CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of rural

dwellers. The United Nations defines rural development as a process of change, by which the

efforts of the people themselves are united, with those of government authorities to improve the

economic, social and cultural conditions of communities. It is about reduction of poverty,

increasing productivity, providing basic services like health, education, drinking water, sanitation

and extending infrastructure. Odiba (2001) further stated that rural development physically

transforms a backward community to stages represented by symbolic presence of structures such

as modern buildings or town halls, schools, hospitals, roads, economic generating activities,

bridges, pipe borne water and electricity. Rural development can be seen as an attempt aimed at

creating the external manifestation of an ideal society in form of large scale modern programs

and projects. This is to say that, for a rural settlement to be considered developed, there must be

a conscious attempt aimed at improving the living standard of the place through the improvement

of economic, social, cultural and physical infrastructure of the place.

Rural development is geared towards improving the quality of life of the rural people by

reducing poverty and providing self-employment and wage employment programs, providing

drinking water, electricity, highway connectivity, markets for local products, health, housing,

and education facilities to rural residents, and strengthening community infrastructure and

economy. The role of rural development is important not only for the majority of the population

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who live in rural areas but also for the overall economic development of a country for the

following reasons;

Food security:Rural development is closely interlinked with population dynamics in developing

countries. Urbanisation and population growth pose major challenges by changing the age

structure in rural areas, where people of productive age who have the energy to farm move to

urban areas in search of better opportunitiesmaking food shortage more pronounced and

exacerbating already inadequate productivity. The result is poverty-driven migration to cities,

which in turn have a negative impact on rural development.

Migration: Migration from rural to urban areas is the main demographic trend in the domain of

rural development. Young people move to cities, hoping for better access to education,

employment opportunities and services such as healthcare. The planning and development of

rural areas will create employment opportunities for the rural dwellers and help reduce rural

urban migration.

It is evident that development of rural areas is keyto a country’s ability to eradicate poverty,

overcome hunger, and create decent rural jobsto attain a balance between urban and rural areas

for sustainable development as stated by United Nations (2021). It is therefore very

necessaryaccording toWorld Bank Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations, for anintegrated rural development program as a ‘goal’, and

at the same time also as a ‘strategy ‘which needs a transdisciplinary comprehensive approach.

Along with successful application and implementation of approved development instruments (i.e.

spatial and landuse planning, land consolidation, village renewal), urban-rural development.

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Consequently, well organised, dynamic, active and coordinated planning is essential, in order to

navigate a pathway towards a balanced relationship between urban-rural development.

Intensifying relations between cities and the surrounding rural territories calls for deepening

the connections and cooperation between urban and rural territories.Urban-rural interdependence

should be tackled through multi-level governance including integrated planning (Territorial

Agenda 2020). When the dependence of rural areas on urban areas is high, the urban area

becomes the available market for rural products and also the source where rural areas in return

obtain their services thereby creating additional source of livelihood for both urban and rural

dwellers and reducing rural urban migration.

Overtime, successive governments have embarked on several programs targeted at rural

development. Other approaches have been by NGOs, cooperatives, individuals through private

initiatives, corporate bodies as well as International Organizations. The various programs

initiated are mostly targeted at the rural sector by government include the following:

 National Accelerated Food Production Program (NAFPP)

 River-Basin Development Authority (RBDA)

 Agricultural Development Program (ADP)

 Operation Feed the Nation (OFN)

 The Green Revolution (GR)

 Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS)

 Directorate for Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI)

 Better Life for Rural Dwellers (BETTER LIFE)

 National Agricultural Insurance Corporation (NAIC)

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  National Directorate of Employment (NDE)

 National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA)

 National Poverty Eradication Program (NAPEP)

 National Rural Roads Development Fund (NRRDF)

 Rural Banking Scheme (RBS)

 Family Support Program (FSP)

 Universal Basic Education (UBE)

 Rural Infrastructure Development Scheme (RIDS)

However, after all these efforts to develop rural areas in Nigeria, these areas have continued

to be in aneglected state, in terms of infrastructure, economic and social development.Rural areas

are regarded as abodes of diseases, poverty,low income andlow productivity(Enyi&Akindehinde,

2014).

1.2 Statement of Problem

The development of rural areas is very important not only because it improves the

standard of living of those living in those areas but because rural area development goes a long

way in solving the problems in both rural and urban centers especially problems caused by rural

urban migration. Development of rural areas is significant because it is an index for measuring

how developed countries are and so a target of the sustainable development agendamany nations

are keying into efforts aimed at rural development and empirical studies are also focused on

proposals to develop rural areas in developing countries hence this study which aims to make a

case for development of Ohoho-Owo .

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Ohoho-Owois a rural settlement located at Owocouncil ward,Oju local government area of

Benue state Nigeria. The settlement is in a deplorable state of neglect, with a myriad of

challenges such as lack of access to pipe borne water,inadequate supply of electricity, lack of

good healthcare services, lack of good roads, high wastage of rural products, lack of quality

education, poor interconnection, haphazard development, poor housing quality, lack of market to

sell and buyetc resulting to high rate of outward migration from the settlement, food insecurity,

outbreak of diseases, and general security issues.Despite the many challenges, the settlement has

the following potentials that if properly harvested and managed can reverse the trend of neglect

being experienced,these include; vast and fertile land for agricultural resources, Mineral

Resources (such as Clay), Timber and Forest Resources, Water Resources, Tourism Potential

and human resources.Planning involves the effective management of natural resources in space

for the benefit of humanity therefore this project attempts to envision an ideal juxtaposition of

the natural resources of Ohoho-owo to achieve development, it seeks to demonstrate what is

possible with design intervention. Itaims toanalyze the problems of the settlement and suggest

improvement strategies to improve the social, cultural and economic activities ofthe settlement.

1.3 Research Questions

1. What are the available potentials and natural resources found in Ohoho-Owo?

2. Of these resources which has the most potential for turning around the features of Ohoho-

Owo?

3. How can the potentials be linkedwith the strategies in planning in proposing projects that

can transform the area?

4. What are the planning implementations for such linkages?

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1.4 Aim and Objectives
1.4.1 Aim
The main aim of this study is to analyse the available resources present atOhoho-Owo,

conduct a needs assessment of the desires of the people and propose development strategies

based on a synthesis of the resources with the needs as expressed by the residents of the study

area.

1.4.2Objectives

1. To identify and map out the natural resources available inOhoho-Owo

2. To determine a community needs assessment from the respondents.

3. To link objective1 and 2in a proposal for the development of Ohoho-Owo.

4. To identify the planning implicationsof such a linkage?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The findings of the research would be of benefit by enabling policy makers to see the

importance of rural development and serve as a blueprint for rural development. This will also

aid in planning and help in decision making when addressing the issues of rural development. It

will also help future scholars who will endeavor to undertake a study on rural development.

1.6 Scope of the Study

Rural development encompasses a wide range of economic, social, and environmental factors

that aim to improve the quality of life and well-being of people living in rural areas. Rural

development strategies and initiatives are designed to address the unique challenges faced by

rural communities, which often differ from those in urban areas. The scope of rural development

is broad and multidimensional. It requires a holistic approach that considers economic, social,

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environmental, and cultural factors to create sustainable and inclusive development in rural

areas.

1.7 Limitation of the Study

Financial Constraint: Insufficient funds impeded the sourcing of the relevant materials,

literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and

interview)

Time Constraint: The was carried out simultaneously with other academic work. This

consequently cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

Language Barrier: The researcher encountered difficulties in communicating with the

respondents as most of the respondent were illiterate and the researcher the services of an

interpreter were used to effectively communicate with the respondents.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Ruralareas are sparsely populated territories outside of the limits of a city or town or designated

commercial, industrial, or residential centers. Typically, they are characterised by farms and

open spaces in the country side.

Development as a concept is basically used to refer to the positive growth and enhancement of

quality of peoples’ lives in relation to qualitative change in economic performance rather than

quantitative change. In essence, development is the process of adding improvements to the

quality of life of the population, the creation of local, regional income and employment

opportunities, without damaging the resources of the environment. In the context of rural

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background, it connotes developing better physical, social and economic conditions of the rural

poor living in the rural areas.

Rural Development encompasses the entirety of rural life including the economic, political,

social, and cultural development of the rural people.

Plan is a set of intended actions, usually mutually related through which one expected to achieve

a goal.

1.9 Study Area

Oju was one of the pioneer local governments among the three hundred and one (301)

local government areas created as a product of the progressive and revolutionary local

government reform of 1976 in Nigeria. It was part of the defunct Idoma divisional area following

the creation of more states and local governments by Late Murtala Muhammed on February 3 rd

1976. Since then, the geographical location had remained the same until 1996, twenty years later,

when Obi local government was carved from it. With one third of the total population carved out.

The local government has eleven council wards and lies within latitude 6 50’0’’N and longitude

8 25’ 0’’E of the equator. The main topographical feature of Oju local government is the long

range of highlands stretching from Oloko River that runs through Ohoho-Owo, Adum-Owo and

Amaka-Owo through Andibilla Hills towards OwokwuMountains to Udi Hills in Ebonyi State.

This makes the local government area prone to water flooding, which destroys food crops,

houses as well as property worth several millions of Naira yearly. Other features include the

plain land stretching from Ukpa through Iyeche to Oboru/Oye at the Cross River state border.

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The local government shares boundaries in the North Obi and Gwer local government, in the

East by Konshisha,Vandeikya, and Gwer local governments areas, in the West by Ado local

local government and in the South by Ebonyi and Cross River States of Nigeria.

Incapacitated for many years by bad roads, the federal government has embarked on road

rehabilitation project from Otukpo to Oju and the state from Awajir to Oju while the council is

opening up feeder roads.

Fig. 1.1: Map of Nigeria showing Benue State.

Source: Ministry of Lands and Survey, Oju

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Fig. 1.2:Map of Benue showing Oju local government area the study area.

Source: Ministry of Lands and Survey, Oju

Ohoho-Owo is a small settlement located in Owo council ward of Oju local government

area in Benue State, Nigeria. The settlement shares boundary with five communities namely;

AdumOwo to the south, AmekaOwo to the north, OpiemOwo to the east, Cross river to the west

and EpwaIbilla to the north-west. The settlement is characterised with haphazard development

and lack of facilities.

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 Fig.1.3: Map of Oju LGA showing Owo council ward

Source: Ministry of Lands and Survey, Oju

Fig.1.4: Map of Owo council ward showing Ohoho clan

Source: Ministry of Lands and Survey, Oju

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1.9.1 Vegetation of the Study Area
The study area has a mix of vegetation types as it is located in the transition belt. However

human activities are also a major cause of the different vegetation types found in the area. The

following are the types of vegetation found in the area;

Guinea Savanna: This is the dominant vegetation type in the area, characterised by tall grasses,

scattered trees, and shrubs. It consists of a mosaic of grassland and tree-covered patches.

Gallery Forests: Along rivers and streams, you may find gallery forests, which are characterised

by dense vegetation and taller trees. These forests provide habitat for various wildlife species and

are often associated with watercourses.

Woodland and Scrubland: In some areas, the savanna transitions into woodland and scrubland,

with a denser concentration of trees and shrubs. This vegetation type may occur on slopes or

areas with slightly higher moisture availability.

Farming and Cultivated Lands: Due to the agricultural significance of the study area, much of

the natural vegetation has been cleared for farming and cultivation. You can expect to see

cultivated crops such as yam, rice, maize, cassava, and other vegetables in agricultural areas.

1.9.2 Climatic Condition

The climatic condition of Oju has been taken to be same for the study area since the study area

has no such data over time of it own and for Oju been the closest town to the study area.Oju

Local Government Area is located in Benue State, Nigeria. As part of Nigeria's tropical climate

zone, Oju LGA experiences a predominantly hot and humid climate with distinct wet and dry

seasons. Here are the key characteristics of the climate in Oju LGA: The climate of Oju LGA

plays a significant role in shaping agricultural activities, water resource management, and overall

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livelihoods of the local population. It is important to consider the climate characteristics and

variability when planning and implementing development initiatives in the area.

1.9.3 Temperature: the study area generally experiences high temperatures throughout the

year. The average annual temperature ranges between 25°C (77°F) and 32°C (90°F). The hottest

months are typically between February and April, with temperatures occasionally reaching above

35°C (95°F).

1.9.4 Rainfall: it has a bimodal rainfall pattern, characterised by two main rainy seasons. The

first rainy season typically begins around March and lasts until July, with peak rainfall occurring

in May and June. The second rainy season starts around September and extends through October.

The total annual rainfall ranges from approximately 1,100mm to 1,400mm.

1.9.5 Humidity: The area experiences high humidity levels due to its proximity to water

bodies, such as the River Benue. Relative humidity often exceeds 70% and can reach up to 90%

during the rainy season, contributing to the overall muggy and sticky feel of the climate.

1.9.6 Dry Season: The dry season in the study area occurs between November and February.

During this period, rainfall significantly reduces, and the weather is generally drier and cooler.

Harmattan winds, characterised by dry and dusty conditions, can also affect the area during

December and January.

1.9.7 Economic Activities:

The major economic activities of the people are; Farming, Trading, and Civil Services.

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1.9.8 Markets

Igede ethnic group have 5 cyclic market days. The markets are:Ihigile market,Ihio

market,Ihiobila market, Ihiejwo market,and Ihiokwu market. These markets run periodically

throughout the week.However, the closest markets to the study area areIhiobila located at Adum-

Owoand Ihiokwu located at Ameka-Owo. The two markets close to the residence ofOhoho-

Owoare minor evening markets which the people of the environs use to buy daily needs.The

habitants however market their agricultural products at Ihiejwo market located at Oju town and

Ogbede market located at Wanikade area of Yala local government areaof Cross River state

which are several kilometers away from the study area.

1.9.9 Agricultural Produce:

The land is very fertile and about 80% of the inhabitants are farmers. Its rich and diverse

agricultural endowment include: yam, rice, beni seed, guinea corn,soya beans, cassava,

groundnut, and palm oil.The economy is dependent on agriculture (food and cash crops)

produced in commercial quantity.In addition, the people of Ohoho-Owoare also involved

in: Livestock farming, Fishing, carving, hunting, knitting and pottery are practiced at subsidiary

levels.

1.9.10 The Culture of the People:

Igede people have a rich culture that is a total way of life, heritage, language, history,

geography and belief system. The traditional rulers have the mandate as custodians of the

peoples’ culture to preserve and promote it, alongside the elders of the communities, individuals,

and the local government authorities.

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 1.9.11 Religion,languages spoken andCommunity setting of Ohoho-Owo

Basically, there are two religions in Ohoho-Owo;there is the predominant Christian on one hand

and the traditional African religion on the otherhand.The main language spoken in the study area

is theIgede dialect. The community is made up of six (6) lineages which are; Anyiewka lineage,

Oko lineage, Anyiadaluwa lineage, Anyiduma lineage, Anyichakuma lineage and Anyiomu

lineage.

1.9.12 Resources:

The following resources are found in Ohoho-Owo; vast land, fertile land foragricultural

resources, Mineral Resources (such as Clay), Timber and Forest Resources, Water Resources

and human resources

1.9.13 Facilities Present at Ohoho-Owo

The community has one government owned primary school and one private nursery and primary

school.It has six (6) Pentecostal churches and one village square where traditional ritualsare

performed.There is no form of healthcare facility present at the community as the habitants make

use of the nearest which is located at Ameka-Owo.There are five (5) hand pump bore hole

located in different locations in the community. The community security rests in the hands of

local vigilante groups, elders and individuals.There is no commercial area in the community.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.0 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this research is based on the following key concepts:

2.1.1 Concept of Rural Area

Many definition of rural areas has been developed over the years, the criteria used includes

population, population density, function, commuting pattern and or distance from other

settlement.The difficulty encountered in delineating a place to be an urban or a rural area was

said by United Nation to emanate from the distinction between an urban and a rural which cannot

to be amendable to one single definition (Claeys& Edelman, 2020).A rural area is an area that is

not urban. The Surchev (2010) defined rural areas as settlements where the population live on

farms and in villages, it has also defined rural area as those areas that are not classified as urban

area. According to the World Bank (2010) estimated the rural population in Nigeria was at its

highest value over the past 50 years 2010 with a figure of 79,528,440 residing in the rural area,

while its lowest value was 38,486,200 in 1960. For the purpose of this study, rural area can be

defined as large and isolated area of an open country with low population density, and mostly

characterised by low standard of living such as lack of adequate social amenities and abject

poverty. Other characteristics of rural population are high dependency on the soil for livelihood.

In the context of the case study, rural dwellers are mainly farmers, fisher men, hunters, and local

petty traders.

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2.1.2 Concept of Development

The term development is seen in various ways by different scholar, according to Kristiansen,

Lindkvist, & Myrdal, (2018) development means an upward movement of the entire social

system, this social system according to him comprises of both economic and non-economic

factors. He asserts that whether change is upward or downward, it must be determined from the

point of view of whether it contributes to development. Another scholar, Nel, (2019), stated that

development implies collective change; he went on further to say that such collective change

must bring about progress or improvement. According to him such progress includes;

improvement in living standards, adoption of new technologies and the provision of employment

opportunities. Generally, development is seen as the process by which man increases or

maximises his control and use of the material resources with which nature has endowed him and

his environment. Afigbo (2005) affirmed that development consists of five main ingredients:

increasing material wealth for the use of individuals and the modern collectively known as the

nation; eliminating unemployment; eliminating poverty and want; eliminating inequality, and

increasing the general availability of labour-saving devices. Development, from its inception, is a

kind of totalistic movement of which rural development is not an exception. Therefore, in the

context of this study, development means the provision of adequate and appropriate social,

economic, agricultural as well as political platform or strategies that can facilitate direct upward

movement of the life of the rural dwellers. In essence the definition advocates for a better

standard of, living for the rural dwellers and most importantly the accessibility of the provided

facilities.

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2.1.3 Concept of Plan

The free encyclopedia define plan as typically any diagram or list of steps with details of timing and

resources, used to achieve an objective to do something. It is commonly understood as a temporal set of

intended actions through which one expects to achieve a goal."Planning is usually interpreted as a process

to develop a strategy to achieve desired objectives, to solve problems, and to facilitate action" Nishi,

Dragon, Elkin, Mitchell, Ellsworth, & Hugh‐Jones, (2002).Cummings, Bridgman, Hassard,

&Rowlinson(2017). say planning is deciding in advance what to do, how and when to do it and who is

to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to go. It makes it possible for

things to happen which would, but for planning, not happen, this conceptualisation of planning is used in

this study.Cummings, Bridgman, Hassard, &Rowlinson(2017) have suggested the following

measures for making planning more effective in a fast changing environment:

a. Planning must not be left to chance. Rather a climate conducive to planning should be

created.

b. Planning must start at the top, initiative and support of top management is essential for

effective planning.

c. Planning must be organised for wider participation in the formulation and execution of

plan.

d. Goals, premises and policies must be properly communicated.

e. Long-range planning must be integrated with short range planning.

f. Planning must include awareness and acceptance of change.

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 g. An open system approach involving continuous monitoring of environment should be

adopted.

There is a close connection between objectives and planning. Planning is based on the

objectives. If there is no link between planning and objectives, the former will only be a

mental exercise and of no use. Planning contributes to the attainment of objectives. Planning

thus precedes all efforts and action, as it is the plans and programmes that determine the kind of

decisions and activities required for the attainment of the desired goals.

It lies at the basis of all other managerial functions including organising, staffing, directing and

controlling. In the absence of planning, it will be impossible to decide what activities are

required, how they should be combined, who will be responsible for what kind of decisions and

actions, and how various decisions and activities are to be coordinated.

2.1.4 Concept of Rural Development

The concept of rural development in Nigeria lacks a unified definition as different

scholars tend to view it from varying perspective. Some scholars look at rural development from

the aspect of education/training. For instance,Adedire, (2014) perceived rural development to

involve creating and widening opportunities for (rural) individuals to realise their full potential

through education and share in decision and action which affect their lives. He viewed efforts to

increase rural output and create employment opportunities and root out fundamental (or extreme)

cases of poverty, diseases and ignorance. Others likeOravee, (2015) view rural development as

means for the provision of basic amenities, infrastructure, improved agriculture productivity and

extension services and employment generation for rural dwellers.

It is obvious that rural development is not a one-off thing or an immediate phenomenon.

Rather, it is a gradual and progressive process towards perfection having a set standard in

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mind.Oravee, (2015) sees rural development as a process whereby concerted efforts are made in

order to facilitate significant increase in rural resources productivity with the central objective of

enhancing rural income and creating employment opportunity in rural communities for rural

dwellers to remain in the area. It is also an integrated approach to food production, provision of

physical, social and institutional infrastructures with an ultimate goal of bringing about good

healthcare delivery system, affordable and quality education, improved and sustainable

agriculture etc. Rural development needs to be given priority attention over this. Several reasons

for such urgency include high and unacceptable rate of poverty, poor access to social and

economic infrastructure and services such as access to safe drinking water supply and sanitation,

higher rate of health indicator such as infant and maternal mortality rate, malnutrition and

disease prevalence, and lower enrolment of children in school that characterise rural areas in

Nigeria.

Obot, &Okpiliya, (2002). suggests that rural development achievement could be measured in

the areas of roads, water supply, housing, electricity, building of model communities, access to

quality education, improved health care delivery and availability of food and agricultural

products for the rural settlers as well as markets to sell their products. The objectives of the

National Policy on Rural Development as outlined by Ogbazi (2006) summarised an ideal

situation of an acceptable level of development in the rural area. These objectives can be

paraphrased to include:

ó Promotion of the social, cultural, educational and economic well-being of the rural

population,

ó Promotion of sustained and orderly development of the vast resources in the rural areas

forthe benefit of the rural people,

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 ó The increase in and diversification of job opportunities and improvement of income in

the ruralareas,

ó Mobilisationof the rural population for self-help and self-sustaining programme of

development, and

ó Up-lifting of the technological based industries in the rural area.

Makhooa (2018) sees the concept of rural development to include resettling displaced

communities or adopting new types of housing unit, accordingly, rural development should

include alongside land-use development, economic factors such as land carrying capacity for

each area as it relates to farm land, irrigation, improved farming methods and finance. From the

above, it is obvious that scholars tilt the concept of rural development toward their area of

specialisation and perhaps, interest hence the assertion that the concept lacks a unified definition.

2.2.0 Strategies for Rural Development

Strategies for rural development vary depending on the specific needs, resources, and

context of a particular rural area.The concept of rural development is a multi-dimensional and a

comprehensive concept, which takes into consideration aspects, including, agriculture and allied

activities, village and cottage industries, farming practices, system of education, training centers,

health care and medical facilities, environmental conditions, housing accommodation,

infrastructure, technology, skills development opportunities for the individuals, administration

and management practices, employment opportunities and human resource developmentKapur,

(2019). It is vital to take into consideration measures, policies and programs that would promote

the development of all the above stated aspects in other to tackle rural community

backwardness.In rural communities, the individuals are experiencing the problems of poverty,

22
illiteracy and unemployment to a major extent. Therefore, measures and policies also need to put

emphasis upon alleviation of these problems.

The development of rural communities is the ultimate outcome of the transactions

between physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. The

approaches dictate the strategies that need to be designed to bring about improvements, primarily

in the living conditions of the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalised and socio-

economically backward sections of the society UN, (2021). To promote the development of rural

areas, it is necessary to represent an intersection between agricultural, social, managerial,

behavioural and engineering sciencesKapur (2019).

However, literature suggests some common strategies that can contribute to rural development

as;

Infrastructure Development: Improving infrastructure is essential for rural development. This

includes building and maintaining roads, bridges, electricity, water supply, sanitation facilities,

and communication networksMentolio,and Sole-Olle (2009). Infrastructure development

enhances accessibility, connectivity, and quality of life in rural areas, attracting investment and

economic activities. According to a study by Abdulsalam, Xu, Ameer, Abdo, & Xia, (2021)

saysthere is a positive and statistically significant correlation between investment

in infrastructure and economic performance. Infrastructure affects growth through several supply

and demand-side channels. Investments in energy, telecommunications, and transport networks

directly impact growth, as all types of infrastructure represent an essential input in any

production of goods and services. In addition, infrastructure can also reduce the cost of delivered

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goods, facilitate the physical mobility of people and products, remove productivity constraints,

and increase competitivenessWorld Bank (2022).

Today, infrastructure development has become a much-debated topic since scholars from

various countries have utilised the aspect of infrastructure development as a parameter and index

to measure the ability of each country to compete globally (Manggat, Zain, &Jamaluddin, 2018).

This is mainly because, access to basic, adequate facilities is viewed as strongly related to the

wellbeing of general population in any country. Infrastructure development is also the key aspect

that is used to measure leader’s performance in a country Manggat. el at (2018). According to

O'sullivan, Sheffrin, & Swan, (2003), infrastructure could be defined as organisational structure

and physical amenities that are needed by the community in general. These infrastructures

include industries, buildings, roads, bridges, health services, governance, and many others.

Sullivan and Sheffrin argue infrastructure development is needed as economically it affects the

demand and supply as well buying and selling activities.

The rapid growth in the rural economies is determined by the accessibility and the

delivery of essential infrastructures such as good roads. The importance of road infrastructure to

ensure the economy thrives in certain areas has been emphasised specifically in the rapidly

developing areas (Na, Han & Yoon, 2013). Eliasson, Savemark, & Franklin, (2020)examines the

impact of land transport infrastructure development on Malaysia’s economy growth found that

the investments in the land transport infrastructure give a significant impact on the country’s

long term economic growth. The study also emphasised the importance of the development in

infrastructure in improving several important sectors in the country such as manufacturing,

service, international trade, production and agriculture sectors. This shows that the development

of basic infrastructures like road infrastructure is essential in order to increase the rural

24
communities’ life well-being through the provision on amenities for the community use

(Manggat, Zain, &Jamaluddin, 2018). Nonetheless, the importance of infrastructure development

for the rural communities is more focused on the growth of agriculture sectors which is

synonymous with the rural community’s major economic resources (United Nation, 2011). The

advancement of basic infrastructure for rural communities is seen as an accelerator for the

growth of the rural communities’ economy which in turn will give a positive impact for the

quality of life for the community as a whole (Ale, Abisuwa, Olagunagba&Ijarotimi, 2011). At

the same time, the development of infrastructure such as road infrastructure is seen as key for the

development in the rural areas because by having these developments, basic amenities such as

clean water, electricity and communication network will be brought into the rural areas as well

(Straka&Tuzova, 2016).

The impact of the infrastructure development is also related to the quality of social

services especially in the aspect of education, health and the quality of life of rural communities

in general. This is in line with the study carried out in Nigeria by Calderon (2009) and

Egbetokun (2009) who found that the basic infrastructure is an integral part of rural development

strategies because infrastructure development is integrated with all other aspects, including

agriculture, education, health, nutrition, electricity and clean water, which subsequently be

developed as well. The development of the basic infrastructure in the rural areas is seen as a

holistic approach where it could be the solution for the problems of inequality and social justice

for rural areas in general. The importance of infrastructure for rural areas has also been discussed

by Balogun, Adeoye, Yusuf, Akinlade, &Carim-Sanni(2012).The lack of basic amenities is the

main factor that can affect the quality of life of rural communities as well as the factor that can

undermine the effort in enhancing the rural communities’ economic transformation which

25
generally rely on the agricultural resources. Laghari, Abbasi, Aziz, &Kanasro, (2015) who did a

study on the relationship between infrastructure and economic growth in India revealed that

basic infrastructure is essential for a good quality of life especially in the socioeconomic aspect.

The lack of basic amenities in the rural areas has direct negative impacts on the village residents

such as increasing the rate of poverty, declining the agricultural products and hindering the

ability to continue living a good life. All these negative impacts will definitely affect health

services and halt access to education for the village communities. The need to develop the basic

amenities for rural areas should be considered as a part of an overall development which needs to

include the economic growth, the increase in the health services, access to education and the

community development itself.

Agricultural Development:World Bank acknowledges that agriculture often forms the

backbone of rural economies. Promoting modern agricultural techniques, providing access to

credit, improving irrigation systems, introducing efficient farming practices, and supporting

agricultural research and extension services can boost productivity and income for rural

farmers.Asfaw, Shiferaw, Simtowe, Lipper (2012) argue that achieving productivity growth in

the agricultural sector can only be successful through the development and dissemination of

improved agricultural technologies to these smallholder farmers in the rural areas.

Diversification of Rural Economy:It is a universal phenomenon that Small and Medium

Enterprises (SMEs) are playing an essential and vital role in the nation’s economic and social

configuration Shaikh, Pahore (2010).Encouraging diversification beyond agriculture can help

create additional income streams and reduce dependence on a single sector. In developing

countries, this sector is beneficial in the development of rural regions, and has significance in

poverty alleviation Agupusi (2007). Supporting the development of rural industries, small-scale

26
enterprises, and value-added processing can generate employment opportunities and increase

local economic resilience.

Education and Skill Development: Investing in education and skill development is crucial for

rural development. Providing quality primary, secondary, and vocational education equips rural

populations with the necessary knowledge and skills for better job prospects and

entrepreneurship. This can lead to poverty reduction and improved living standardsSrinivas,

&Gangaiah, (2021).

Access to Healthcare: Enhancing access to healthcare facilities, trained medical personnel, and

essential health services is vital for rural

communities(https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/topics/healthcare-access). Establishing rural health

centers, providing medical outreach programs, and promoting preventive healthcare measures

can significantly improve the health outcomes and well-being of rural populations

Natural Resource Management:The use of natural resources has long been considered an

element of both human rights and economic development, leading the United Nations,

aiming its work on advancing decolonisation in the 1960s, to declare that “the right of

peoples and nations to permanent sovereignty over their natural wealth and resources must

be exercised in the interest of their national development and of the well-being of the

people of the State concerned” Schrijver,(2013).Sustainable management of natural resources

such as land, water, forests, and minerals is essential for long-term rural development.

Implementing sound environmental policies, promoting conservation practices, and involving

local communities in natural resource management can help protect the environment and ensure

the sustainable use of resources World Bank (1993)

27
Empowering Local Communities:According to Imhabekhai (2003) participation of the citizen

facilitates growth and development in any community. It has obvious advantage to the individual

and the community, these include:

i. It gives the individuals a chance to participate in the socio-political process and

economic development of his/her community, thereby improving process and

capacity of choice.

ii. It arouses the consciousness of representative members in dealing with their common

problems and satisfying their individual needs.

iii. It meets man’s need for relatedness, for creativity, sense of belonging and for a frame

of orientation toward a fulfilling future.

iv. Citizen participation as a process provides an opportunity for the participants to learn

from each other, unlearn bad habits and learn new ways of defending their human

rights and improving their lots and the living conditions in the society.

v. It allows for activity and involvement which encourages participants to widen their

interests, acquire new skill of thinking, develop initiatives and industry as well as

discover interrelationship that challenges attitude of community leaders.

vi. It gives training to democratic leadership and selection process.

vii. It promotes and strengthens community control, bringing about positive changes in

the lives of the citizens and the communities which the participants live.

Encouraging participatory decision-making and empowering local communities is crucial for

sustainable rural development. Involving community members in planning, implementation, and

monitoring of development projects fosters ownership, accountability, and sustainable outcomes.

28
Rural Infrastructure for Technology:The G20 Summit released by China in 2016 proposed a

definition of the digital economy, which states that the “digital economy refers to the use of

digital information and knowledge as factors of production, information technology network as a

carrier, and ICT to promote efficiency improvement and macroeconomic structure optimisation

the sum of economic activities.”Considering the broad connotation of the digital economy, it is

the economic form in which goods and services are traded through digital technology, Bukht,

&Heeks (2018). Promoting the use of technology and digital infrastructure in rural areas can

bridge the urban-rural divide. Access to internet connectivity, mobile technology, and digital

platforms can enhance access to information, e-commerce, e-learning, and telemedicine services

in rural communities.

Public-Private Partnerships:In late 2020, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and

CropLife International (CLI), issued a joint statement indicating they would work together to

accelerate technological applications to improving global food security Furumo, &Lambin,

(2020). The objective of this public-private partnership (P3) is to use market mechanisms to

improve agri-food systems, thereby reducing food insecurity and advancing rural development.

Collaboration between the public and private sectors can leverage resources, expertise, and

innovation for rural development. Public-private partnerships can drive investment, create job

opportunities, and facilitate the transfer of technology and knowledge to rural areas.

It's important to adapt these strategies to the specific context, needs, and resources of each rural

area. A comprehensive and integrated approach that addresses multiple aspects of rural

development is often the most effective.

2.2.1 Economic Strategy for Rural Development

29
Ocheni and Nwankwo (2012) note that as far back as early 1970s, rural development has been

identified as a strategy for improving the economic and social life of the rural poor in Nigeria

since then, successive governments at various levels have embarked on several programmes

aimed at rural development.A typical definition of local economic development is "changes that

affect a local economy's capacity to create wealth for local residents Castaño-Mejía, (2023). Here

are some key components of an economic strategy for rural development:

Value Chain Development: Focuson developing and strengthening value chains in agriculture

and other sectors. Governments should support farmers, agribusinesses and civil society to

promote inclusive and efficient food systems that better integrate smallholder farmers and small

and medium agribusinesses into value chains. This will improve their access to markets, generate

decent employment, and make nutritious food available Bammann, (2019). This involves

improving production techniques, post-harvest handling, processing, packaging, marketing, and

distribution systems. By adding value to agricultural products and other rural commodities, rural

communities can capture a larger share of the value created, leading to increased income and

employment opportunitiesBammann, (2019).

Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) Support: Promote the growth and

development of MSMEs in rural areas. Providing access to finance, business development

services, entrepreneurship training, and technology adoption support is key to rural development.

This will encourage the establishment of rural enterprises, stimulate local economic activities,

and generate employment opportunities.Bammann,(2019). acknowledge that entrepreneurship is

the central force of economic growth and development, without it other factors of development

will be wasted or frittered away. However, the acceptance of entrepreneurship as a central

development force by itself will not lead to rural development and the advancement of rural

30
enterprises. What is needed in addition is an environment enabling entrepreneurship in rural

areas. The existence of such an environment largely depends on policies promoting rural

entrepreneurship. The effectiveness of such policies in turn depends on a conceptual framework

about entrepreneurship in the rural area.

Investment in Infrastructure:Generally, infrastructure comprises public utilities (such as

power, telecommunications, piped water supply, sanitation and sewerage, solid waste collection

and disposal, and piped gas), public works, and other transport sectors, with roads Jacoby (2000)

and irrigation Mamatzakis (2003) and Ostrom(2011).This includes the development of roads,

transportation networks, electricity supply, irrigation systems, storage facilities, and

marketplaces. Access to reliable infrastructure enhances connectivity, reduces transaction costs,

and opens up markets for rural producers.

Access to Finance:The World Bank Group considers financial inclusion a key enabler to reduce

extreme poverty and boost shared prosperity,ensure availability and accessibility of financial

services in rural areas.By establishingmicrocredit schemes, rural banks, cooperative societies,

and other financial institutions that cater specifically to the needs of rural entrepreneurs and

farmers will boost their confidence for financial services in rural areas. Financial inclusion can

enable rural communities to invest in productive activities, expand businesses, and manage risks

World Bank (https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialinclusion/overview).

Skill Development and Training:Vocational education has been described as education that

prepares youths and adults for employment in a specific occupation or family of occupation by

providing those experiences which will enable them to develop the competencies needed to

qualify for employment Onwuagboke, Osuala, &Nzeako, (2017). The International Labour

31
Office (ILO) notes that Skills are central to improve employability and livelihood opportunities,

reduce poverty, enhance productivity, and promote environmentally sustainable development.

Coordinated efforts are needed to develop an integrated approach that improves access to

relevant, good quality education and training to all rural women and men. Equip rural youth with

relevant skills to engage in various sectors and encourage innovation and technology adoption.

Access to Information and Technology:"ICTs can potentially transform China’s villages,” said

Klaus Rohland, World Bank Country Director for China. “The report illustrates how mobile

phone and web applications are improving productivity for farmers by facilitating access to

agricultural information. Other impactful services that can leverage China's spreading rural

information infrastructure include e-learning materials for students; e-commerce opportunities

beyond traditional agriculture; and communications tools for fostering social inclusion among

the elderly."Empirical evidence confirms that ICT has huge potential for rural development in

many sectors. It enables improving digital literacy, community economy, and online community

activities (Ko, Routray& Ahmad, 2019). ICT opens up new opportunities for rural people to

access a wide range of services, such as healthcare, government services, market, and security, as

well as accelerating the exchange of information, especially knowledge Rumata, &Sakinah,

(2020).

Improve access to information and technology in rural areas. Develop and expand rural

broadband infrastructure, establish digital connectivity centers, and provide training on digital

literacy and the use of technology tools. Access to information and technology can enhance

market knowledge, provide learning opportunities, and enable rural communities to engage in e-

commerce and digital entrepreneurship. Rural people can get self-education and information

32
about different things for instance, agriculture, health, pesticides and other related information

(Pringle & David, 2002).

Institutional Support:National governance, is broadly defined as the exercise of economic,

political and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels, and it comprises

mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their

interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences (United

Nations Development Programme, 1997b). Strengthen local institutions and support systems for

rural development includes; capacity building for local government agencies, cooperatives,

community-based organizations, and farmer associations. Effective institutions can facilitate

coordination, promote good governance, and ensure the delivery of services and support to rural

communities.

Public-Private Partnerships: Foster collaboration between the public and private sectors to

drive rural development. In the words of Wilson, "governments have the main responsibility to

provide the legislative and regulating environment that enables businesses to play their parts.

Vital issues such as open trade policy, sound and stable governance, infrastructure investment,

economic and monetary policy, tax and social protection structures, and the cost of doing

business must be balanced by governments in a way that gives the rural private sector the ability

and incentive to act" Jamali, (2007). For instance, Germany established the Agency for Business

and Economic Development in 2016, to serve as an interface between the government and the

private sector. From 2016, there has been great improvement in agriculture in rural areas as

private companies in the country contribute immensely to the provision of technologies, know-

how, as well as promote agricultural value chain.Encouraging private sector investment in rural

areas, promoting public-private partnerships, and facilitating knowledge transfer and technology

33
adoption from the private sector can bring in new investments; create employment opportunities,

and leverage private sector expertise and resources.

It's important to acclimatise and tailor these strategies to the specific needs and conditions of the

rural area in question using the available resources to channel a course for development. A

participatory and inclusive approach, involving local communities, stakeholders, and relevant

institutions, is crucial for the success of rural economic development initiatives.

2.3Techniques in Identifying Potentials for Rural Development

Today, there is an increased interest of the scientific community to the problems of the use of

foresight technologies in the strategic planning of the development of space territorial systems.

Classical planning methods are mainly focused on “guessing,” while the result of foresight

researches is a map of the future, which visualises the socioeconomic space of rural areas and

allows considering alternative ways to achieve the desired result Calabrò, Cassalia (2018). As

Becker (2009)emphasises, foresight is a process of active knowledge of the future, a vision of

mid-term and long-term prospects in science, economy and society. This process is aimed at

supporting and mobilizing joint efforts to make and implement relevant decisions Becker (2009).

At the same time, according to Vodden, Pierce, & House, (2002)the process of future planning

consists of three main stages: creation of the idea for future, future concept formulation, and the

definition of the laws of the development of the “vision of the future” concept when comparing

with the dynamics of the “present” Vodden et al(2021). When making a foresight research, we

take into account the natural resource potential, local specific conditions that determine the

development of agricultural production, and location of social facilities and infrastructure in rural

34
areas. Foresight research is based on a comprehensive approach, which involves examination of

all elements of the studied territorial system (rural areas in total), including strategic objectives

and the definition of relationships between the elements of the system

Rasul,Almir, Milyausha,Vitaliy and Eugene (2020).

Rasul, et al (2020) developed the algorithm of the rural development strategic planning designed

on the basis of the foresight methodology and is presented below;

Identifying potentials for rural development requires a systematic and comprehensive approach

to understanding the unique characteristics, resources, and opportunities of a rural area. Here are

some techniques that can help in identifying potentials for rural development:

Community Needs Assessment:Though the process of community needs assessment can be

conducted in several ways, the primary purpose is to provide an overview of local policy,

systems, and environmental change strategies currently in place and help to identify areas for

improvement Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Conduct a thorough assessment

of the community's needs, aspirations, and challenges through surveys, interviews, focus group

discussions, and community meetings. Engage with local stakeholders, including community

members, local leaders, government officials, and representatives of civil society organisations,

to understand their perspectives and priorities.

In general, needs assessments are usually designed to evaluate gaps between current situations

and desired outcomes, along with possible solutions to address the gaps. Recently, there has been

a trend to move away from framing a community with a deficit perspective (need-based

approach) to focus on community assets and resources, called community health needs and assets

assessment Altschuld, Hung & Lee (2014). In contrast to a need-based perspective which focuses

35
on local deficits and resources outside the community, an asset-based perspective focuses on

honing and leveraging existing strengths within the community to address community needs

Jackson, et al (2018), Kirk, Johnson-Hakim, Anglin, and Connelly, (2017).

SWOT Analysis:SWOT analysis determines what may assist in accomplishing set objectives,

and what obstacles must be overcome or minimised to achieve the desired results Verma,

Bhandari, & Singh, (2022). Conduct a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

(SWOT) analysis to identify the internal strengths and weaknesses of the rural area, as well as

external opportunities and threats. This analysis helps in identifying existing resources,

capabilities, and competitive advantages that can be leveraged for rural development.For

instance,Verma, (2022) conducted SWOT analysis in identifying strategies for community

development. Based on this exercise, the following five categories were identified and prioritised

by villagers for the development of their village in future:

1. Conservation and utilisation of natural resources (with particular reference to water and

forest).

2. Development of the wasteland, agriculture and livestock sector.

3. Promotion of livelihoods resources and human resource development.

4. Promotion of health, cleanliness and education.

5. Development of village institutions.

Resource Mapping: Map and inventory the natural, human, social, and economic resources

available in the rural area. This includes identifying agricultural land, water resources, forest

resources, mineral deposits, infrastructure, education and healthcare facilities, human capital,

cultural heritage, and community organisations,DeVille, Svinarich, Dan Dan, Wickliffe,

36
CharanKantipudi, Plummer, & Chang-Sing, (2014). Resource mapping provides insights into the

existing potential for economic activities and development interventionsKalibo and Medley

(2007).

Comparative Advantage Analysis:Howard, 2013 notes that the basic premise is that rural and

urban areas are endowed with unequal ecosystem services.Identify the comparative advantages

of the rural area based on its natural resources, climate, geographical location, cultural heritage,

or unique assets. Determine the sectors or industries where the rural area has a competitive

advantage or potential for specialisation. This analysis helps in targeting development

interventions that capitalise on existing strengthsAmerican Economic Association, Royal

Economic Society, &Chenery (1965).

Stakeholder Engagement and Expert Consultations: Engage with experts, researchers, and

practitioners in relevant fields to gather insights and expertise. Consult with academia, research

institutions, development agencies, and private sector actors who have experience in rural

developmentKelly, &Barsade, (2001). Their knowledge and experience can help identify

untapped potentials and innovative approaches.

Participatory Approaches:Kyamusugulwa (2013), asserts that participatory development

process represents a fundamental shift in attitudes and methodologies, thereby breaking the top-

down non-participatory practice.Foster participatory approaches by involving local communities,

stakeholders, and beneficiaries in the identification of potentials for rural development. Engage

in consultations, workshops, and participatory mapping exercises to ensure that the perspectives

and voices of the local community are considered. This promotes ownership, local knowledge

integration, and sustainable development.

37
The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project is a World Bank assisted

project designed to establish an institutional mechanism for transferring investment resources to

communities in order to enable them finance their own development priorities (LEEMP, 2006).

The objectives of LEEMP are to involve community in planning, cofinancing, and

implementation of development projects and to continue to operate and maintain

environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive multi-sectoral microprojects; strengthen the

institutional framework (at federal, state and local government levels) for supporting

environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive development projects.Ochepo,Ejembi, and

Akande(2015), however conclude that, for every government programme targeted at community

development, there is need to embark on intensive awareness creation of the existence of the

programme through the use of the staff, town criers, village meetings, radio and televisions

jingles in local dialect

It's important to tailor these techniques to the specific context and needs of the rural area under

consideration. A combination of multiple techniques is often necessary to gain a comprehensive

understanding of the potentials and opportunities for rural development.

2.4.1 An Overview of Rural Development Efforts in Nigeria

a. The National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP) The agency was

created in 1973 by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture with primary aim of increasing

staple food production through the promotion of improved production technologies

among the small-scale farmer, especially in rural areas. The major success of the

programme is that it led to an appreciable improvement in food production in the 1970s

and above all it laid a good foundation or an effective researcher-farmer linkage. But

38
 unfortunately the programme has been kept dormant for a long time since after the

regime that introduced it left the stage.

b. The River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) The River Basin Development

Authorities came into being between early and mid 1970s as a result of the Food and

Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations recommendation. The number

was increased to eleven in 1978 and to eighteen in 1984, but later reduced again to eleven

in 1986. The authorities were created to develop the water resources potential of the

country for agricultural and domestic purpose. Their attention was focused mainly on

agricultural production including crop, fisheries and livestock even when the name was

changed in 1984 to reflect their potential role as rural development agency. However, the

name was reverted in 1986 to its original one and the agricultural component removed,

limiting the authorities to a narrow mandate of water resources development. While some

believe the authority has some impact, the general consensus is that the output from the

authorities does not justify the huge amount of funds channeled into them particularly

during the Second Republic.

c. The Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) The origin of the ADPs dates back to

1972 when the Federal Government of Nigeria in conjunction with the World Bank and

the State Governments of the North-Central, North West embarked on investigations

aimed at identifying suitable areas for pilot agricultural development projects. These were

to serve as experimental before committing huge amount of money on full scale projects

(Adejo, 1983). These investigations led to the establishment of three enclave ADPs in

Funta, Gombe and Gussau between 1976 with joint funding by the Federal Government

of Nigeria, the World Bank and the respective state governments. The objectives of the

39
 ADPs were listed as to increase production, and to raise rural income and hence the

standard of living of rural dwellers. The success achieved in these pilot projects and

others that followed led to the establishment of the eventual thirty-one statewide ADPs in

the country. The programme is assessed to be a major contributor to the significant

growth recorded in the agricultural sector in the late 1980s to early 1990s. However, there

is fear that the programme may not be able to survive long after the World Bank would

have withdrawn their funds.

d. The Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) The Operation Feed the Nation came into being

just at a time the National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP) is just

finding its feet. It was introduced by the Federal Military Government under General

Olusegun Obassnjo in 1976 with a major objective of creating awareness about the

importance of agriculture in national development. The programme was designed to

involve all the segments of the population including students who were engaged during

the long vacations. The main problems with the objectives were not specific and therefore

not measurable. The programme naturally passed away with the regime that introduced it.

e. The Green Revolution Programme: The Green Revolution Programme was created in

1980 by the civilian administration of the Second Republic (AlhajiShehu Shagari). The

programme was meant to accelerate the country’s movement towards self-sufficiency in

food production. The River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) were used as a

vehicle for bringing about the aim of the programme. The programme went a step ahead

of others by introducing agricultural credit for small-scale farmers. However, the

programme was seriously affected by unnecessary political rivalry between state-

controlled and federal-controlled programmes. It was heavily politicized that the real

40
 farmers hardly benefited from the activities of the programme; it finally died with the exit

of the founding fathers.

f. The Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS) The scheme was established by

the Central Bank of Nigeria in the mid 70s with the primary aim of providing guarantee

to Commercial Banks for loans taken by them for agricultural purposes. The scheme

included the creation of an Agricultural Credit Guarantee Fund (ACGF) jointly by the

Federal Government and the Central Bank of Nigeria. Under the scheme the commercial

banks were required to channel a minimum proportion of their loan portfolio into the

agricultural sector. The commercial banks are made to deposit the shortfall with the

Central Bank, which made such fund available to Nigeria Agricultural and Cooperative

Bank for its operation. The scheme was not too successful then in meeting the

requirement. This is due to the risk involved in granting loans to small-scale farmers

scattered about in the rural areas.

g. The Directorate of Food, Roads, and Rural Infrastructures (DFRRI) The Directorate

of Food, Road, And Rural Infrastructure was established by the Babangida government

on the 7th February, 1986 by Decree No. 4 of 1987, consequent upon the realization that

agricultural development that was not accompanied by the provision of necessary social,

economic and institutional infrastructure will not lead to the desired rural development.

The directorate was to help the rural communities to identify and evolve viable local level

projects by using local community organizations and institutions. DFRRI was also to

provide the rural communities the necessary technical and financial support for the

projects through the project development stages. Greater community participation is the

bane of the DFRRI as a concept.

41
 The Directorate during the active period of its existence (1985-1993) made its presence

felt but its failure to evolve an effective community participation strategy has created

sustainability problems for its various projects. In early 1994, the DFRRI was merged

with the Ministry of Agriculture and became a department in the ministry. Even though

the unit is still overseeing most of its former activities, the prominence which it enjoyed

as an autonomous directorate is now more concerned with having its separate vote

removed. The unit is now more concerned with monitoring its erstwhile activities than

engaging in actual construction of rural infrastructure, thus, ending the days of its

flamboyance. It is now in a slumber after the regime that created it left the stage.

h. National Directorate of Employment (NDE) The NDE established on October 19, 1986

was meant to combat mass-unemployment and articulate policies aimed at promoting

skill acquisition, self-employment and labour intensive potentials. Its programme was not

only on unemployment and vacancies but also engaged with designing employment

programmes in the country. No doubt, NDE has trained more than two million

unemployed and provided business training for not less than 400,000 Nigerians

(Oyemoni, 2003). The directorate, however suffer from poor funding and as such could

not cope with the needs of the ever increasing number of job applicants in Nigeria.

i. Better Life Programme (BLP) The origin of the BLP can be traced to the First Lady

Her Excellency Mrs. Maryam Babangida's determination to uplift the status of the

Nigerian women in general and the rural women in particular. This identifies with some

of the economic policy measures of the Structural Adjustment Programme aimed at

boosting economic activities in the rural areas. The policy measures were designed to

enhance rural incomes and arrest the rural-urban drift and thus strengthen the rural

42
 landscape. The B LP was evolved in September 1987 as one of the vehicles for the

promotion of rural development and in particular, the elevation of the status of women in

the society. The Programme's orientation has been to harness the creative energies of

women for concrete and achievable goals both as individuals and as a group. An

important element of the BLP is the recognition of the potentials of the rural women to

contribute to the attainment of national goals and aspirations. The potentials of the

millions of illiterate and semi-illiterate women in the rural areas are enormous.

j. National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA) NALDA was set up in

1993 to provide strategic public support for land development, promote and support

optimum utilisation of rural land resources and encourage the evolution of economic size

rural settlements. Other programmes connected to this like the Agricultural Development

Programmes (ADP) and the strategic Gains Reserves Programmes (SGRP) had in one

way or the other impacted positively on the agricultural sector and by implication

reduced poverty. These programmes were able to acquire suitable land in various parts of

Nigeria for the purpose of development. They parceled out land into economic-size farm

plots and distinguished them to farmers and advised them on all aspects of land

conservation and land degradation control. These programmes, however, were faced with

some problems which includes taking more than their statutes allowed and that over-

burdened them and rendered them ineffective. In a nutshell, they were spending more

than their incomes.

k. Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES)this deals with capacity acquisition, mandatory

attachment, productivity improvement, credit delivery technology development and

enterprise promotion. Rural Infrastructure Development Scheme (RIDS). This has to do

43
 with the provision of portable and irrigation water, transport (rural and urban), rural

energy and power supply. Social Welfare Services Scheme (SOWESS). This deals with

interventions in special education, primary healthcare services, establishment and

maintenance of recreational centres, public awareness facilities, Youth and student

hostels development, environmental protection facilities, food security provisions,

agricultural inputs provisions, micro and macro credits delivery, rural telecommunication

facilities, provision of mass transit and maintenance culture.

2.4.2 Reasons for the Failure of Past Rural Development Efforts

Okoye, &Onyukwu, (2007) in their article title Sustaining poverty reduction efforts through

inter-agency collaboration in Nigeria, identify the under listed reasons for the failure of various

rural development efforts in Nigeria.

1. Poor targeting mechanisms the programs collaborates with ministries, states and local

governments, the private sectors, religious bodies and non-governmental organizations

(NGOS) to reduce unemployment by creating jobs. There have not been serious and

identifiable efforts at empowering the beneficiaries with enduring skills. Also, there have

not been observable attempts at embarking on extensive farm settlements and elaborate

agricultural programmes. As a result, it has lost focus and direction.

2. Failures to focus on the poor there have been some lacuna that devalue the programme

delivery. In fact, one significant flaw in the programmes is lack of focus on community

education. This is one area where adult education could have come as community

education which is one of the important foci of education for poverty alleviation.

44
 Ironically, the role of adult and non-formal education in poverty alleviation had not been

fully appreciated by the designers of the programme. This can be seen as a fundamental

oversight.

3. Programme inconsistency Political and policy interference have undermined the

institution’s credibility and effectiveness. In other words, their instability has resulted in

frequent policy changes and inconsistent implementation which turn out to prevent

continuous progress. Also, top-ranking officers are political appointees and therefore

subject to political loyalties to those who appointed them. Thus, it is still the usual top

down approach and not bottom-up approach as emphasized in the design of the

programme.

4. Poor implementation The severe budgetary and governance problems afflicted the full

implementation of the programmes. It has resulted in facilities either not being completed

or broken down and abandoned. Furthermore, inappropriate programme and lack of

involvement of beneficiaries in the formulation and implementation had resulted in the

unsuccessful implementation of the programmes. Again, given the fact that more women

than men are poor, the programme has not made tangible effort that engenders this

imbalance in the society.

5. CorruptionCorruption has bedeviled various anti-poverty programmes of government.

The manifestations and problems associated with corruption in Nigeria have various

dimensions. Among these are project substitution, misrepresentation of project finances,

diversion of resources, conversion of public funds to private uses, etc (Okoye and

Onyukwu, 2007). As observed, lack of accountability and transparency made the

45
 programmes to serve as conduit pipes for draining national resources. Thus, the effect of

corruption is both direct and indirect on poverty increase.

2.5 Challenges to Rural Development

2.5.1 Challenges to Rural Development Globally and Africa.

Rural development faces common challenges across the globe, regardless of specific regions or

countries. Here are some key challenges to rural development globally:

A. Poverty and Inequality:Poverty remains mainly a rural challenge: 80 per cent of people

in poverty live in rural areas; many developing countries present a large size of rural

population; 18 per cent of rural residents lived in extreme poverty in 2013, compared to

around 5 per cent of urban residents (Castañeda& Selwyn, 2018). A study of 19 countries

with data shows that the rate of rural poverty reduction has been higher than that of urban

poverty reduction in all countries but one. However, reaching the very poorest remains

challenging. Over the past 30 years, developing countries have made little progress in

raising the level of consumption of the poorest – they have been left behind (Ravallion,

2016a). Within rural areas, inequalities in basic markers of opportunity – such as child

health and school attendance – remain high and are persistent for specific groups. As

shown in the United Nations World Social Reports 2020 and 2021, wealthier rural

households with a well-educated head are almost as well off as the average urban

household, while rural households in the bottom wealth quintiles with an uneducated

head are far worse off. For indigenous peoples and ethnic minority groups, the available

evidence suggests that wealth and opportunity gaps between them and the ethnic majority

are greater in rural than in urban areas. The overlay of gender with rural residence confers

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 additional disadvantages to rural women, who face more obstacles to accessing education

than rural men or women in urban areas and have lower levels of ownership and control

of assets (including land), less access to paid employment and lower access to public

services. Rural areas tend to have higher levels of poverty and income inequality

compared to urban areas. Limited access to resources, education, healthcare, and

economic opportunities contribute to persistent poverty and widening income gaps in

rural communities.

B. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability:Rural households tend to rely

heavily on climate-sensitive resources such as local water supplies and agricultural

land; climate-sensitive activities such as arable farming and livestock husbandry; and

natural resources such as fuelwood and wild herbs Shackelton and Shackelton(2012).

Rural areas are often highly dependent on natural resources, making them vulnerable to

climate change and environmental degradation. Climate-related hazards, such as

droughts, floods, and extreme weather events, impact agricultural productivity and

livelihoods. Environmental degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, and water scarcity

further exacerbate the challenges(He, Prasad, Pignatta&Jupesta, 2022) .

C. Limited Access to Finance and Markets: Rural communities often face challenges in

accessing finance, credit facilities, and markets for their products. Limited financial

services, lack of collateral and low financial literacy contribute to financial exclusion in

rural areas. Inadequate market linkages and infrastructure hinder rural producers' access

to profitable markets (ILO). Rural areas in Africa often experience high levels of poverty

and limited economic opportunities. This can be attributed to factors such as limited

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 access to markets, inadequate infrastructure, low agricultural productivity, lack of value

addition, and limited diversification of the rural economy.

D. Infrastructure and Connectivity:Limited infrastructure, including roads, electricity,

telecommunications, and transportation networks, hampers rural developmentMentolio,

and Sole-Olle (2009). Inadequate infrastructure restricts access to markets, services, and

information, hindering economic activities and development initiatives (ILO) 2017.

E. Limited Access to Basic Services: Rural communities in Africa often face challenges in

accessing basic services such as healthcare, education, clean water, sanitation, and

energy. The lack of adequate infrastructure and facilities in rural areas hampers the

delivery of these essential services.Inadequate infrastructure, including roads,

transportation, and communication networks, hampers the delivery of essential services

in remote areas Shrestha, (2020).

F. Migration and Urbanization: Rural-urban migration is a significant challenge in Africa,

as rural populations often migrate to urban areas in search of better economic

opportunities, education, and healthcareEze, (2021). This migration can lead to the

depopulation of rural areas, increased pressure on urban infrastructure, and a widening

urban-rural development gapAmrevurayire and Ojeh, (2016).

G. Conflict and Political Instability: Some rural areas in Africa experience conflict,

political instability, and insecurity. For example, Gyimah-Brempong and Corley (2005)

demonstrate that civil wars have a significant negative impact on the growth rate of per

capita income. These conditions hinder development efforts, disrupt economic activities,

displace populations, and impede access to basic services. For example, Ksoll,

Macchiavello and Morjaria (2010) show how post-election violence negatively affected

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 the export volumes of the cut flower industry in Kenya. Peace building and conflict

resolution are essential components of rural development in conflict-affected areas.

Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted and integrated approach that combines

efforts from governments, development organizations, civil society, and local communities. It

involves investments in infrastructure, agriculture, education, healthcare, access to finance,

sustainable natural resource management, and governance reforms to create an enabling

environment for rural development in Africa.

2.5.2 Emerging Challenges of Rural Development in Nigeria

Lack of an integrated planning approach.

Even though the democratic government in Nigeria is expected to offer more opportunities for

development, most of the populace particularly in the rural area suffer from abject poverty and

deprivation. Despite several policies of rural development instituted in Nigeria, the condition of

poverty has not changed much. The report by the Poverty World Clock in 2018 revealed that

Nigeria has the largest extreme poverty population in the world making it the poverty capital of

the world.

Like Haruna, (2000) and Alanana, (2005) observed most rural programs in Nigeria have failed

because they are approached from the top. The programs are formulated and implemented by

government officials in league with foreign interest to the neglect of the peasant producers who

are knowledgeable in the process of rural production. Consequently, due to the non-involvement

of the rural producers in the process of their development, these development programs do not

record success. The contention here is that the interests of those who control the machinery of

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Government do not often conform to those of the rural poor. As a result, the various attempts to

aim at transforming the rural areas have failed to yield positive results.

The failure of the rural development programs can therefore be attributed to the glaring

contradictions in the activities of government saddled with the responsibility of implementing the

programs and the inability of reconciling the interest and need of the local people. This perhaps

further compounds the persistent problem of poverty and squalor in the rural communities in

Nigeria and constitutes a barrier to rural development. Rural development has prospect of

succeeding when the people are willing to accept and participate in initiating and implementing

the policies and programs of government.

Rural Mass Deprivation and individual deprivation

The Rural Mass Deprivation manifests in lack of socio-economic infrastructure such as feeder

roads, agricultural inputs, credit facilities, health and education centers, sanitation facilities water

supply and functional markets. While on the other hand, the individual deprivation involves the

inability of the rural dwellers to secure employment due to their lack of requisite skill. These two

dimensions of rural poverty imply lack of options and opportunities for majority of the rural

population and subsequently, the inability to live decent healthy and creative lives consistent

with those living in the urban areas.

Corruption and Mismanagement

Corruption and mismanagement of resources at different levels of government in Nigeria has

also greatly hindered the effective utilisation of resources that would have been channeled

towards developing the rural areas. Despite being an exporter of crude oil for about four decades

and receiving assistance from international organisations, the living condition of the rural people

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and general populace in Nigeria has not improved because of the endemic condition in the

country. The Transparency International report for 2015 indicated that 40 of the 46 African

countries covered show a serious corruption problem and Nigeria were listed among the 40

countries grappling with high levels of corruption.

Violence and Conflicts

Propelled by increasing famine, desertification and loss of grazing settlements, the rural areas in

Nigeria have also been recently faced with challenges of intra-tribal conflicts and farmers and

herders’ conflicts which has led to loss of lives and properties and produced several internally

displaced people, further impoverishing the rural areas. A report by the Amnesty International in

2018 indicated that 2,075 deaths occurred in 2018 alone in Nigeria due to farmer- herder clashes.

These conflicts also have a direct cost on market development and economic growth by eroding

trust among market actors, destroying productive assets, preventing trade and deterring

investments. A study by the Mercy Corps highlighted that the famers and pastoralist conflicts in

Nigeria which are mostly in the rural areas could be costing Nigeria about $13.7 billion annually.

Apart from economic losses, there is also a risk for the famer-herder conflicts to mingle with the

volatile political situation in the country and trigger types of conflicts. The failure of the

government to define a clear coherent and political solution to the crises has led to both the

farmers and herders taking matters into their own hands, further aggravating the issue.

Incapacitation of the Local Governments

The incapability of the Local Governments in meeting the needs of the grassroots or rural areas

has also compounded the challenges of rural development in Nigeria. As the third tier of

government, the Local Government is the closest to the people with the responsibility of meeting

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the peculiar need s of the rural areas and bringing them closer to the government (Jega, 2011)

However, the local government in Nigeria operate under the shadow of the state government

with no political autonomy or control over its resources. Thus, the local Government areas are

confronted with limited resources, inadequate skilled workers, uncertainty of tenure of office,

lack of participation of the local people and general indiscipline among local government

workers. (Orunoye, 2013). The local government authorities in Nigeria have operated in general

despondency and political disenchantment particularly since their activities are secluded from the

watch of the media and non-governmental organisations (Jega, 2011). These challenges have

alienated the rural areas from enjoying social delivery expected from local government.

2.6 DesignPrinciples for Rural Development

Design principles for rural development provide a framework for planning and implementing

effective strategies to promote sustainable and inclusive development in rural areas. The

Principles on Rural Policy have been shaped by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD), working Party on Rural Policy and the Regional Development Policy

Committee. The Principles on Rural Policy were developed through a comprehensive review

process with OECD member countries and key stakeholders. They are targeted to:

i. National ministries dealing with rural areas in OECD members and partner countries;

ii. Sub national levels of government

iii. Stakeholders involved in or affected by rural policy (e.g. from civil society, the private

sector, academia or financial institutions).

The Principles on Rural Policy address the following questions:

 What is the right scale for rural policy?

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  How do we develop a coherent strategy that coalesces objectives, funding and incentives

across different sectors and across levels of government?

 How can we engage all the relevant stakeholders throughout the policy cycle?

 How can they be implemented best?

Here are some key design principles as outline by OECD:

1. Maximise the potential of all rural areas; Leverage the unique assets of each rural area

to adapt and respond to emerging mega-trends (digitalisation, globalisation and trade,

climate change, population ageing, and urbanisation); and Adapt policy responses to

different types of rural regions including rural areas inside functional urban areas (cities

and their commuting zones), rural areas close to cities and rural remote areas.

2. Organise policies and governance at the relevant geographic scale; Implement rural

policies at different scales that match with functional relationships (e.g. local

labourmarkets, food chains, environmental services and amenities) based on current and

future needs; Ensuring that there are effective government mechanisms at the relevant

scale to realise rural policy objectives; and Encourage the efficient and effective

provision of public services and infrastructure (e.g., shared services, integrated service

delivery, e-services) in order to maintain quality and accessibility, address market

failures, and respond to emerging needs, especially in underserved rural communities.

3. Support interdependencies and co-operation between urban and rural areas;

Leverage the spatial continuity and functional relationships between rural and urban areas

in order to inform public investment and programme design; and Carry out joint

strategies and fostering win-win rural-urban partnerships, as appropriate, to promote an

integrated development approach.

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Fig 2.1 Urban – rural interaction

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

4. Set a forward looking vision for rural policies; Improve well-being for rural dwellers

across economic, social and environmental objectives; Ensure that responsibilities and

resources across levels of government are clearly defined and effectively aligned with

national targets and strategies, place-specific needs, and the Sustainable Development

Goals; Ensure that rural policy objectives benefit from foresight studies, are measureable

at different scales (administrative and functional) and connect to policy levers; Provide

access to data tools such as geographic information databases, smart data and small area

data and strengthening capacity building in order to help national and sub national

governments involved in rural policy-making prepare for demographic change, climate

change and the transition to a low-carbon economy, digitalisation and the next production

revolution; and Promote integrated spatial planning that considers such factors as

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 environmental quality, waste management, natural resources development, community

attractiveness, climate change mitigation and adaptation and population ageing and out-

migration

5. Leverage the potential of rural areas to benefit from globalisation, trade and

digitalisation; Create an enabling environment for rural areas to identify and invest in

their areas of competitive advantage such as tradeable activities and adding value to rural

assets; Invest in digital connectivity to enable the use of next generation technologies in

rural areas such as cloud computing, artificial intelligence, the internet of things, and

blockchain technologies among others; and Facilitate the decentralisation of production

(e.g. renewable energy and 3D manufacturing) through supportive policies and

regulations.

6. Support entrepreneurship to foster job creation in rural area; Enhance technological

innovation and diffusion in order to overcome the barriers of physical distance and lower

density such as higher transportation costs and thin labour markets present in rural areas;

Promote innovation and value-added activities in established (e.g., agricultural and

industrial production, logistics) and emerging (e.g., bio-economy, renewable energy,

biotechnology, tourism) sectors; Support the integration of local SMEs into global value

chains and the scope for diversification of rural economies through investments in

entrepreneurial skills, infrastructure, and cluster initiatives; Support entrepreneurs and

SMEs in rural areas to access capital (e.g., through finance support schemes, lending to

microbusinesses); and Connect rural people and firms with lifelong educational training

opportunities and skills upgrading in universities, research centres, manufacturing

extension centres, agricultural advisory services and vocational institutions.

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7. Align strategies to deliver public services with rural policies; Assess the impact of key

sectoral policies (e.g., transportation, health, education) on rural areas and diagnosing

where adaptations for rural areas are required (e.g., rural proofing); Recognise where

policies and regulations create additional barriers to the provision of public services in

smaller places and responding with innovative solutions; Incentivise innovative practices

such as flexible models of service delivery and leveraging advances in digital

technologies to deliver e-services (e.g., e-health and remote education); and Develop

smart rural villages and towns by promoting digitalisation complemented by training for

public sector personnel and residents to navigate and use e-services.

8. Strengthen the social, economic, ecological and cultural resilience of rural

communities, Ensure the sustainable management of natural capital, land-use and

enabling the creation of value from ecosystem services (e.g., flood protection services,

increasing biodiversity on agricultural lands); Support a comprehensive and just approach

to climate change adaptation and mitigation for rural areas (e.g., food production, soil

management, water use), and developing robust systems for disaster response and

recovery; Decarbonise the energy sector by taking advantage of renewable energy

opportunities and supporting the shift to a circular economy (e.g. bio-waste, sustainable

mining practices); Value, promote, and preserve tradition, heritage and cultural assets;

and Ensure that rural areas have institutional capacity, good governance and funding to

fulfil their roles and deliver high quality of life for residents, from youth to seniors.

9. Implement a whole-of government approach to policies for rural areas; Engaging

with all sectors and levels of government to integrate national policies that improve the

wellbeing of rural areas; Identifying and addressing the barriers to policy coherence

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 across ministries, public agencies and levels of government; Setting incentives,

regulations and coordination mechanisms to mitigate conflicts and manage trade-offs

(e.g., land use, mining, agriculture, energy and water); and Maximise policy

complementarities across sectoral strategies through integrated and coordinated rural

policies (e.g., coordinating transportation investments with health and education

services).

10. Promote inclusive engagement in the design and implementation of rural policy;

Engage a diversity of stakeholder voices, including those that are underrepresented and/or

marginalised, in the policy process and empowering local and regional stakeholders to be

partners in policy elaboration; Engage with the private and not-for-profit sectors and

leveraging their expertise and resources to deliver better outcomes for rural areas; and

Harness innovative mechanisms and digital technologies to develop new ways of

disseminating public information, generating and using data, and consulting and engaging

citizens in decision-making (e.g., participating budgeting, rural observatories).

11. Foster monitoring, independent evaluation and accountability of policy outcomes in

rural areas; Evaluate rural policy initiatives and outcomes and communicating progress

in meeting them in an ongoing manner in order to improve policy design and

implementation; Develop outcomes indicators in order to assess and benchmark rural

well-being through economic, social, environmental and other performance indicators;

Provide accessible data that is easy-to use in order to help rural communities and

stakeholders identify priorities and monitor progress; Explore innovative methods of

data- collection that address the challenges of confidentiality that are inevitably part of

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 small-area analysis; and Assess the process and outcomes of different steps of public

engagement in order to learn, adjust and improve accordingly.

In conclusion this work will give room for full Participation of the community and Integrate

existing community settings while allowing Context Sensitivity in order to have Sustainable

Resource Management. The provision of Infrastructure and Services will be a major

consideration while also diversifying economic source of livelihood in the form Capacity

Building and Skill Enhancement for Social Inclusion and Gender Equality.These design

principles will guide the planning and implementation of rural development initiatives in the

study area, ensuring that they will be responsive, sustainable, and inclusive with effective

Monitoring and Evaluation. By adopting these principles, policymakers and practitioners can

support the well-being and prosperity of the rural community while preserving the natural

environment and promoting resilience.

2.7.0 Theories of Rural Development

There are several theories that contribute to the understanding of rural development. Here are

some of the prominent theories in the field:

2.7.1 Modernisation Theory:Chipo&Nyoni (2020) affirm that modernisation theory refers to

the transformation which takes place when a traditional or pre-modern society changes to such

an extent that new form of technological organisational or social characteristics of advanced

society appears. Modernisation does not take a holistic approach to development as it leaves the

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cultural developments especially the traditional values. The modernisation theory is an economic

theory that is rooted in capitalism. “The concept of modernisation incorporates the full spectrum

of the transition and drastic transformation that a traditional society has to undergo in order to

become modern.” Chipo&Nyoni (2020). The modernisation theory became dominant in the

1950s and 1960s, pointing out differences between the developed or the rich nations and the less

developed or the poor nations of the world. It encompasses many different disciplines as it seeks

to explain how societies can react to that progress.

Chipo&Nyoni (2020)points out that the theory was an attempt to provide a theoretical

framework to describe how newly decolonised countries of the 1960s lead to take in order to

reach their development destination. There are several factors which pose a threat to capitalism

and this led to the development of modernisation theory. These factors include the Post World

War II’s deepening poverty in some countries, ideological competition from communism and the

increasing unrest in some countries. Modernisation theorists aimed to explain why poorer

countries failed to evolve into modern societies and to reduce the spread of communism by

presenting capitalist values as the solution to poverty. According to the modernization theory,

internal factors in the countries, such as illiteracy, traditional agrarian structure, lack of

communication and infrastructure are responsible for underdevelopment. The underdeveloped

countries were characterized as being ‘traditional’ or having ‘primitive’ values, comprising of an

orientation to the past, strong kin relationships and superstition.

2.7.2 Shortcomings of Modernisation

Modernisation theory is criticised for failing to consider the poor as the centerpiece in poverty

reduction initiatives. By ignoring the involvement and participation of the target community,

modernity achieves the marginalisation of their commitment, creativity and support of the

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intervention strategies. The intervention strategy becomes an imposed strategy and such a

strategy fails to construct adequate notions or both the causal power structures and the role of

human agency in shaping social relations in general. The premise encourages the foreign powers

to prescribe the route to Africa’s development. For instance in the 1980s Africa was a victim of

the failed International Monetary Fund – imposed economic structural adjustment programmes

(ESAP). Matunhu (2011) opines that ESAP Project failed because it was developed with a total

disregard of the cultural social, political and traditional values of the recipient countries. Broadly

expressed, the ESAP was a Eurocentric experiment which failed to pull the continent out of

poverty and underdevelopment.

2.7.3 The Positive Side of Modernisation

However, the modernisation theory also brought about good change to Africa. For

examplemodernisation led to the introduction of hybrids, the greenhouse technology,

insecticides, tractors and the application of other scientific knowledge to replace traditional

agricultural practices. There is now easy transportation of goods and people from different

distances from the massive infrastructure brought about by modernisation. The introduction of

the internet brought about a virtual which benefited the world in doing away with physical

boundaries and has enabled e-business. Kotler (2005) reiterates that the internet creates new

winners and barriers the laggards. The new Information and Communication technologies have

made life much easier as people can do business all other their world without necessarily have to

travel there. However, it has come with its challenges for example further spread the western

way of living

2.7.4 Application of Modernisation theory in the development of Ohoho-Owo

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Modernisation theory posits that societies progress through a linear process of modernisation,

which involves the adoption of advanced technology, industrialisation, urbanisation, and social

change. While the applicability of modernisation theory can be debated, there are some ways in

which it might be applied to the development of Ohoho-Owo or any rural area:

Economic Development modernisation theory emphasises economic growth as a central

component of development. In the context of Ohoho-Owo, this would involve promoting

industrialisation, modern agricultural practices, and entrepreneurship to boost economic

productivity and income levels. It also lay emphasises in technological

advancement.Modernisationtheory suggests that the adoption of advanced technology is essential

for development. In Ohoho-Owo, this could involve promoting the use of modern farming

techniques, machinery, and equipment to increase agricultural productivity and efficiency.

Infrastructure Improvement modernisationtheory underscores the importance of infrastructure

development for economic growth. In the case of Ohoho-Owo, this could entail improving road

networks, electricity supply, telecommunications, and access to clean water and sanitation

facilities to support industrialisation and urbanisation. As well as education in driving societal

change.

2.7.5 Sustainable Development theory

The concept of sustainable development emphasises the integration of economic, social, and

environmental considerations. It promotes the idea that rural development should meet the needs

of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

own needs. It focuses on achieving a balance between economic growth, social equity, and

environmental conservation.

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The UN Sustainable Development Summit of 25-27 September 2015 adopted the 2030 Agenda

for Sustainable Development "Transforming our World". The 2030 Agenda includes a whole and

unique set of Sustainable Development Objectives that replace and continue the milestones

defined in the Millennium Development Goals. The process of adopting the 2030 Agenda started

from the decision of the world leaders meeting in Rio de Janeiro in 2012 at the Rio + 20 Summit.

The 2030 Agenda provides answers to the issue of poverty eradication and economic,social and

environmental development. Thisincludes 17 sustainable development objectives whichin turn

encompass 169 clear targets for key areas. Among the areas included in the agreement, we

mention the sustainable management of natural resources, oceans and climate change.

According to the Brantland’s report entitled: "Our common future," sustainable development is

defined as a development which will satisfy the needs of the present time without using future

generations’ abilities for fulfilling their needs. Heidari-Rarani, Rafiee-Afarani, & Zahedi,

(2019)..With this description, sustainable development is a process by which the people of a

country satisfy their own needs and improve their lives’ level without utilizing the resources that

belong to the future generations and wasting future wealth to provide their immediate demands.

Sustainable development is based on the sustainability philosophy. Sustainability refers to the

ability of the system to function in the unlimited future. It is a situation in which the desirability

does not diminish over time, and the resources that human systems, other biological species, and

ecosystems require in performing their activities well do not weaken. Sustainable development is

also a set of actions which are driven by the sustainability philosophy. In this type of

development, strategies, policies, programs and activities are regularly reviewed, monitored, and

revised in terms of sustainability principles. These safeguards are done wisely and consciously

for the benefit of the community and for the purpose of protecting natural resources. Moreover,

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on the basis of the obtained findings, decisions are made whose positive consequences will

outweigh their negative consequences. In sustainable development, human’s life protecting

systems and other organisms and ecosystems are protected and supported. Also a balance is

maintained between the developmental requirements and environmental norms.

Critique of Sustainable Development Theory

Having the theory of sustainable development been put forward by the United Nations at a global

level, a considerable number of development experts and pundits accepted it and endeavored to

develop and disseminate the theory. At the same time, some criticised the theory and pointed to

its shortcomings. The major criticisms raised in this regard, after the elimination of those which

have duplicates and overlaps, are briefly presented as follows:

 Weak theoretical foundations and lack of conceptual clarity.

 Emphasis on generational needs rather than human rights.

 Inability to provide a precise definition of the needs of the next generation.

 Lack of logical justification and moral obligation with regard to ignoring the rights of

today’s generation and emphasizing on the needs of the next generation.

 Lack of legal enforcement guarantees.

 Being one-dimensional and disproportionate with the needs of developing countries

(Zahedi, 2019).

 To have a judgmental and sloganistic attitude.

It is believed that the criticism of any theory should help in improving its content rather than

being a means in damaging and destroying it (Paya, 2015). The same rule applies to sustainable

development theory too. Respecting the views of the critics, the author believes that the theory of

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sustainable development is a valuable and worthwhile theory which is of particular importance to

the survival of humans and the entire planetZahedi (2019). Hence, it is valuable that, on the one

hand, its requirements and norms being incorporated into the strategic policies of all countries

and into the operational strategies of all organizations on the other hand. This is done by enacting

the necessary laws, regulations, and effective plans to ensure the implementation of those

policies and strategies. If these actions are concomitant with training and awareness raising, they

can reduce the gap between theory and practice, move away from being sloganistic, change into

a public belief, and turn the destructive behaviors into productive behaviors. Likewise, the

efficiency of resources and the efficiency of processes can be enhanced through the development

of science and technology so that both the present and future generations benefit from the

blessings of the worldZahedi (2019).

Community Capacity Building for Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation

Among literature related with Community Capacity Building (CCB), give us an interesting

concept, stating that in essence, CCB is a process of enabling those living in poverty to develop

skills and competencies, knowledge, structures, and strengths, so as to become more strongly

involved in community, as well as wider society life, and to take greater control of their own

lives and that of their communities. However, the author warn to lectors that obscured con-

notations has also emerged, especially when third parties interests darkens the welfare of the

community. CCB is essentially, therefore, not a neural technical process: it is about power and

ideology and how these are meditated through structures and processes.

ABCD concepts and model to support sustainable rural development

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ABCD is a path that leads toward the development of policies and activities based on the

capacities, skills, and assets of lower income people and their neighborhoods (Kretzmann, and

McKnight, 1993:5). Related to these are additional needs for the development of listening skills,

understanding issues of capability and power, learning to step back, learning to ask about what

people have done well and learning not to judge, criticize or rush (O'Leary, 2006:6).

An approach of ABCD model used by the Ford Foundation which supports grantees in building

assets that individuals, organizations, or communities can acquire, develop, improve, or transfer

across generations. These include:

 Financial holdings of low-income people, Natural resources such as forests, wildlife,

land, and livestock that can provide communities with sustain- able livelihoods, are often

of cultural significance and provide environmental services such as a forest’s role in

cleansing, recycling, and renewing air and water.

 Social bonds and community relations the social capital and civic culture of a place that

can break down the isolation of the poor, strengthen the relationships that provide

security and support, and encourage community investment in institutions and

individuals.

 Human assets such as the marketable skills that allow low-income people to obtain and

retain employment that pays living wages; and comprehensive reproductive health, which

affects people’s capacity to work, overcome poverty, and lead satisfying lives.

Accomplishments and Challenges of ABCD Model.

Across the world participatory approaches to development such as asset based and livelihood

approaches have moved from locally successful projects into scaled up programmes

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promoted by local regional government and international agencies such as the World Bank

(O'Leary, 2006:4). ABCD model has accomplished a wide range of success cases around the

world and disparities conditions. Under the scope of sustainable community capacity

building, the analysis fulfills the three dimensions of sustainability, as social, economic and

environment. However as was mentioned before still remains some challenges including the

manipulation of communities, misappropriation of terminology, co-option of activists,

conditional funding and state controlled power games such as divide and rule have also

emerged.

2.8 Various Rural Development Approaches

The overall aim of rural development efforts is geared towards the improvement of the lives

of the rural population. However, several approaches aimed at arresting the ugly under-

development situation in rural areas have been put forward by so many scholars. According

to Raheem &Bako (2014), they include the following:

1. Growth Pole Centre Model: This model is also known as "Growth Point Model". The

model involves the development of a few strategic towns, communities and industries

likely to activate other sectors. The model focuses attention on the development of few

towns leading to the neglect of the rural areas.

2. The "Big Push" Policy: This approach is similar to the growth pole centre model except

that it is more concentrated. It takes a few subsectors and expends most of the resources

on them in the hope that in the long run, their multiplier effect will salvage the whole

economy. The flaw in this model is that "in the long run" is not a specific period.

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3. The Selective Approach: This model/approach involves the selection of certain sectors

for development based on economic, political, social or religious grounds, which may not

necessarily be related or inter-connected.

4. The Protectionist Approach: In this approach, the government carries out the

development process on behalf of the people believing that it knows everything and that

the people are not yet ripe to participate, in the management of their own affairs.

5. The Top-down Approach: It is also called the Top-bottom approach. It is a strategy based

on passing down to the poor certain policies and directives from the governing

bureaucracy. This type of rural development approach requires force to maintain and

sustain it.

6. The Decentralized Territorial Approach: This approach centers on the dispersal of

benefits to the rural area. It has minimum linkage with the city but with settlements of

various sizes to act as service and market centers. The defect in this approach is the

undue fear of towns being exploitative and parasitic, and the consideration that size alone

could determine the performance of a settlement.

7. The "Laissez-faire" Policy: In this model, the authorities use the role of thumb, past

experience, hind-sight and the free market mechanism to manage the economy, with the

hope that the invisible hand of God would ensure optimum happiness for everybody.

8. The Key Settlement Strategy: This model is closely related to growth pole centre model

except that its focus is on settlement. It assumes a focal point for a given rural area, and

the concentration of all rural development resources in such a settlement. This in turn will

serve other regions through its network of roads and communication. This model requires

a long time to mature, and therefore it is more expensive.

67
9. The Adaptive Approach: It is a combination of selective approach and Laissez-faire

policy and any other approach. It gives the people the opportunity to decide on their own

lives, sometimes, under the guidance of the government.

10. The "Bottom-Up" Approach: It is also called Bottom-top approach or Rurism strategy.

This approach implies that development starts with the people. It is a new political

development strategy. Rurism is a coherent national and social-value system in which

human and material resources are mobilized and allocated from the lower echelon of the

economic and social strata to the top. It is free from any foreign ideology and infection. It

promotes self-reliance, self-consciousness into balanced development of human and

material resources. It is the ideal approach. However, it is costly and rather slow.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The chapter discusses the means and methods of data collected in line with the goal and

objectives of this study that will lead to a proposal for the rural development of Ohoho-Owo

community. To arrive at authentic outcome, data will be collected about the socio-economic

characteristics of the residents of the community, the nature of existing infrastructure or

development in Ohoho-Owo community, the need for development of the area as specified by

the residents and a proposed strategy for development ofOhoho-Owo community. This research

work adopted the combination of both quantitative and qualitative design approach using the

survey method.

3.2.0 Target Population of the Study

It is important that the targeted population of this study be identified, from which the sample

population can now be taken using the Taro Yamane’s formula. According to the 2006

population census, Oju local government area has the population capacity of 313,000 people,

with 187,800 males and 125,200 females, according to findings from the population census

board, the data computations of the villages and community were not captured by that census,

hence this study relies on the 1991 population census, which was disaggregated based on

communities.In that census Ohoho-Owo community had a population of 3,757 inhabitants.For

the purpose of this study, the population data of the village according to the 1991 population

census result will be taken, after which a projection will be done from 1991 to the present day

2023 (32years) with 3,757 as the target population.

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3.2.1 Population Projection

The geometric extrapolation method (GEO) of population projection will be used in this

research, this method assumes that a population will increase or decrease at the same annual

percentage rate during the projection horizon as during the base period. Growth rates estimated

using GEO assumes compounding at discrete time interval e.g one year with the standard rural

population growth rate of 2.8. Therefore:

Pn=pr (1+r/100) n

Where,

Pn= projected population

Pr= present population

r= Growth Rate

n=numbers of years

Having established that the population of Ohoho-Owo community according to 1991 population

census is 3757, standard growth rate for rural area is 2.8, therefore substituting the values into

the above formula we have:

Pn=pr (1+r/100) n

P2023= (1+2.8/100) 32

P2023=3757(1+0.028)32

P2023=3757(1.028)32

Pn=3757(2.420)

Pn=3757×2.420

Pn=9091

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Therefore, it means that present population of Ohoho-Owo community in the year 2023 is 9091

population.

3.2.2 Sample Population

Sample according to Nwabueke (1993), is a part of the total population of the area to be studied,

which can be used to represent the whole population.Since the population is finite, application of

the statistical formula becomes imperative in determining the sample size. According to

Okeke(1995:25) can be determined by using Taro Yamane formula

n = n/1+N (e) 2

Where: n= the sample population

N=the study or finite population

e= level of significant

1= unit

The study population (N) = 9091

Level of significant (e) = 0.05

n= 9091/1+9091 (0.05)2

n=9091/1+9091 (0.0025)

n=9091/1+22.7275

n=9091/23.7275

n=394

Therefore, the sample population n= 394

3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The reason for the selection of sample size in this research work will be directed at the

following:

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 1. The need to select a sample size that is manageable under the given time.

2. The need to acquire definite data and information as regards to this study

3. The need for accurate interpretation of the data collected from the study area.

Sequel to the above statement, the sample size of the projected population was put at three

hundred and ninety-four (394). The random sampling method was used. The need for this

method is to eliminate bias unlike probability sampling. The usages of the random sampling

techniques were as a result of the following reason:

1. The cost and inconvenience involved in interviewing the undermined target population

2. The avoidance of the requirement that interviews may collaborate to contact specific

respondents whose addresses may be difficult to locate.

3. Lack of definite sampling frame for selecting respondents.

3.4 Data Collection Instruments

The research adopted the following instrument for data collections: personal observation during

visits to site and agencies, questionnaires, interviews and photographs. The data collection

instruments can be generally classified into primary sources of data collection and secondary, the

primary includes face-face interactions and information collected from site. While secondary

includes data collected from published and unpublished works, or related document pertaining to

the subject matter.

3.4.1 Personal Observation

During the course of field survey, reconnaissance survey and assessment was carried out to

assess the level of development, and also to have a view of the physical as well as social settings

in relation to rural development in the study area.

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3.4.2 Questionnaires

To evaluate the rural development strategy in Ohoho-Owo community, open ended

questionnaires were designed. This was so as to obtain unbiased responses from the respondents.

The questions in the instrument covers the socio-economic characteristics, educational

background, and conditions of the existing situation as well as the needs assessment of the area

by the citizens.

3.4.3 Interviews

In the course of this research work, oral interviews were conducted with some persons

and relevant government agencies, for instances there were several interviews and discussions

with local government staff, the leaders of Ohoho-Owo community, Ohoho Development

Association (ODA) and elders of the community.

3.5 Data Analysis Techniques

This process was carried out through the use of tables, pie charts and bar charts with simple

percentage ratio.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

This chapter is majorly concerned with the collection, analysis and interpretation of data

collected from the field survey. This is done in utmost consideration for the target population and

stipulated data collection procedures

4.0 Analysis of Questionnaires Distributed

TABLE 4.1 Analysis of questionnaire distribution

Respondents No. Percentage No. Return Percentage No. Not Percentage
Distributed Distributed Completed Return Return Not
Completed Returned
Ohoho-Owo 394 100 336 85.3 58 14.7
community
residents.
Source: field survey, July, 2023.

From Table 4.1 above, it can be seen that out of the 394 questionnaires that were distributed to

the respondent, 336 (85.3%) were correctly retrieved at the end of the exercise, while 58 (14.7%)

were discarded due to incomplete and/or inappropriate response (see Table 4.1). The non-

response of the sampled population is attributed to the high level of illiteracy, level of exposure,

and the nature of the job of some of the respondents. Therefore, only the completed

questionnaires will be used in the analysis.

4.1 Presentation of Respondents Demographic Traits

This section presents findings on the demographic character of the community using variables

that have been extracted from literature reviewed Which include; age, gender, socio economic

status educational level as well as employment.

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4.1.1 Age and Gender of Respondents
Planning is for people hence any development effort should seek to know the characteristics of

the people to be planned for table 4,2 presents findings on the age structure and gender of the

community.

Table 4.2 Age and gender of respondents

Age Female Male Total Percentage
15-25 39 36 75 22.3
26-40 62 48 110 32.7
41-60 40 41 81 24.2
60 and above 39 31 70 20.8
Total 180 156 336 100
Source: field survey, July, 2023.

The above table shows the age and gender distribution of the respondent, it shows that the

respondent wasmainlyfemale with a percentage of 53.5%, while the male had a percentage of

46.5. The gender distribution in the area showing more females than males can have various

implications for the development of the area. Some of which include; the influence it has on the

labor force dynamics. It might lead to changes in the types of industries or activities that

dominate the local economy women might play a larger role in agriculture, small-scale

businesses, and service sectors. Further to this, a higher number of females could result in

increased economic opportunities for women, potentially leading to more diverse economic

activities and income sources for families. This, in turn, could contribute to poverty reduction

and economic growth. With more women in the community, there might be a greater emphasis

on community development initiatives that cater to the needs and interests of women. This could

include projects related to healthcare, education, women's empowerment, and social services.

Despite potential benefits, a skewed gender ratio could also highlight underlying gender-based

inequalities and challenges as well as indicate the effects of out migration of the agile male

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population. It's important to ensure that development efforts address any existing disparities and

provide equal opportunities for both genders.

The youth workforce and innovation age(15-25)make up the second highest age range as is

consistent with many population studies data. This age interval has a percentage ratio of 22.3%

of the total sampled population.The overarching implication of this age group on development of

the study area is that youth population can provide a labor force that brings energy, innovation,

and adaptability to the economy of the study area. To harness this potential, it's crucial to invest

in education, vocational training, and skill development programs. Engaging the youth in

entrepreneurship, technology adoption, and sustainable agriculture practices can contribute to

economic growth and diversification.

Prime working-age population (26-40) has a percentage ratio of 32.7%. This age group often

constitutes the backbone of the workforce. Their productivity and contributions can drive various

sectors, including agriculture, small businesses, and services. Adequate job opportunities,

infrastructure, and support for family needs (like child care) which are essential for retaining and

maximising their contributions.

Experienced workforce population (41-60) has a percentage ratio of 24.2% this segment has a

wealth of experience and knowledge. They might hold leadership positions, contribute to

community development, and mentor younger generations. It important to tap into this expertise,

potentially through mentorship programs, advisory roles, or utilising their skills in specialised

sectors for general development of the study area.

Elderly population (60 and above) has a percentage ratio of 20.8%. An aging population brings

both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, they have accumulated wisdom and could be

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active in community-building and advisory roles. On the other hand, there could be increased

demand for healthcare services, eldercare facilities, and social support systems. Planning for

healthcare infrastructure and pension systems becomes crucial to cater for the need of this age

group.

The age distribution of the study area has the ability to influence the types of community

activities and programs needed. From youth engagement in sports and arts to senior-focused in

gatherings and workshops, a well-rounded community engagement strategy can enhance social

cohesion and quality of life. In conclusion, the given age distribution can shape various

dimensions of rural development, including workforce dynamics, social services, education,

infrastructure, and community engagement. A holistic approach that caters to the needs and

strengths of each age group can contribute to a more vibrant, resilient, and inclusive rural

community.

4.1.2 Occupational Status of Respondents

Table 4.3Occupational Status of Respondents

Occupation No. of respondents Percentage
Farmer 178 53.0
Teacher 21 6.3
Trader 67 19.9
Craft man 6 1.8
Civil servant 50 14.9
others specify 14 4.1
Total 336 100
Source: field survey, 2023.

From the above table, the conventional occupation of the people of Ohoho-Owo community is

farming which ranks highest in the table with 53.0%, followed by trading activities, which is a

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number of business men and women engaged in the sales of one product or the other, and it has

the rating of 19.9% from the table, the third predominant activity in Ohoho-Owo community is

ranked 14.9% which is held by civil servants, the closest to that is the teachers and has a rate of

6.3%., next on the rating rank is others which are for jobs like carpentering, welders among

others and rate 4.1%, while craft men which include wood carvers and basket wavers takes has

the least position and rates 1.8%.

The occupational composition of the population has the ability to shape economic activities,

social dynamics, and the overall development trajectory of the study rural area. Some potential

implications of the given occupation distribution in table 4.3 are; with more than half the

population engaged in farming, agriculture is considered the backbone of the rural economy. To

promote sustainable rural development, investments in agricultural practices, modern

technology, irrigation systems, and access to markets are essential. Diversifying crops,

introducing agro-processing industries, and improving value chains can enhance income and

livelihoods. Teachers play a vital role in disseminating knowledge and skills. Their presence in

rural areas indicates opportunities for education and awareness-building. Strengthening the

education sector can empower the community with better literacy rates, enabling them to adapt

to changing economic landscapes. Traders contribute to local markets and economic exchanges.

This occupation indicates commercial activity and trade potential. Supporting traders through

market infrastructure, access to credit, and fair-trading practices can stimulate economic growth

and local markets. While a smaller percentage, artisans and craftsmen represent creative

potential. Encouraging their skills can lead to cottage industries, cultural preservation, and

tourism opportunities. This can add diversity to the local economy and attract visitors interested

in authentic experiences. Civil servants contribute to administrative and public service roles.

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Their presence suggests a connection to government services and potential for public sector-

driven development. This includes investments in public infrastructure, healthcare, and social

services. The presence of traders, craftsmen, and other self-defined occupations which has a

percentage rating of 4.1% indicates entrepreneurial potential. Facilitating entrepreneurship

through training, access to credit, and business development support can lead to job creation and

economic dynamism. To unlock the potential of diverse occupations, investments in skill

development and vocational training are essential. This can empower individuals to enhance

their productivity and adapt to evolving job market demands.

In summary, the given occupation distribution reflects a diverse rural economy with

opportunities for growth, innovation, and collaboration. Effective rural development strategies

should consider these occupational dynamics to create an environment that supports economic

prosperity, social well-being, and sustainable livelihoods.

4.1.3 Educational Background of Respondents

Table 4.4 Educational Background of Respondents

Attributes No. of respondents Percentage
No formal education 118 35.2
Primary education 108 32.1
Secondary education 68 20.2
Tertiary education 42 12.5
Total 336 100
Source: field survey, July, 2023.

Table 4.4, shows the educational background of the respondents, A significant proportion of the

population 35.2% having no formal education suggests challenges in terms of basic literacy,

numeracy, and access to information. To address this, development efforts should prioritise adult

literacy programs, vocational training, and awareness campaigns. Increasing the educational

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level of this group can lead to improved livelihood opportunities and better decision-making.

This isfollowed by those that attended primary school with 32.1%, A focus on primary education

is essential for building foundational skills and improving overall literacy rates. However, it's

crucial to ensure that the quality of primary education is adequate to provide practical knowledge

and skills that contribute to local development. This group can potentially benefit from skill

development programs to enhance employability.Those that have attended secondary school rank

third with 20.2%.Having a significant portion of the population with secondary education is

positive as it indicates a higher level of skills and knowledge. This group can be targeted for

further skill enhancement, vocational training, and even entrepreneurial support. They might play

a crucial role in local administration, small-scale enterprises, and community leadership. The

number of those who attended tertiary education is also represented by 12.5%, Individuals with

tertiary education represent a valuable human resource with advanced skills and expertise. This

group can contribute to innovation, professional services, and specialised sectors. Encouraging

them to stay or return to rural areas can help in diversifying the local economy and fostering

entrepreneurship.

The distribution underscores the importance of targeted skill development programs. Tailored

vocational training aligned with local economic opportunities can bridge the gaps in various

education levels, enhance employability, and support economic growth. In conclusion, the given

education distribution highlights the need for a comprehensive approach to rural development

that focuses on improving literacy, enhancing skill sets, and promoting a culture of continuous

learning. Addressing the diverse education levels can lead to a more educated, empowered, and

economically vibrant rural community.

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4.1.4 Respondent’s Duration of Residence at Ohoho-Owo Community
Table 4.5 Respondent’s Duration of Stay at Ohoho-Owo Community
Duration of stay No. of respondents Percentage
less than a year 13 3.9
2-5 years 21 6.3
5 – 15 years 61 18.2
I was born and I grow up here 241 71.6
Total 336 100
Source: field survey, July, 2023.

Table 4.5 above shows that the majority of the respondents are people who been living in the

settlement all the days of their life with a percentage rating of 71.6 percent of the total

respondents. That is followed by people who have stay between 5-15 with a percentage rating of

18.2 percent. People who have been in the community between 2-5 years have a rating of 6.3

percent while respondents who have stay in the community less than a year has the least

percentage rating of 3.9 percent.

Individuals who have spent less than 5 years in the rural area might have limited understanding

of local dynamics, traditions, and needs. While their fresh perspectives can bring new ideas,

integrating them into the community and development efforts might require targeted engagement

and orientation programs.The populations with longer period of residence in a community may

have established a deeper connection with the rural area. They might be more aware of local

issues, traditions, and resources. Engaging this segment in community development projects,

leadership roles, and decision-making can leverage their experience for sustainable development

growth. The majority of the population falls into the category Long-Term Residents (Born and

grew up in the study area with a percentage rating of 71.6%, indicating a strong attachment to the

rural area. This group likely has in-depth knowledge of the community's history, needs, and

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aspirations. Their engagement in development initiatives can be transformative, as they have a

stake in the long-term well-being of the area.

In conclusion, the distribution of durations of stay in a rural area reflects a diversity of

experiences and perspectives. A successful rural development strategy should consider the

strengths and contributions of each group while fostering collaboration, cultural preservation,

and sustainable growth.

The time spent in an area fosters increased and intimate knowledge of the potentials and

resources available in the area, the following section discusses findings on the natural resource

potentials in Ohoho-Owo community.

4.2 Natural Resource Potentials in Ohoho-Owo Community

The concept of rural development has been described as a multi-dimensional and a

comprehensive concept, comprising; agriculture and allied activities, small scale industrial

development, education, skills acquisition schemes, improved environmental conditions, housing

development, infrastructural development and the creation of opportunities for the individuals to

thrive and improve their quality of life. The presence of natural resources in the immediate

vicinity of the community helps to narrow down the available avenues to implement this myriad

of activities under the conceptualisation of rural development hence this section presents findings

on the natural resources in Ohoho-owo in the form of a map showing the location and

distribution of these resources in space.

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4.2 Map Showing the Natural Resources at Ohoho-Owo

Fig. 4.1: Map Showing the Natural Resources at Ohoho-Owo

Source: Fieldwork,2023

The above map shows the location of natural resources found in the study area. The area is

characterised with vast land covering a total of 15,787,940m 2 amounting to 1,578.794 hectares

with a perimeter of 31.600 meters,this vast land mass can be made to contribute substantially to

rural development across various dimensions. Some key ways in which the presences of vast

land can positively impact rural development in the study area are;

4.2.1 Vast arable land:this asset provides the space for increased agricultural production. It

allows for the cultivation of a wide variety of crops and livestock, using both manual and

mechanized means leading to higher yields and increased food security. This contributes to rural

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livelihoods and economic growth. The availability of vast land can encourage diversification

beyond traditional agriculture. It enables the development of agribusinesses, value-added

processing, and niche products, creating new income streams and enhancing rural economies.

Large agricultural land requires a labor force for tasks such as planting, cultivating, harvesting,

and maintaining the land. This generates employment opportunities, reducing rural

unemployment rates and providing livelihoods for local communities. Vast land can attract

investments in agriculture, agribusinesses, and related industries. Investors recognise the

potential for scale and growth, leading to increased capital infusion and modernisation of

agricultural practices. Developing and managing vast land often involves building infrastructure

such as irrigation systems, roads, and storage facilities. This not only supports agriculture but

also improves overall rural infrastructure, benefiting the community. Large land holdings can

facilitate the adoption of modern agricultural technologies and practices. Mechanisation,

precision farming, and advanced irrigation systems can enhance productivity and resource

efficiency.The produce from vast land can be linked to urban markets, creating connections

between rural producers and urban consumers. This enhances economic ties and opens up market

opportunities for rural communities. Vast land, when used effectively, can lead to higher

agricultural output and income. This contributes to wealth creation within rural areas, reducing

poverty and improving living standards and ultimately rural development. Agriculture often

requires collaborative efforts during peak seasons. This fosters social cohesion, builds

community bonds, and encourages collective action for community development. Vast land can

support the development of local value chains, from raw materials to processed products. This

stimulates economic growth and encourages collaboration among different segments of the local

economy.

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In summary, the availability of vast land in study areas offers a multitude of opportunities for

growth, innovation, and development. Maximising its contribution requires sustainable land

management practices, investment in infrastructure, and supportive policies that encourage

entrepreneurship and value addition.

4.2.2 Human resource: is made up of the people in the community according to projected

population they comprise of over 9000 individuals. The human population plays a vital role in

rural development in various ways. The collective efforts, skills, knowledge, and aspirations of

the population contribute to the growth, well-being, and sustainability of rural areas. Some key

contributions of the human population to rural developmentare that; the population provides the

labor force needed for various economic activities, including agriculture, agribusiness, cottage

industries, and service sectors. This labor drives production, generates income, and supports

livelihoods.

Rural populations also engage in entrepreneurship, starting businesses that cater to local and

regional demands. These ventures create jobs, stimulate economic growth, and diversify income

sources. Human populations bring innovation and creativity to rural areas. This can lead to the

development of new agricultural practices, technologies, and products that increase productivity

and competitiveness.The population is responsible for preserving local traditions, customs, and

cultural heritage. This preservation contributes to community identity, fosters cultural tourism,

and can stimulate economic activities. The population participates in local governance and

decision-making processes. Engaged citizens contribute to the planning and implementation of

development projects that align with community needs. The population's consumption patterns

create demand for goods and services. This demand can drive local economic activities,

encourage entrepreneurship, and attract investment.

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In summary, the human population is at the core of rural development. Their skills, knowledge,

aspirations, and interactions shape the social fabric, economic dynamics, and overall well-being

of rural communities. Sustainable rural development strategies must harness the potential of the

population while addressing their needs and fostering an environment that supports growth and

prosperity.

4.2.3 Water resources:There are four streams running through the study area with the

Olokostream being the main source of drinking water and closest to settlement (see Plate 1

Below). Water resources play a crucial role in the development of rural areas. Access to reliable

and clean water has a wide range of impacts that positively influence various aspects of rural

development. Key contributions of water resources to rural development are thatadequate water

resources are essential for crop irrigation and livestock watering. Reliable water supply can lead

to increased agricultural productivity, diversification of crops, and improved livestock

management, contributing to food security and higher incomes for rural farmers. Water resources

support various livelihood activities such as fishing, aquaculture, and small-scale enterprises.

These activities generate income for local communities and stimulate economic growth.

Clean and accessible water resources are fundamental for maintaining public health and

sanitation. Adequate water supply and sanitation facilities contribute to disease prevention,

improved hygiene, and overall well-being.Water resources can drive rural industries such as

agro-processing, small-scale hydroelectric power generation, and artisanal crafts. These

industries create jobs, add value to local products, and provide opportunities for innovation.

Proper management of water resources promotes biodiversity, wetland conservation, and overall

ecosystem health. Healthy ecosystems support agriculture, fisheries, and ecotourism, while also

regulating water quality and quantity.

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In conclusion, water resources are a fundamental component of rural development, impacting

agriculture, health, livelihoods, infrastructure, and overall community well-being. Effective

management and sustainable use of water resources are essential for maximising their

contributions to rural development.

Plate 4.1. Oloko stream at the study area

Source: Fieldwork 2023

4.2.4 Forest Resources: There are clusters of forest resource found in the study area( see the

plate 2 below). Forest resources play a significant role in the development of rural areas. Forests

offer a wide range of ecological, economic, social, and cultural benefits that contribute to the

overall well-being and sustainable development of rural communities. Notable contributions of

forest resources to rural development are that forest resources provide a source of livelihood for

rural communities. Activities such as logging, non-timber forest product collection (e.g., fruits,

nuts, medicinal plants), and ecotourism create income opportunities for local residents. Forest

resources contribute to industries such as timber processing, paper production, and furniture

manufacturing. These industries create jobs, stimulate local economies, and add value to raw

materials. Forests provide edible resources such as wild fruits, mushrooms, and game animals.

87
These resources supplement diets and contribute to food security, particularly in remote rural

areas. Forests are home to diverse plant and animal species. Proper forest management and

conservation efforts protect biodiversity, supporting ecological balance and long-term

sustainability.Forests impound carbon dioxide, making them vital for climate change mitigation.

Sustainable forest management can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and

promoting environmental resilience. Also forests play a crucial role in preventing soil erosion

and maintaining water quality. Healthy forest ecosystems contribute to stable watersheds,

reducing the risk of floods and ensuring a sustainable water supply. Forest-related activities, such

as forest management, wildlife monitoring, and ecotourism services, create jobs for rural

residents and provide a source of income diversification.Forests can mitigate the impact of

natural disasters such as landslides and soil erosion. Their root systems stabilisethe soil and

reduce the risk of disasters in hilly or mountainous regions.In conclusion, forest resources are

integral to the development of rural areas, providing economic, ecological, social, and cultural

benefits. Sustainable forest management practices are essential to ensure that these resources

continue to contribute to rural development while maintaining ecological integrity for present

and future generations.

Plate 4.2. Forest resources in the study area

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4.2.5 Clay soil: This is found inpitches both in the east and west wings of the area and along

oloko stream. Clay soil, although often considered challenging for agriculture, can still

contribute to the development of rural areas in various ways. While it requires specific

management techniques, clay soil offers unique opportunities and benefits that can be harnessed

for sustainable rural development, such as; Clay soil can be used for making bricks, ceramic and

other construction materials. This can support local infrastructure development and create

opportunities for small-scale construction businesses. Some regions with clay-rich soil have a

tradition of pottery and ceramic craftsmanship. Promoting these artisanal skills can provide

income opportunities for rural communities.In summary, with appropriate techniques and

approaches, clay soil can support both economic growth and environmental stewardship in rural

areas. The potentials of an area can only be harnessed when the people work to ensure that such

resources are converted into goods and services that can improve the quality of life in the area.

The next section discusses the needs of the area as suggested by the dwellers of the community

and presented in order of priorities.

4.3 Community Needs Assessment of Ohoho-Owo Area.

A community needs assessments is usually designed to evaluate gaps between current situations

and desired outcomes, along with possible solutions to address the gaps. Literature suggests that

when the community is involved at the initial planning stage, they usually take ownership of the

proposed activities to ensure they are implemented.

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Table 4.6 specific infrastructure or services that need immediate attention
Infrastructure or services No. of response Percentage
Agriculture infrastructure and support 69 20.5
Community centers and social services 49 14.6
Financial services 50 14.9
Transportation infrastructure linking farmland 64 19.0
Access to clean water and sanitation 53 15.8
Education and healthcare facilities 51 15.2
Total 336 100
Source: field survey, July, 2023.

Table 4.6 above shows the respondents’ specific desires for infrastructureto be provided and that

needs immediate attention in the community. Topping the chart is agricultural infrastructure with

20.5% of the respondents indicating that there is an immediate need for development of

agriculture resources.This is closely followed by transportation infrastructure which can be used

in linking farmlands to ease moving agriculture products out with a 19.0% response rate from the

respondents.A total of 15.8% of the respondents want access to clean water and sanitation to be

immediately addressed.Education and healthcare facilities rate 15.2% on the list of respondent’s

specific need that should beimmediately addressed. 14.9% of the respondents want financial

services while 14.6% want community centers and social services.

Table 4.7 Infrastructure needs priority table

SERVICES 5 4 3 2 1 SUM WS WA R
Road infrastructure 322 12 2 0 0 336 6664 19.8 1st
1610 48 6 0 0
Healthcare facilities 236 80 20 0 0 336 1560 4.6 3rd
1180 320 60 0 0
Education facilities 257 52 18 9 0 336 1565 4.7 2nd
1285 208 54 18 0
Electricity supply 15 50 204 45 22 336 999 3.0 6th
75 200 612 90 22
Water supply 193 85 35 18 5 336 1451 4.3 4th
965 340 105 36 5
Sanitation 123 92 55 39 27 336 1253 3.7 5th
615 368 165 78 27
Source: field survey, July, 2023.

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Table 4.12 above shows the priority of the most needed infrastructure based on the response on

the assessment of quality of infrastructure in the community using the weighted point average to

determine which of the infrastructure is most needed in the community. In the ranking road

infrastructure comes first with a total weight average of 19.8 and thus becomes the most needed

infrastructure in the community. In the ranking order, Education facility ranks second with 4.7

weight average. Closely ranked to Education facility is a Healthcare facility with 4.6 average and

dues come third. Water supply and sanitation rank fourth and fifth with 4.3 and 3.7 averages

respectively, while electricity has the least rank with 3.0 average.

4.4. Swot Analysis

This is a tool for evaluation which can be used todetermine Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis to identify the internal strengths and weaknesses of

the rural area, as well as external opportunities and threats. The following section shows results

on the analysis of the fieldwork findings

4.4.1 Strengths

Agricultural Tradition: The community has a strong history of agriculture, with generational

knowledge of local crops and farming practices.

Fertile Land: The region boasts fertile soil, suitable for a variety of crops and potential for

increased agricultural productivity.

Water Resources: Abundant water bodies and groundwater sources offer irrigation potential

and support for agricultural expansion.

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Local Cooperation: The community has a history of working together on projects, fostering a

cooperative spirit for development initiatives.

Existing Infrastructure: Basic infrastructure like roads and schools is present, forming a

foundation for future development.

4.4.2 Weaknesses:

Limited Modern Technology: Farmers lack access to modern agricultural technology, affecting

productivity and efficiency.

Inadequate Storage Facilities: Lack of proper storage facilities leads to post-harvest losses and

reduced income for farmers.

Healthcare Gaps: Limited access to quality healthcare services adversely affects the well-being

of the community as well as the ability to be productive.

Market Access Challenges: Poor transportation infrastructure makes it difficult to transport

agricultural products to markets.

4.4.3 Opportunities:

Government Support: Government programs are available to provide funding, training, and

technical assistance for agricultural development.

Value-Added Processing: Developing food processing industries can add value to agricultural

products and create additional income streams.

Infrastructure Development: Improved roads and transportation networks can connect the area

to larger markets and distribution centers.

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Youth Engagement: Engaging young people in agriculture through training and incentives can

revitalize the sector and combat youth migration.

Eco-Tourism Potential: The region's natural beauty and agricultural activities could attract eco-

tourism, contributing to local income.

4.4.4 Threats:

Climate Change Impact: Erratic weather patterns, including droughts and floods, can impact

agricultural production and sustainability.

Market Competition: Entry into mainstream markets could be challenging due to competition

from larger agricultural producers.

Limited Funds: Depending solely on government funding might result in delays or insufficient

funds for project implementation.

Land Degradation: Unsustainable farming practices may lead to soil degradation and reduced

agricultural yields over time.

4.4.5 Proposed Strategies for Rural Development of Ohoho-Owo:

From an amalgamation of SWOT analysis with research findings the following have been

proposed for rural development of Ohoho-owo

Technology Adoption: Provide training and resources for farmers to adopt modern agricultural

practices, including machinery and precision farming.

Storage Facilities: Secure funding for the construction of proper storage facilities to reduce

post-harvest losses and improve income.

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Healthcare Outreach: Collaborate with healthcare organisations to provide mobile clinics and

health education to improve community health.

Market Linkages: Develop partnerships with transportation providers and explore new markets

for agricultural products.

Value-Added Processing: Establish training programs and support for farmers to process and

package their products for higher value in markets.

Eco-Tourism Development: Create initiatives that blend agriculture and cultural experiences for

tourists, providing an additional income stream.

4.5 Proposals for Sustainable Development of Ohoho-Owo

It has been established from the survey that Ohoho-Owo as rural area is rich in agriculture, forest

resources, and human potential. This proposal outlines a comprehensive approach to leverage

these resources for sustainable development, addressing economic growth, environmental

conservation, and social well-being using the available recourses present.

Agricultural Development

Creating cooperatives to facilitate collective farming, resource sharing, and knowledge exchange

among local farmers will lead to increased productivity, reduced costs, and enhanced bargaining

power while also implementing modern farming practices such as crop rotation, agroforestry,

and organic farming. Farmers will be trained through workshops to educate them about the

techniques, leading to increased yields and sustainable land use.

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The plan promotes value-added processing, encouraging the establishment of processing units

for agricultural products likes fruits, vegetables, and grains. This adds value to local produce,

reduces wastage, and creates employment opportunities.

Forest Resource Management:

The plan is to engage in sustainable logging practicescollaborating with local communities to

establish sustainable logging practices. This involves regulating logging activities, reforestation,

and promoting alternative income sources such as ecotourism. The plan will establish

biodiversity conservationimplementing forest conservation initiatives to protect the rich

biodiversity in the region. Establish protected areas and engage local communities in

conservation efforts to safeguard unique species and ecosystems.

The plan will foster forest-based livelihood toencourage the development of forest-based

livelihoods, such as non-timber forest product collection, medicinal plant cultivation, and

handicraft production. This diversifies income sources and reduces pressure on forests.

Population Empowerment:

Skill development programs will be tailored to the local population's needs. These programs can

include vocational training, entrepreneurship development, and technology literacy, enhancing

employability. While also improving access to quality education and healthcare services.

Building schools, clinics, and promoting health and hygiene awareness can uplift the standard of

living and human development index.

The community will not be left out as they will be engaged in major decision making.

Establishing participatory platforms where community members are actively involved in

95
decision-making processes. This promotes a sense of ownership, accountability, and sustainable

development practices.

Infrastructure Enhancement
Road infrastructurewill connect Ohoho-Owo with neighboring areas. Better connectivity

facilitates transportation of goods, enhances market access, and encourages tourism. While also

investing in renewable energy sources such as solar and hydroelectric power. Ensure reliable

water supply through efficient water management systems, benefiting both households and

agricultural activities.

Investment and Funding

Fostering collaborations between the local government, private sector, and non-governmental

organizations will bring in investment, technical expertise, and resources for various

development projects.Seeking grants and funding from national and international organizations

focused on rural development, agriculture, and environmental conservation. Develop compelling

project proposals to secure financial support.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Establish monitoring systems to monitor the progress of various development initiatives. Regular

assessments help identify challenges, measure impacts, and make necessary adjustments while

giving room for community feedback bycreating mechanisms for the community to provide

feedback on the effectiveness of implemented projects. This ensures that projects are responsive

to the actual needs of the population.

By harnessing the agricultural, forest, and population resources in Ohoho-Owo, this proposal

aims to create a holistic and sustainable development model. Through collaborative efforts,

96
strategic planning, and a focus on the well-being of both people and the environment, Ohoho-

Owo can achieve inclusive growth and become a model for rural development.

4.6 Implication of Development on Ohoho-Owo

Rural development initiatives in the study area will lead to improved living conditions, better

access to healthcare, education, and basic services, enhancing the overall quality of life for rural

residents. The implementation of industries will attract inward migration resulting to population

and economic increase. This can be achieved bydeveloping projects that create new economic

opportunities through agriculture, agribusiness, tourism, and other industries, reducing

unemployment and poverty rates.The plan implementation will enhance infrastructure in the

area. Infrastructure development will improve connectivity, access to markets, and

transportation, facilitating the movement of goods, services, and people.

The effective rural development of the areawill deter rural-to-urban migration by offering viable

livelihood options and improved living conditions locally. Sustainable development will

empower communities to preserve their cultural heritage, traditions, and local knowledge.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
In conclusion, the rural development plan for Ohoho-Owo embodies a comprehensive and

integrated approach to usher in transformative change for the community. By placing a strategic

emphasis on bolstering the agricultural sector, enhancing infrastructure, and elevating

community services, this plan envisions a thriving future for Ohoho-Owo that is sustainable,

inclusive, and resilient.

At the heart of this plan lies the recognition of Ohoho-Owo's deep agricultural roots. By

modernising farming practices, equipping farmers with cutting-edge technology, and imparting

valuable training, the plan aims to catalyze a substantial increase in agricultural productivity.

Through diversification of crops and the adoption of sustainable techniques, the plan aspires to

fortify food security, empower local farmers, and create a robust foundation for economic

growth.

Infrastructure acts as the backbone of development, and the plan prioritises its enhancement.

Upgrading roads, transportation networks, and storage facilities will pave the way for seamless

connectivity to larger markets. The introduction of renewable energy sources will not only

ensure a reliable energy supply but also underscore Ohoho-Owo's commitment to environmental

stewardship.

Empowering the community is integral to this plan's success. By bolstering healthcare services,

the plan aims to improve overall well-being and access to medical attention. Upgrading

educational facilities and introducing adult education initiatives will raise literacy levels,

98
bolstering skillsets and broadening horizons. Engaging the youth through training and incentives

will breathe new life into the agricultural sector while curbing the exodus to urban centers.

The plan acknowledges the potential for Ohoho-Owo to shine as a sustainable eco-tourism

destination. Capitalising on the region's natural allure and vibrant agricultural practices, it

envisions an immersive experience that attracts tourists, generates income, and fosters

environmental conservation. This endeavor not only diversifies income streams but also

highlights Ohoho-Owo's unique cultural heritage.

In essence, the rural development plan for Ohoho-Owo is a testament to the community's vision

for progress and prosperity. It encapsulates the harmonious interplay between revitalised

agriculture, fortified infrastructure, and enriched community services. As Ohoho-Owo embarks

on this transformative journey, the plan's success rests on the collective efforts, resilience, and

determination of its people to steer their community toward a brighter, sustainable, and inclusive

future.

5.2 Recommendations

To enhance the effectiveness and impact of the development plan for Ohoho-Owo and any other

rural communities with similar resources, the under-listed recommendations should be taken

seriously.

i. The government, private bodies, NGOs and all stakeholders should do all it can to

explore the natural resources present at Ohoho-Owo.

ii. Exploration of the natural resources of the community should be done bearing in mind

ways of sustainability to safe guard the natural resources to meet the present need while

not compromising the future needs of the coming generations.

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 iii. Community stakeholders should be engaged. Involving the community members in the

planning, implementation and monitoring of the development plan will ensure that the

plan aligns with the community’s need and aspirations

iv. To meet the need and aspirations of the community, the plan should be approach in a

multi-sectoral way, adopt technology, develop a clear roadmap for infrastructure

Incorporating these recommendations into the rural development plan for Ohoho-Owo and any

other rural area with similar variables will enhance its impact, ensure sustainability, and create a

more prosperous and resilient community.

100
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 APPENDIX I

STRUCTURE QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

Benue State University,

Makurdi.

May 23rd 2023

Dear Respondent

Am a student of the above named institution in the department of Urban and Regional Planning.

I am carrying out a research work on Rural Development Plan using Ohoho-Owo community of

Owo council ward, Oju local government area of Benue state as a case study.

Please be obliged to fill in the questionnaire below, supplying all the information to the best of

your knowledge.

Thanks for your anticipated co-operation

Yours faithfully,

Ogbu Friday Odey

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Researcher

QUESTIONNAIRE ON CITIZEN’S PERCEPTION RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN

OHOHO-OWO, OWO COUNCIL WARD OF OJU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF
BENUE STATE NIGERIA
Demographic Information:

1. Age: (a) 15-25 (b) 26-40 (c) 41-60 (d)60 and above

2. Gender: (a) female (b) male

3. Occupation: (a) farmer (b) teacher (c) trader (d) craft man (e) civil servant (f) others

specify

4. Education level: (a) no formal education (b) primary education (c) secondary education

(d) Tertiary education

5. How long have you been living in Ohoho-Owo Community? (a) less than a year (b) 2-5

years (c) 5 – 15 years (d) I was born and I grow up here

ASSESSMENT

1. Is there any ongoing rural development plans in your area? Yes No

2. If yes, please specify the name of the plan(s):

3. Are there any specific infrastructure or services that need immediate attention? Please

specify:

4. What kind of industries or sectors do you think have the potential to create more jobs in

rural areas?

5. What are the major challenges faced by farmers in your area?

6. What community development programs or initiatives would you like to see implemented

in your area?

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 7. Have you been actively involved in any community development projects or programs in

the past? Yes No

8. Do you have any suggestions or ideas for improving rural development in your area?

9. Is there any additional feedback you would like to provide regarding rural development

plans?

Please rate the quality of the following services in your area using the key below

(Scale: 1-5, with 1 being poor, 2 fair, 3 good, 4 very good and 5 being excellent)

Services 1 2 3 4 5

Road infrastructure

Healthcare facilities

Education facilities

Electricity supply

Water supply

Sanitation

Thank you for your participation! Your inputs are valuable for shaping the rural development

plans in your area.

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 APPENDIX 2

INTERVIEW GUIDE ON PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPMENT IN OHOHO-OWO

1. From your experience, what are the main challenges or obstacles that hinder the

development of Ohoho-Owo?

2. What are the specific areas or sectors in Ohoho-Owo that require immediate attention for

development?

3. How would you describe the current state of infrastructure (roads, electricity, water

supply, etc.) in Ohoho-Owo, and what are the key challenges in this regard?

4. What are the key challenges faced in promoting and supporting agricultural activities in

Ohoho-Owo?

5. What role do you think the local government should play in promoting economic growth

and creating employment opportunities in Ohoho-Owo?

6. What collaborations or partnerships do you think would be beneficial for addressing the

developmental challenges in Ohoho-Owo?

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