness of data rather than
statistical representativeness (Morse, 2015). By employing purposive sampling techniques,
such as criterion sampling and maximum variation sampling, the researcher aims to capture a
diverse range of experiences and perspectives within the FELDA community. Snowball
sampling helps to identify participants who can provide valuable insights but may not be
easily accessible through other sampling methods.

The researcher will strive to include participants from different generations, genders, and
occupations, as well as those involved in various aspects of FELDA's socioeconomic
development initiatives. This approach will help to ensure that the sample reflects the
complexity and diversity of the FELDA community's experiences and perceptions.
Throughout the data collection and analysis process, the researcher will engage in reflexivity
and critically assess the limitations and potential biases of the sample (Berger, 2015). The
researcher will also provide a detailed description of the sample characteristics and the
context of the study to allow readers to assess the transferability of the findings to other
settings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
2.6. Variables of the Study
You identify the independent and dependent variables in your study and provide
operational definitions for each. If applicable, you may also discuss control variables.
2.6.1. Defining Variables
In research, a variable is a fundamental concept that refers to any characteristic, number, or
quantity that can be measured or manipulated during a study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Variables are essential components of research design, as they help researchers to organize,
analyze, and interpret data effectively. The primary function of variables is to enable
researchers to investigate relationships, test hypotheses, and draw meaningful conclusions
from their studies.
Variables can be classified into different types based on their role in the research process.
Independent variables are those that are manipulated or controlled by the researcher to
observe their effect on the dependent variables (Neuman, 2014). For instance, in a study
examining the impact of sleep duration on cognitive performance, sleep duration would be
the independent variable. On the other hand, dependent variables are the outcomes or effects
that are measured and expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent
variables (Neuman, 2014). In the previous example, cognitive performance would be the
dependent variable.
Moreover, variables can be further categorized as extraneous, confounding, or moderating
variables. Extraneous variables are factors that may influence the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables but are not of primary interest to the researcher
(Bhattacherjee, 2012). Confounding variables are those that are related to both the
independent and dependent variables, potentially obscuring the true relationship between
them (Bhattacherjee, 2012). Moderating variables are those that affect the strength or
direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (Bhattacherjee,
2012).
The importance of variables in research cannot be overstated. By clearly defining and
operationalizing variables, researchers can design studies that are focused, replicable, and
produce meaningful results (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Variables allow researchers to
quantify and measure the phenomena they are interested in, enabling them to make
comparisons, establish relationships, and test theories (Neuman, 2014). Furthermore, by
carefully selecting and controlling variables, researchers can minimize the influence of
extraneous factors and increase the internal validity of their studies (Bhattacherjee, 2012).
In summary, variables are the building blocks of research, serving as the foundation for data
collection, analysis, and interpretation. They help researchers to organize their studies, test
hypotheses, and draw valid conclusions. By understanding the different types of variables and
their roles in the research process, researchers can design robust studies that contribute to the
advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.
2.6.2. Proposed Variables of the Study
In this study, the proposed framework categorizes the key variables into three main groups:
independent variables, mediating variables, and dependent variables. These variables are
interconnected and collectively contribute to understanding the socioeconomic well-being of
the FELDA community.
Independent Variables:
The independent variables consist of FELDA's policies and strategic role in various domains.
These include:
1. Land development and settlement policies: Strategies related to land allocation, cultivation,
and settlement of FELDA communities.
2. Social development policies: Initiatives aimed at improving the social well-being of the
FELDA community, such as education, healthcare, and community development.
3. Economic development strategies: Policies focused on promoting economic growth and
sustainability within the FELDA community, such as agricultural support and income
generation programs.
4. Community development strategies: Approaches designed to foster social cohesion,
empowerment, and participation among FELDA residents.

5. Poverty alleviation strategies: Targeted interventions to reduce poverty and improve the
living standards of the FELDA community.
Mediating Variables:
The mediating variables represent the specific interventions and programs implemented by
FELDA as a result of its policies and strategies. These interventions serve as the link between
the independent variables (policies) and the dependent variables (socioeconomic well-being).
The mediating variables include:
1. Agricultural support and modernization: Initiatives to enhance agricultural productivity,
technology adoption, and market access for FELDA farmers.
2. Education and skills development: Programs aimed at improving educational attainment,
vocational training, and skill acquisition among FELDA residents.
3. Healthcare and social services: Provision of accessible and quality healthcare facilities, as
well as social support services for the FELDA community.
4. Housing and infrastructure development: Efforts to improve living conditions by providing
adequate housing and basic infrastructure, such as roads, water supply, and electricity.
5. Income support and poverty alleviation: Direct financial assistance and targeted programs
to support low-income households and alleviate poverty within the FELDA community.
6. Community development and social cohesion initiatives: Programs designed to promote
social interaction, community engagement, and a sense of belonging among FELDA
residents.
Dependent Variables:
The dependent variables represent the socioeconomic well-being of the FELDA community,
which is influenced by the independent variables (policies) through the mediating variables
(interventions). The dependent variables are measured by several key indicators:
1. Income and poverty levels: The financial status and poverty rates of FELDA households,
reflecting the effectiveness of economic development and poverty alleviation strategies.
2. Educational attainment and skills: The level of education and skill acquisition among
FELDA residents, indicating the success of education and training initiatives.
3. Health outcomes: The overall health status and access to healthcare services within the
FELDA community, demonstrating the impact of healthcare policies and interventions.
4. Living conditions and access to basic amenities: The quality of housing and access to
essential infrastructure and services, such as clean water, sanitation, and electricity.
5. Social cohesion and community development: The level of social integration, community
participation, and sense of belonging among FELDA residents, reflecting the effectiveness of
community development and social cohesion initiatives.
By examining the relationships between these variables, the proposed framework aims to
provide a comprehensive understanding of how FELDA's policies and interventions influence
the socioeconomic well-being of its community. This knowledge can inform policy decisions
and guide future strategies to improve the lives of FELDA residents.
3. The Research Data
3.1. Defining Research Data
Research data refers to the collected information or recorded factual material commonly
accepted in the scientific community as necessary to validate research findings (National
Institutes of Health, 2003). It is the foundation upon which scientific studies are built, and its
proper collection, management, and interpretation are crucial for the advancement of
knowledge across various disciplines.
The primary function of research data is to provide evidence that supports or refutes
hypotheses, theories, or conclusions drawn from scientific inquiries. By collecting and
analyzing data, researchers can identify patterns, trends, and relationships that contribute to a
better understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (Borgman, 2015). Research data
serves as the backbone of empirical studies, enabling researchers to make informed decisions,
develop new theories, and advance their fields of study.
The importance of research data cannot be overstated. Firstly, it ensures the reproducibility
and transparency of scientific findings. By making research data accessible to other
researchers, studies can be replicated, validated, or expanded upon, promoting scientific
integrity and reducing the risk of false conclusions (Wilkinson et al., 2016). Secondly,
research data enables collaboration and knowledge sharing among researchers, fostering
interdisciplinary research and accelerating scientific progress (Tenopir et al., 2011). Lastly,
research data plays a vital role in informing policy decisions, guiding resource allocation, and
addressing societal challenges, such as public health issues or environmental concerns
(Heidorn, 2008).
To maximize the value of research data, it is essential to adopt best practices in data
management, including proper storage, documentation, and sharing. Researchers should
adhere to the FAIR principles, ensuring that data is Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and
Reusable (Wilkinson et al., 2016). By doing so, the scientific community can build upon
existing knowledge, promote transparency, and accelerate the pace of discovery.

In conclusion, research data is the cornerstone of scientific inquiry, serving as the evidence
that supports or refutes hypotheses and advances our understanding of the world. Its proper
management and sharing are essential for ensuring the reproducibility, transparency, and
progress of scientific research.
3.2. Types of Research Data
In the field of research, there are two main types of data that researchers often rely on:
primary data and secondary data. Each type of data has its own characteristics, advantages,
and limitations. Let's explore these two types of research data in more detail.
Primary Data:
Primary data refers to the original data collected directly by the researcher for a specific
purpose or study (Kabir, 2016). It is first-hand information obtained through various methods
such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, or focus groups (Ajayi, 2017).
Primary data is tailored to address the specific research questions or hypotheses of a study.
One of the main advantages of primary data is its authenticity and relevance to the research
problem at hand (Choy, 2014). Since the data is collected directly by the researcher, they have
control over the data collection process and can ensure its accuracy and reliability. Primary
data allows researchers to gather information that is not available from existing sources and is
up-to-date (Ajayi, 2017).

However, collecting primary data can be time-consuming, costly, and resource-intensive
(Kabir, 2016). It often requires a significant investment in terms of planning, designing
research instruments, training data collectors, and analyzing the collected data. Additionally,
the quality of primary data depends on the skills and expertise of the researcher and the
willingness of participants to provide accurate information (Choy, 2014).
Secondary Data:
Secondary data, on the other hand, refers to data that has already been collected by someone
else for another purpose (Ajayi, 2017). It is pre-existing data that is readily available from
various sources such as government databases, academic journals, books, online repositories,
or previous research studies (Johnston, 2017). Secondary data is not originally collected by
the researcher but is instead obtained and analyzed to address the current research objectives.
One of the main advantages of secondary data is its accessibility and cost-effectiveness
(Kabir, 2016). Researchers can save time and resources by utilizing data that has already been
collected, cleaned, and organized. Secondary data is often available in large quantities and
can cover a wide range of topics and geographical areas (Johnston, 2017).
However, secondary data may not always be suitable for the specific research question at
hand (Choy, 2014). The data may have been collected for a different purpose, and its
relevance and accuracy may be questionable. Additionally, researchers have no control over
the data collection process and must rely on the methodology and quality control measures
used by the original data collectors (Ajayi, 2017).

In conclusion, both primary and secondary data have their strengths and weaknesses.
Researchers must carefully consider their research objectives, available resources, and the
nature of the data required when deciding between primary and secondary data. Often, a
combination of both types of data can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the
research problem.
3.3. Proposed Research Data
3.3.1. Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is a type of data that is descriptive and non-numerical in nature. It is used to
gain insights into people's experiences, opinions, and behaviors, and to understand complex
social phenomena (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Qualitative data is often collected through
various methods such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis.
Types of Qualitative Data:
1. Textual Data: This includes data collected through interviews, open-ended survey
questions, diary entries, and other written materials (Miles et al., 2020).
2. Audio and Video Data: This includes recordings of interviews, focus groups, and
observations (Flick, 2018).
3. Visual Data: This includes photographs, drawings, and other visual materials that provide
insights into the research topic (Banks & Zeitlyn, 2015).
Qualitative Data Collection Methods:

1. Interviews: This method involves conducting one-on-one or group interviews with
participants to gather in-depth information about their experiences and perspectives
(Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015).
2. Focus Groups: This method involves gathering a small group of participants to discuss a
specific topic or issue (Morgan, 1997).
3. Observations: This method involves observing participants in their natural settings to
gather data about their behaviors and interactions (Angrosino, 2007).
4. Document Analysis: This method involves analyzing existing documents such as reports,
websites, and social media posts to gather data about the research topic (Bowen, 2009).
Qualitative Data Analysis Methods:
1. Thematic Analysis: This method involves identifying patterns and themes within the data
and organizing them into categories (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
2. Grounded Theory: This method involves developing a theory based on the data collected
and analyzed (Charmaz, 2014).
3. Narrative Analysis: This method involves analyzing the stories and experiences shared by
participants to understand their perspectives and meanings (Riessman, 2008).

4. Discourse Analysis: This method involves analyzing the language and communication used
by participants to understand the underlying meanings and power dynamics (Fairclough,
2013).
In conclusion, qualitative data is a valuable tool for understanding complex social phenomena
and gaining insights into people's experiences and perspectives. By using various data
collection and analysis methods, researchers can gather rich and detailed data that can inform
theory development and practice.
3.3.2. Primary Data
Based on the topic "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN
CASE STUDY IN SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present," and focusing on
the qualitative method, the following types of primary data can be collected for the study:
1. In-depth Interviews:
- Semi-structured interviews with FELDA officials to gather rich, detailed information on
policies and strategies implemented to enhance the socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA
community. These interviews will explore the decision-making processes, challenges faced,
and perceived successes in implementing these policies and strategies.
- In-depth interviews with FELDA settlers to gain a deep understanding of their lived
experiences, challenges, and perceptions of the impact of FELDA's policies and strategies on
their socioeconomic wellbeing. These interviews will allow participants to share their stories,
opinions, and insights in their own words.

Example: Conducting in-depth interviews with FELDA officials responsible for
implementing the "Program Pembasmian Kemiskinan" (Poverty Eradication Program) to
explore the program's design, implementation challenges, and perceived outcomes from their
perspective.
2. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs):
- FGDs with FELDA settlers to gather collective insights, experiences, and opinions related
to the impact of FELDA's policies and strategies on their socioeconomic wellbeing. These
discussions will allow participants to share and compare their experiences, as well as identify
common themes and issues.
- FGDs with community leaders to understand their perspectives on the effectiveness of
FELDA's initiatives, identify areas for improvement, and explore their roles in facilitating the
implementation of these policies and strategies.
Example: Conducting FGDs with a group of FELDA settlers from different age groups and
genders to explore their experiences and perceptions of the impact of FELDA's "Program
Pembangunan Usahawan" (Entrepreneur Development Program) on their income-generating
opportunities and overall socioeconomic wellbeing.
3. Participant Observations:
- Immersive observations in selected FELDA settlements to gain a deep understanding of
the daily lives, activities, and interactions of FELDA settlers. These observations will provide
insights into how FELDA's policies and strategies have influenced the socioeconomic
wellbeing of the community in practice.

- Participant observations of community events, meetings, and other relevant activities to
understand the dynamics, challenges, and successes of implementing FELDA's policies and
strategies at the grassroots level.
Example: Conducting participant observations in a FELDA settlement to understand how
the community interacts, how they utilize community facilities, and how they perceive the
impact of FELDA's policies and strategies on their daily lives.
4. Document Analysis:
- Qualitative content analysis of FELDA's policy documents, strategic plans, and annual
reports to identify the key objectives, initiatives, and reported outcomes related to enhancing
the socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA community. This analysis will provide insights
into the official narratives and discourses surrounding FELDA's role in socioeconomic
development.
- Thematic analysis of relevant government reports, media articles, and other secondary
sources to contextualize the socioeconomic conditions of FELDA settlers and triangulate the
findings from primary data sources.
Example: Conducting a qualitative content analysis of FELDA's "Pelan Transformasi
FELDA" (FELDA Transformation Plan) document to identify the key themes, strategies, and
narratives related to improving the socioeconomic wellbeing of FELDA settlers.
By collecting these types of qualitative primary data, the study can provide a rich, nuanced,
and contextualized understanding of the policy and strategic role of FELDA in enhancing the
socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA community, based on the lived experiences,
perceptions, and insights of various stakeholders. This qualitative approach will allow for an
in-depth exploration of the complex social phenomena and processes involved in FELDA's
socioeconomic development efforts.
3.3.3. Secondary Data
Based on the topic "A STUDY ON POLICY AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF FELDA IN
CASE STUDY IN SELECTED FELDA SETTLEMENTS, 2000-present," the following
types of secondary data can be collected for the study:
1. Government Reports and Publications:
- FELDA Annual Reports: These reports provide detailed information on FELDA's
financial performance, operational activities, and socioeconomic development initiatives.
They can offer insights into the organization's strategies, achievements, and challenges in
enhancing the wellbeing of the FELDA community.
Example: Analyzing FELDA's Annual Reports from 2000 to the present to identify the key
policies and strategies implemented to improve the socioeconomic conditions of FELDA
settlers, such as the "Program Pembangunan Insaniah" (Human Capital Development
Program).
- Economic Reports by the Ministry of Economic Affairs: These reports provide an
overview of Malaysia's economic performance and development policies, including those
related to the agriculture sector and rural development. They can help contextualize FELDA's
role in the broader socioeconomic development landscape.

Example: Examining the Economic Reports to understand the government's policies and
initiatives related to rural development and poverty eradication, and how they align with or
influence FELDA's strategies.
2. Census and Survey Data:
- Population and Housing Census: The census data provides comprehensive information on
the demographic, social, and economic characteristics of the Malaysian population, including
FELDA settlers. This data can be used to analyze trends and changes in the socioeconomic
conditions of FELDA communities over time.
Example: Using the Population and Housing Census data to compare the income levels,
educational attainment, and living conditions of FELDA settlers with the national averages
and other rural communities.
- Household Income and Basic Amenities Survey: This survey provides data on the income
distribution and access to basic amenities among Malaysian households, including those in
FELDA settlements. It can help assess the effectiveness of FELDA's policies and strategies in
improving the living standards of FELDA settlers.
Example: Analyzing the Household Income and Basic Amenities Survey data to evaluate
the impact of FELDA's "Program Peningkatan Pendapatan" (Income Enhancement Program)
on the income levels and poverty rates among FELDA households.
3. Academic Literature:
- Journal Articles: Scholarly articles published in peer-reviewed journals can provide
theoretical insights, empirical findings, and critical analyses related to FELDA's role in
socioeconomic development, rural poverty alleviation, and community wellbeing.

Example: Reviewing journal articles that examine the effectiveness of FELDA's land
development and resettlement schemes in promoting socioeconomic mobility among rural
communities.
- Conference Papers: Papers presented at academic conferences can offer recent research
findings and discussions on FELDA's policies, strategies, and their impact on the
socioeconomic wellbeing of FELDA settlers.
Example: Examining conference papers that explore the challenges and opportunities faced
by FELDA in adapting its strategies to the changing socioeconomic and political landscape in
Malaysia.
4. Media Reports and Commentary:
- Newspaper Articles: Media coverage of FELDA's activities, policies, and their impact on
the FELDA community can provide insights into public perceptions, debates, and critical
issues surrounding FELDA's role in socioeconomic development.
Example: Analyzing newspaper articles that report on the successes, challenges, and
controversies related to FELDA's "Projek Pembangunan Komuniti" (Community
Development Project) in selected FELDA settlements.
- Online News Portals and Blogs: Online media sources can offer diverse perspectives,
opinions, and analyses on FELDA's policies and strategies, as well as the experiences and
concerns of FELDA settlers.
Example: Examining online news portals and blogs that discuss the impact of FELDA's
"Program Pemilikan Rumah" (Home Ownership Program) on the housing security and asset
ownership of FELDA settlers.

By collecting and analyzing these types of secondary data, the study can provide a
comprehensive and multidimensional understanding of the policy and strategic role of
FELDA in enhancing the socioeconomic wellbeing of the FELDA community. The
combination of official reports, census and survey data, academic literature, and media
sources can help triangulate findings, identify patterns and trends, and support the primary
data collected through qualitative methods.
4. Data Collection
This part outlines how you plan to collect data, including the methods you'll use (e.g.,
surveys, interviews, observations) and the instruments or tools you'll employ. It also includes
details on how data will be administered and collected.
In the data collection section of a research study, you need to explain in detail how you plan
to gather the necessary information to address your research questions or objectives. Here are
the key components to include:
1. **Data Sources**: Describe the sources from which you will collect data. This could
include primary sources (data collected firsthand for the specific study) and secondary
sources (existing data collected by others). Be specific about the types of data sources, such
as surveys, interviews, observations, documents, or archival records.
2. **Data Collection Methods**: Explain the methods you will use to collect data from the
identified sources. For example, if you are conducting interviews, describe whether they will
be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. If you are using surveys, explain how you will
administer them (e.g., online, in-person) and whether they will be self-administered or
conducted by an interviewer.
3. **Sampling Technique**: Discuss the sampling technique you will use to select
participants or data points. Explain the rationale behind your choice of sampling method
(e.g., random sampling, purposive sampling) and how it aligns with your research goals and
objectives. Provide details about the sample size and any criteria for inclusion or exclusion.
4. **Data Collection Instruments**: If applicable, describe the instruments or tools you will
use to collect data. This could include questionnaires, interview guides, observation
protocols, or measurement scales. Explain how these instruments were developed or adapted
for your study and provide evidence of their validity and reliability.
5. **Data Collection Procedures**: Outline the step-by-step procedures for collecting data.
This includes details about how participants will be contacted or recruited, informed consent
procedures, data collection sessions or interviews, and any protocols for ensuring data quality
and integrity.
6. **Training and Pilot Testing**: If relevant, discuss any training provided to data collectors
and the process of pilot testing your data collection instruments or procedures. Explain how
feedback from pilot testing was used to refine and improve the data collection process.
7. **Timeline**: Provide a timeline or schedule for data collection activities, including start
and end dates for data collection, as well as any milestones or checkpoints along the way.
8. **Ethical Considerations**: Address ethical considerations related to data collection, such
as obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, and
minimizing potential risks or harm.
9. **Data Management**: Briefly explain how collected data will be managed, stored, and
secured throughout the research process to ensure its integrity and confidentiality.
By covering these aspects in your data collection section, you will provide a clear and
comprehensive overview of how you plan to gather the data needed for your study.
5. Data Analysis
Here, you discuss the techniques you'll use to analyze the collected data. This could involve
statistical tests, qualitative coding methods, or other analytical approaches. You justify your
choices based on the nature of your data and research questions.
In the data analysis section of a research study, you need to explain in detail how you plan to
analyze the data you have collected. Here are the key components to include:
1. **Data Preparation**: Describe the steps you will take to prepare the collected data for
analysis. This may involve cleaning the data to remove any errors or inconsistencies, coding
qualitative data, and organizing the data in a format suitable for analysis.
2. **Descriptive Statistics**: Explain how you will use descriptive statistics to summarize
and describe the characteristics of your data. This could include measures such as mean,
median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions. Discuss which descriptive
statistics are most relevant to your research questions or objectives.

3. **Inferential Statistics**: If applicable, discuss how you will use inferential statistics to
make inferences or draw conclusions about a population based on your sample data. This
could involve hypothesis testing, correlation analysis, regression analysis, or analysis of
variance (ANOVA). Explain the specific statistical tests you plan to use and why they are
appropriate for your data and research questions.
4. **Qualitative Analysis**: If your study includes qualitative data, describe the qualitative
analysis techniques you will use to analyze the data. This could include thematic analysis,
content analysis, narrative analysis, or grounded theory. Explain how you will code and
interpret the qualitative data to identify patterns, themes, or relationships.
5. **Integration of Data**: If you are using a mixed-methods approach and have both
qualitative and quantitative data, discuss how you plan to integrate the two types of data
during analysis. This could involve comparing findings, triangulating results, or using one
type of data to inform the interpretation of the other.
6. **Software Tools**: If you are using statistical software or qualitative analysis software to
analyze the data, mention the specific software tools you plan to use. Provide any relevant
details about how you will use the software to conduct the analysis and manage the data.
7. **Validity and Reliability**: Discuss how you will ensure the validity and reliability of
your data analysis. This may involve techniques such as inter-rater reliability checks for
qualitative analysis or sensitivity analysis for quantitative analysis. Explain any steps you will
take to address potential sources of bias or error in the analysis.

8. **Ethical Considerations**: Address any ethical considerations related to data analysis,
such as ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of participants' data, and obtaining
appropriate permissions for data use.
By covering these aspects in your data analysis section, you will provide a clear and detailed
explanation of how you plan to analyze the data collected in your study, ensuring
transparency and rigor in the analysis process.
6. Ethical Considerations
You address any ethical concerns related to your research, such as participant confidentiality,
informed consent, and potential risks. You discuss how you'll ensure ethical conduct
throughout the study.
7. Limitations
This section acknowledges potential limitations of your research design, such as sample size
constraints, biases, or external factors that may impact the validity of your findings.
8. Summary of the Chapter
You summarize the key elements of your research design, emphasizing its strengths and how
it addresses your research questions. You may also briefly mention any adjustments made
based on feedback or practical considerations.
CHAPTER 4

2. The Research Procedure
3. Research Result
4. Discussion of the Research Result
5. Summary of the Chapter
CHAPTER 5
2. Summary of the Study
3. Conclusion of the Study
4. Recommendations
REFERENCES

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10/3/2024 – PHD THESIS – 220 PAGES

1. Background of the Study

communities in these non-urban areas.

characterized by higher levels of poverty, lower educational attainment, limited access to

areas can lead to increased agricultural productivity, expanded non-farm employment

issues is the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities. Despite progress in poverty

sustainable rural development.

To address these challenges, policymakers and development practitioners must prioritize

infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, and telecommunications, to improve connectivity

employment opportunities and stimulate local economies.

In conclusion, rural development is a critical component of inclusive and sustainable

development. Addressing the socioeconomic well-being of rural communities, bridging the

and prosperous future for all.

1.1. Government and Rural Development

country. It is responsible for formulating policies, allocating resources, and implementing

growth and improve the socioeconomic well-being of rural populations.

telecommunications networks. Adequate infrastructure is essential for connecting rural areas

youth (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2016).

(formerly known as Oportunidades) is a conditional cash transfer scheme that provides

financial assistance to poor households in exchange for their participation in health,

the rural poverty gap by 19% (World Bank, 2014).

Effective rural development requires collaboration between different levels of government

and the participation of local communities. Decentralization and community-driven

Community Empowerment" (PNPM) has been successful in promoting community-driven

projects, benefiting millions of rural households (World Bank, 2013).

In conclusion, the government plays a multifaceted role in managing rural development. By

investing in infrastructure, supporting agriculture, promoting education and skill

development, implementing targeted programs, and fostering community participation,

communities and promote their socioeconomic well-being.

1.2. Government Policies and Strategy on Rural Development

enhance the overall quality of life in rural areas.

Another key policy area is agricultural development. Governments implement various

as no-till farming, crop-livestock integration, and reforestation (Ministério da Agricultura,

projects, covering an area of 9.7 million hectares (Observatório ABC, 2020).

Infrastructure development is another crucial component of rural development policies.

supply systems, and telecommunications infrastructure to improve connectivity and access to

Electrification Programme" (INEP) in 2001 to expand access to electricity in rural and

Mineral Resources and Energy, 2021).

Governments implement programs to improve access to quality education and vocational

scholarships to students from low-income rural families to pursue higher education. As of

(Ministério da Cidadania, 2021). In Bangladesh, the "Rural Community Clinics" initiative,

In conclusion, governments employ a range of policies and strategies to promote rural

development. These include comprehensive rural development plans, agricultural support

programs, infrastructure investments, education and skill development initiatives, and

desired outcomes and improving the lives of rural communities.

being of rural populations.

(MGNREGA), which provides guaranteed wage employment to rural households. In the

to provide all-weather road connectivity to unconnected rural habitations. As of March 2021,

habitations (Ministry of Rural Development, 2021b).

combination of measures, including industrial development, relocation, education, and social

Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021).

provides subsidized credit to small-scale farmers. In the 2019-2020 agricultural year,

PRONAF disbursed over R$ 31 billion (approximately USD 6 billion) in loans to family

development (Niederle et al., 2019).

successful in implementing large-scale programs and achieving significant progress in

marginalized and remote rural communities.

Moreover, the effectiveness of these agencies can be hindered by a lack of participatory

the importance of community-driven development and the need to empower local

In conclusion, the establishment of dedicated public agencies for rural development