The Adoption of Human Resource Practices To Support Employees Affected by Intimate Partner Violence: Women Representation in Leadership Matters

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DOI: 10.1002/hrm.

22157

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The adoption of human resource practices to support


employees affected by intimate partner violence:
Women representation in leadership matters

Suzanne Chan-Serafin 1 | Karin Sanders 1 | Lu Wang 2 |


Simon Lloyd D. Restubog 3,4

1
School of Management and Governance,
UNSW Business School, University of New Abstract
South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales,
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global public health issue that negatively impacts
Australia
2
Research School of Management, ANU
organizations and their employees. Research suggests that organizations can play a
College of Business and Economics, Australian supportive role to lessen this negative impact. However, it has been relatively silent
National University, Canberra, Australian
Capital Territory, Australia
on the conditions under which organizations choose to play such a role. Integrating
3
School of Labor and Employment Relations social role and critical mass perspectives, we examine the extent to which organiza-
and Department of Psychology, University of tions adopt human resource (HR) practices to support employees affected by IPV.
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana,
Illinois, USA Specifically, we argue that organizations are more likely to adopt IPV-related HR
4
UQ Business School, The University of practices when they are led by female Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and Top Man-
Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
agement Teams (TMTs) with more female members. Furthermore, we argue that
Correspondence when women's representation reaches a critical mass plateau, appointing more
Suzanne Chan-Serafin, School of Management
women in TMTs has no incremental impact, and this non-linear relationship moder-
and Governance, UNSW Business School,
University of New South Wales, Sydney, New ates the CEO gender effect. Overall, we found support for our hypotheses based on
South Wales, Australia
a survey study of HR professionals from 414 Australian organizations (Study 1) and
Email: s.chan-serafin@unsw.edu.au
an archival study using 2 years of the Workplace Gender Equality Agency data from
4186 Australian organizations (Study 2). Theoretical and practical implications on the
influence of gender configurations in leadership positions on the adoption of diver-
sity, equity, and inclusion-related HR practices are discussed.

KEYWORDS
domestic violence, gender diversity, human resource (HR) practices, intimate partner violence,
organizational diversity, top management teams, women in leadership

Intimate partner violence (IPV), commonly referred to as domestic vio- affecting every life domain (Golding, 1999; Moe & Bell, 2004).
lence, is defined as behavior directed toward the goal of inflicting Although IPV is commonly experienced by both men and women,
physical, psychological, emotional, and sexual harm to a former or cur- more women suffer from it, and they incur more serious injuries that
rent intimate partner (Krug et al., 2002). It is considered “a global pub- require medical attention (Rennison & Welchans, 2000). Similar to
lic health problem of epidemic proportions” (World Health other countries, in Australia, the context of our research, one in six
Organization [WHO], 2013, p. 3) and results in social problems (one in four) women have been subjected to physical and/or sexual

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© 2022 The Authors. Human Resource Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Hum Resour Manage. 2023;62:745–764. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hrm 745


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746 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

(emotional) abuse by a current or former partner since the age of practices because their orientation towards leadership could partly be
15 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016; WHO, 2013). Regrettably, shaped by existing gender roles and expectations (e.g., Cook &
this problem has been exacerbated by COVID-19 lockdowns as part- Glass, 2016, 2017; Glass & Cook, 2018; see also de Jonge, 2018). This
ners spend more time together in confined spaces, as well as by the gender-based leadership perspective suggests that female leaders,
ensuing global economic recessions, the financial repercussions of who act in accordance with their gender role, may consider IPV as an
which may make it even harder for IPV victims to leave abusive rela- issue that falls under their care and therefore choose to offer organi-
tionships (Boserup et al., 2020; Bradbury-Jones & Isham, 2020). zational support to employees who are victimized by it in their organi-
While IPV is an issue of societal relevance, it also has considerable zations (de Jonge, 2018; Wilcox et al., 2021). To this end, we examine
relevance to organizations and the individuals who work in them. how the gender of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and the gender
Consistent research evidence suggests that IPV negatively impacts representation of Top Management Teams (TMTs) separately and
organizations and their employees in a variety of ways (e.g., Deen jointly shape the extent to which organizations adopt HR practices to
et al., 2021; Duffy et al., 2004; LeBlanc et al., 2014; Tolentino support employees affected by IPV.
et al., 2016; for a comprehensive review, see Deen et al., 2022). At Our research contributes to the management and diversity litera-
the organizational level, IPV has been found to incur direct ture in three important ways. First, despite a growing body of research
(e.g., illness, death, absenteeism, and turnover), indirect (e.g., reduced on the negative impact of IPV on organizations and their employees
commitment, morale, and performance), and intangible costs (e.g., LeBlanc et al., 2014), our knowledge about how organizations
(e.g., negative impact on company image and work climate; O'Leary- respond to IPV is limited (Adhia et al., 2019). Given that employment
Kelly et al., 2008) for organizations. At the individual level, IPV has can produce a critical path for IPV victims to exit abusive relationships
been found to negatively impact women's career advancement. Spe- (McFerran, 2011) and in light of the evidence that organizational
cifically, Tolentino et al. (2016) showed that IPV experienced at home actions can mitigate the detrimental impact of IPV on employees
significantly interfered with both employees’ in-role performance and (Tolentino et al., 2016), we argue that understanding the conditions
citizenship behaviors at work. Importantly, however, this relationship under which organizations are more or less likely to adopt HR prac-
was weaker for employees with high (as opposed to low) perceived tices to assist employees in these situations represents a moral imper-
organizational support, suggesting that organizations can play a crucial ative (cf. de Jonge, 2018; Wilcox et al., 2021). Our research also
role in combating the negative crossover effects of IPV from home responds to the call for more empirical work that documents the
to work. effects of employer actions that support employees affected by IPV
Despite the role organizations play in reducing the negative (Deen et al., 2022).
impact of IPV on employees in the workplace, it is unclear why organi- Second, we respond to Kulik and Metz's (2017) call for more
zations differ widely in their response to this pressing problem. Some research on how the gender diversity of a top management team
organizations actively adopt human resource (HR) practices, such as (TMT) influences organizational outcomes, including the adoption of
offering paid leave to affected employees and training opportunities organizational practices that promote socially responsible behavior.
to help supervisors recognize IPV and support employees whose per- To date, the few studies that have examined the impact of decision-
formance is impacted by IPV, while others remain completely unre- makers’ gender on the adoption of equity practices to support women
sponsive to this issue. For example, the Society for Human Resource and other underrepresented groups have mainly focused on that of
Management (SHRM, 2013) reported that 65% of the companies sur- CEOs and/or board of directors (BoD; e.g., Cook & Glass, 2016;
veyed did not have any formal workplace domestic violence preven- Glass & Cook, 2018; Srikant et al., 2020). While BoD and TMT are
tion policy and 80% did not have formal training programs for both responsible for the most important strategic decisions
domestic violence in place. Our research, therefore, focuses on the (e.g., Kulik & Metz, 2017), TMT is different in its reporting line to the
conditions under which organizations adopt IPV-related HR practices CEO and its unique interface with middle management (Raes
for two reasons. First, IPV is a public health problem that is potentially et al., 2011). The extent to which organizations adopt practices that
on the rise globally (WHO, 2021). Second, although research suggests support the well-being of their employees both in the workplace and
that organizations, via their management of human resources, have a at home may be influenced by TMTs’ understanding of employees’
positive role to play in tackling this global challenge (e.g., Tolentino needs via their unique interface with middle management. The sup-
et al., 2016), organizations seem to be particularly divided in terms of port of such practices by both the CEO and TMT, as well as how they
seeing IPV as relevant to the workplace and vary in their levels of work together, as we will argue, shape the adoption of IPV-related HR
responsiveness in managing this issue. practices. Consequently, we focus on two bodies of leadership,
We argue that a fruitful avenue to understanding the different namely CEO and TMT to advance research on the gender composition
organizational responses is through the lenses of leadership and gen- of leadership and its impact on the adoption of diversity, equity, and
der. First, leaders have an important role to play in initiating and inclusion (DEI)-related HR practices.
implementing practices to protect and support their employees Third, we integrate social role theory (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 2012)
affected by IPV (e.g., Liz Claiborne, Inc. as examined by O'Leary-Kelly and the critical mass perspective (Dahlerup, 2006; Kanter, 1977) to
et al., 2008). Second, female leaders, in particular, may be more likely offer novel insights into the influence of CEO gender and gender
to support and implement socially responsible and family friendly representation in the TMTs on the adoption of DEI-related HR
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CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 747

practices. Current research shows that women leaders tend to act in practices to support employees affected by IPV. This theory focuses
accordance with their social role expectations to make more other- on gender differences and thus enables us to specify the different ori-
oriented decisions, such as those related to corporate social responsi- entations (e.g., characteristics, values, priorities, and behaviors)
bility (CSR; Cook & Glass, 2017). Research also shows that organiza- women and men bring to an organization (see Eagly et al., 2000 for a
tions with BoD with a critical mass of a minimum of three women review of meta-analytic studies that support this theorizing). While
have stronger CSR records than those with two or fewer women on men are socialized by society for openly engaging in agentic behaviors
their BoD (Cook & Glass, 2017). This line of research typically designed to maximize self-interests, women are expected by society
assumes that the positive impact of a critical mass of women on orga- to take on a different role—a role that requires them to prioritize com-
nizational outcomes to be linear (e.g., Abebe & Dadanlar, 2019; munal and relationship-building behaviors that often support others'
Cook & Glass, 2017; Konrad et al., 2008). However, we draw upon interests (Eagly & Wood, 2012). Importantly, when women violate
research on gender and group proportions and associated dynamics prescriptive and proscriptive gender roles in organizations, they often
(e.g., Allmendinger & Hackman, 1995; Post et al., 2022) to theorize are penalized (e.g., Eagly et al., 1992; Rudman, 1998).
and empirically demonstrate that there is a plateau to this critical mass Irrespective of the origins of gender differences, social role the-
in our context. That is, the positive relationship between the percent- ory, in the context of organizational decision-making, suggests that
age of women in TMTs and adoption of IPV-related HR practices female and male leaders hold priorities and values that correspond to
levels off after this critical mass plateau is reached. Furthermore, we their gender norms (e.g., Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen,
theorize and show how this non-linear effect moderates the relation- 2003; Mendelberg & Karpowitz, 2016). For instance, prior studies
ship between CEO gender and the adoption of IPV-related HR prac- (e.g., Cook & Glass, 2016; Glass & Cook, 2018) drew on social role
tices. We distinguish the term “critical mass threshold” from “critical theory and demonstrated that female CEOs tend to prioritize relation-
mass plateau” when describing women's numerical representation in ship building, as well as equity and diversity (i.e., goals consistent with
the TMTs. We use the term “critical mass threshold” to describe the the female gender role) and thus were more likely to champion equity
point at which women are able to exert influence (i.e., below this and inclusion policies. In a similar vein, conforming to the widely and
threshold, women are in a token position). We used the term “critical firmly held expectation that women should be caring and nurturing,
mass plateau” to describe the point at which adding another woman research has shown that women with decision-making powers exhibit
to the TMTs no longer increases the likelihood that IPV-related HR greater care for their employees and undertake fewer reductions in
practices are adopted. While social role theory informs us of the likely workforce than their male counterparts (Matsa & Miller, 2013; Tate &
nature of the decisions made by influential women versus men, we Yang, 2015).
draw upon the critical mass perspective to extend the predictive reach In terms of values, a study of over 500 board members in Sweden
of social role theory to reveal how the influence of CEO gender and demonstrated that female directors scored higher on Schwartz's
gender representation in TMTs on DEI-related HR practices is more (1992) universal values of benevolence and universalism than their
complex than originally theorized and demonstrated. In this way, our male counterparts (Adams & Funk, 2012). These values emphasize
research meaningfully extends the literature on the largely linear influ- concern for the welfare of others and are consistent with the female
ence of female representation in leadership positions on DEI-related gender role. Extending their study, Adams et al. (2011) found that
practices and outcomes in organizations (e.g., Abebe & these value differences predicted decisions and behaviors at work,
Dadanlar, 2019; Ali & Konrad, 2017; Cook & Glass, 2016; Dobbin with benevolence and universalism negatively related to support for
et al., 2011; Glass et al., 2020; Glass & Cook, 2018). shareholder wealth maximization. Together, the two studies suggest
Below, we explicate our research model, develop hypotheses, and that female leaders are less likely to support a “share-holderist” strat-
report two field studies that test our hypotheses. In Study 1, we con- egy than male leaders via their female gender role consistent values.
ducted a survey of HR professionals from 414 Australian organiza- Indeed, Cook and Glass (2017) found that female directors made more
tions. Study 2 constructively replicates and extends Study 1 findings stakeholder-oriented and less shareholder-oriented decisions than
by providing evidence for stronger causal inferences via the analysis male directors. Hence, female CEOs not only are more likely to priori-
of two-waves of archival data (i.e., 2015–2016 and 2016–2017) from tize employee well-being than male CEOs, but they may also think
the Workplace Gender Equality Agency (WGEA). about employees’ well-being in a more inclusive manner
(i.e., stakeholder perspective). We argue that female leaders may
believe that their leadership and duty of care for their employees tran-
1 | THEORY AND HYPOTHESES scend beyond the workplace to include providing support for
employees who encounter hardships at home. In support of this argu-
1.1 | CEO gender ment, Crowder-Meyer (2021) found that women and men deviate on
issues that pull gender roles apart. That is, women showed concern
Social role theory (see Eagly & Wood, 2012 for a comprehensive for vulnerable populations including children and the poor, while men
review) provides an overarching theoretical framework that supports were more concerned about finances and taxes.
our argument that women in decision-making positions, such as CEOs, Given that the decision to adopt IPV-related HR practices exem-
are more likely than their male counterparts to endorse and adopt HR plifies a more caring and communal orientation that is more consistent
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748 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

with the female rather than the male gender role, we argue that orga- between the two gender groups in an exaggerated manner, which
nizations led by female CEOs are more likely to adopt such HR prac- produces polarization between the two groups. The dominant male
tices than those led by their male counterparts. As such, we group also attempts to fit token women's attributes into its pre-
hypothesize: existing feminine stereotypes (i.e., assimilation) and evaluates token
women's views with bias. To cope with these pressures, token women
Hypothesis 1. Organizations led by female CEOs will be often stay as low profile as possible to appear non-intrusive
more likely to adopt IPV-related HR practices than organi- (Allmendinger & Hackman, 1995). This means that token women are
zations led by male CEOs. more likely to conform to the perspectives of their majority male col-
leagues. If they raise their unique views in team discussions, their
views are likely to be ignored or met with resistance. Indeed, research
1.2 | Gender representation in the TMTs shows that priorities placed on “care issues” (i.e., those related to fam-
ily and the vulnerable) by token women in male-dominated groups
CEOs do not make organizational decisions in a social vacuum. Many may not receive a full hearing (Mendelberg & Karpowitz, 2016).
organizational decisions, including those related to the adoption of Team dynamics change, however, when token women are joined
HR practices, are also shaped by the TMT (Arthur et al., 2014). TMT is by others to reach the critical mass threshold (i.e., between nine to
defined as the “inner circle of executives who collectively formulate, 35%).1 This subgroup of women is now more likely to share, test, and
articulate, and execute strategic and tactical moves of the organiza- pursue their agenda to become a stronger political force in their TMTs
tion” (Klenke, 2003, p. 1024; see also Hambrick & Mason, 1984). As (Zanna et al., 1987). There are several reasons for why the presence
with female CEOs, social role theory predicts that female TMT mem- of other women enhances token women's ability to advance their
bers are more likely to endorse HR practices that support employees agenda (e.g., Biswas et al., 2021; Cook & Glass, 2017). First, homo-
affected by IPV than their male counterparts. However, social role phily theory suggests that those who are demographically similar tend
theory does not inform us of how this gender-based influence mani- to be attracted to each other (Byrne, 1971), have shared knowledge
fests in mixed-gender groups where both women and men may com- and values, and thus are more likely to support each other
pete to obtain their gender-infused preferences adopted by their (McPherson et al., 2001). Indeed, women, rather than men, are more
groups. To extend the predictive reach of social role theory, we draw likely to support other women for championing socially progressive
upon the critical mass perspective (Dahlerup, 2006) to provide a more agenda, such as implementing DEI policies (Cook & Glass, 2016).
nuanced understanding of the effect of the percentage of women in Increased support would ensure women's ideas receive adequate
TMTs and its resulting team dynamics on the adoption of IPV-related attention in team discussions and deliberations, which enhances the
HR practices. influence of the idea and increases its adoption. Second, in addition to
Originating from nuclear physics, the term “critical mass” has having greater social influence, having other women in a team plays a
been used to explain the quantity necessary to create an irreversible vital symbolic role. Decision-making research in political science
turning point into a new situation (Dahlerup, 2006). Drawing on Kan- shows that women's presence in leadership provides symbolic repre-
ter's (1977) seminal work on how group proportions change group sentation, which enhances the perception that women, as a group, are
dynamics as a theoretical foundation, Dahlerup (1988) developed the competent, worthy of respect and well-suited to exercise power
critical mass perspective based on Nordic data in the political domain. (Mendelberg & Karpowitz, 2016). As more women join the TMT and
Applied in our research, this perspective suggests that for women to reach the critical mass threshold, we expect women's legitimacy as
exert influence in the TMT, they need to reach a critical mass thresh- decision-makers to increase. This in turn enhances each woman's
old within the team. Furthermore, drawing on research on gender and effectiveness in advocating for their preferences (cf. Post et al., 2022),
group proportions and associated dynamics (e.g., Mendelberg & including the adoption of IPV-related HR practices. Indeed, Hewstone
Karpowitz, 2016; Post et al., 2022), we argue that women's influence et al. (2006) empirically showed that polarization and assimilation,
levels off after women reach a certain critical mass. which cause token women to self-censor and their ideas to be dis-
Women who have not reached the critical mass threshold or are missed, play less of a role in the functioning of a team with a minority
in a token position within their group (typically 15% or less) generally of women.
exert little influence in their groups (Kanter, 1977; see also We further propose that the positive impact of greater women
Turco, 2010). This is because they tend to self-censor, but even when representation in TMT on IPV-related HR practices levels off after
they do express their unique perspectives, their contributions are they reach a critical mass plateau. By the time they have reached the
more likely to be dismissed by men. Self-censoring and lacking influ- critical mass plateau, women as a group would have gained symbolic
ence can both be explained by the processes of visibility, polarization, representation (Mendelberg & Karpowitz, 2016). This means that the
and assimilation (Kanter, 1977). Token women and their differences TMT already values women's contributions, is open to gender diver-
are more visible in male-dominated groups, which leads them to be sity, and has established its support of the IPV agenda. Beyond the
self-conscious of their token status and experience undue pressure to critical mass plateau, her role as a “woman” becomes less important
perform well. Token women's presence can also stimulate the domi- than her role as an “individual” to influence the TMT (cf. Biddle's, 2013
nant male group to view its within-group similarity and the differences role theory). As such, appointing another woman will not shift the
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CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 749

TMT's decisions on IPV-related HR practices significantly. Conse- As argued earlier, women representation in TMT influences the
quently, there is a diminishing return in appointing another woman to extent to which organizations adopt IPV-related HR practices in a
the TMT on the adoption of additional IPV-related HR practices after non-linear fashion. Extending this argument, we propose that this
the critical mass plateau is reached. In support of this argument, Post influence can also extend to the CEO's effect on the adoption of IPV-
and her colleagues (2022) found that appointing a female member to related HR practices because of the interdependence between the
the TMTs shifted the TMTs’ overall cognition to become more CEO and the TMT. First, when the CEO is sequentially dependent on
change-oriented, which in turn increased firms’ investments in R&D. the TMT, the TMT provides advice to the CEO regarding which orga-
However, when there were four or more women in the TMTs nizational issues need to be prioritized and adopted by the CEO
(i.e., when women's TMT representation was beyond approximately (Arendt et al., 2005). The likelihood that IPV issues are considered in
35%), the influence of appointing another woman on the TMTs’ the CEO's agenda may depend largely on whether TMT believes these
change-oriented cognitions waned. This is because the change- issues are important. When IPV issues do not get on the CEO's
oriented cognitions of the TMT have already been significantly altered agenda, HR practices designed to support employees affected by IPV
by the former three female incumbents when they were first are less likely to be adopted by the organization regardless of the
appointed. Firms’ investments in R&D, in turn, did not increase when CEO's gender. Second, when the CEO is reciprocally interdependent
women reached this critical mass plateau in their TMTs. with the TMT, the TMT influences the CEO primarily through advo-
In the context of our theorizing, when women representation cacy, feedback, mutual influence, and team discussion (Lin &
goes beyond the critical mass plateau in the TMTs, we expect the Rababah, 2014). In this case, the degree to which TMT supports IPV-
diminishing return in appointing another woman to the TMT to cause related HR practices can shape the extent to which a CEO is able to
the positive relationship between women in the TMTs and the adop- implement their own preference on the issue. A TMT which does not
tion of IPV-related HR practices to level off. Following this line of rea- support IPV-related HR practices may nudge the CEO to focus atten-
soning, we predict a non-linear relationship between women's tion away from IPV issues, such as by questioning the legitimacy of
representation in the TMTs and IPV-related HR practices adoption. the organization's involvement in employees’ family life and/or by
We propose: raising other pressing issues and urging the CEO to deploy limited
organizational resources into those issues. As such, regardless of a
Hypothesis 2. There will be a non-linear relationship CEO's gender, the extent to which TMT supports IPV-related HR
between the percentage of women in the TMTs and the practices impacts the likelihood that the CEO would adopt IPV-related
adoption of IPV-related HR practices, such that there will HR practices.
be no effect when the percentage of women in the TMTs is The above discussion suggests that the CEO gender effect on
below the critical mass threshold and above the critical the adoption of IPV-related HR practices hypothesized earlier is
mass plateau, and a positive relationship when the per- likely to be weaker when women are in a token position. In con-
centage of women in the TMTs is between the critical mass trast, the presence of a critical mass of women in the TMTs will
threshold and critical mass plateau. likely provide female CEOs with important resources and support to
overcome constraints stemming from their token status
(Kanter, 1977) and to successfully advance their goal to support
1.3 | The moderating role of gender representation employees affected by IPV. In this way, the positive relationship
in TMTs on the CEO gender effect between female CEOs and organizations' adoption of IPV-related
HR practices will become stronger as more women are represented
Simsek et al.'s (2017) review of CEO-TMT interface research reported in the TMTs. As theorized in Hypothesis 2, there is a diminishing
that TMT links and interacts with CEO in two ways; namely, in a return in appointing another woman in the TMTs on the adoption
sequential and/or reciprocal interdependent manner. The former is of IPV-related HR practices when women representation passes the
when the CEO is dependent on the TMT members, or vice-versa. The critical mass plateau. We, therefore, expect the positive moderating
latter involves mutual interdependencies between the CEO and TMT, role of percentage of women in the TMTs to level off when women
where there are back-and-forth communication and coordination representation reaches the critical mass plateau. Based on these
between the two. For both interfaces, the resources that are theoretical considerations, we propose:
exchanged between the parties include advice, information, psycho-
logical counsel, and task and social support (e.g., Arendt et al., 2005; Hypothesis 3. The percentage of women in the TMTs will
Cao et al., 2009; Lin & Rababah, 2014). Although the type of interface moderate the relationship between CEO gender and the
between the TMT and the CEO may vary across organizations, both adoption of IPV-related HR practices, such that the effect
types of interdependencies enable TMT to exert influence on CEO's of CEO gender on IPV-related HR practices (or the differ-
decisions (e.g., Arendt et al., 2005). Consequently, we will argue below ence between the female CEOs-IPV-related HR practices
that the percentage of women in the TMT would also shape the effect and male CEOs-IPV-related HR practices relationships) will
of having a female CEO on an organization's adoption of IPV-related be stronger between the critical mass threshold and critical
HR practices. mass plateau and there will be no effect of CEO gender
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750 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

when the percentage of women in the TMTs is below the leave, (2) training for supervisors to recognize IPV victims, (3) training
critical mass threshold and above the critical mass plateau. for supervisors to help IPV victims to disclose IPV, (4) counseling for
IPV victims, and (5) flexible work arrangements for IPV victims.
Respondents were asked which of these practices currently exist in
2 | STUDY 1 their organizations (response scale: “yes” or “no”). Following previous
research (Boon et al., 2019), we calculated the total number of HR
2.1 | Method practices adopted in an organization (total number of ‘yes’) and trea-
ted this measure as a quasi-interval scale.
2.1.1 | Sample and procedure

A survey was distributed in 2017 to all members of the Australian 2.2.3 | Control variables
Human Resource Institute (AHRI). AHRI members consist of mainly
HR professionals and some line managers engaged in HR-related To rule out alternative explanations in our findings, we controlled for
responsibilities. Members also consist of some student and academic (the log of) size and type of the organization (public/not-for-profit
members, who are not eligible to participate in the study. Three vs. profit) because female CEOs are more often appointed in smaller,
reminder emails were sent after the initial email invitation. Respon- public, and not-for-profit organizations (Gondhalekar & Dalmia, 2007;
dents completed the survey regarding their organization's adoption of Khan & Vieito, 2013). Type and size of the organization are also related
HR practices to support employees affected by IPV and characteristics to the number of HR practices within an organization (Delaney &
of the organization (i.e., CEO gender and percentage of women in the Huselid, 1996). We also controlled for the size of TMT because TMT
TMT). Data collected from 414 HR professionals from different size affects the degree of influence CEOs and individual TMT members
Australian organizations were used to test H1-H3. We assert that have and is typically accounted for in research involving TMT demo-
these HR professionals are in the best position to complete the survey graphic composition (Post et al., 2022).3 Respondents were asked to
because they were responsible for and/or involved in the implementa- indicate the size of their organization (1 = non-employing/sole proprie-
tion of HR practices in their organizations. The average age of the tor; 2 = small [2–49 employees]; 3 = medium [50–249 employees];
respondents was 44.36 years (SD = 10.55) and most respondents 4 = large [250 and more employees], type of the organization (0 = pub-
were women (79%). In terms of academic qualifications, 21% of the lic/not-for-profit; 1 = for profit), and of TMT in absolute numbers).
respondents have a graduate certificate, 32% have a bachelor's Carlson and Wu (2012), and more recently Sturman, Sturman, and
degree, and 24% have a master's degree or a PhD (1%). Sturman (2022), warned about the improper use of control variables.
Carlson and Wu argued that controls are in general weakly related to
the focal variables and rarely influence the interpretation of study
2.2 | Measures results. Sturman et al. (2022) further found that the use of control var-
iables can increase effect sizes and the probability of inappropriately
2.2.1 | CEO gender and percentage of women detecting statistical significance. Thus, we follow their advice to con-
in TMT duct and report the following analyses with and without control
variables.
Respondents were asked to indicate the gender of their CEO
(1 = female, 0 = male) and the percentage of women in the TMT in
their organization (i.e., [number of female TMT members/total number 2.3 | Data analytic approach
of TMT members] x 100). Of the 414 organizations, 8.7% have no
women in the TMT, and 13% of these organizations have more than Prior studies that have tested a moderating effect on a non-linear
50% women in the TMT. The percentage of women in the TMT is not relationship include Baer and Oldham (2006), Kluger et al. (1994),
normally distributed (Kolmogorov–Smirnov [414] = 0.46, p < 0.01). Janssen (2001) and more recently, Yang et al. (2022). For instance,
The distribution is skewed to the left (i.e., there are more organiza- Janssen examined the role of fairness perceptions on the inverted U
tions with a percentage of women in the TMT between zero and relationship between job demands and job performance. They found
50, and very few organizations with more than 50% women in the the effect of fairness perceptions on performance (or the difference
TMT). Given the non-normal distribution, we centered this variable to between high fairness perceptions-performance and low fairness
2
enhance robustness in further analyses. perceptions-performance relationships) to be strongest at intermedi-
ate levels of job demands. Similarly, Yang et al. studied the cross-level
moderating effect of team task support on the nonlinear relationship
2.2.2 | IPV-related HR practices between employee proactive personality and reflective learning. Fol-
lowing these studies' procedure of hypotheses testing, we mean cen-
After reviewing articles on IPV-related HR practices in academic and tered the dependent and independent variables (Aiken & West, 1991),
professional journals and newspapers and engaging in meetings with we added the controls in model 1, and added the gender of the CEO
the AHRI Board, we selected the following five HR practices: (1) IPV to test H1 in model 2. Next, we added the percentage of women in
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CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 751

TABLE 1 Mean, SD, and correlations among the main study variables (study 1, n = 414)

Variables Mean SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1. IPV-related HR practices 2.29 1.58
2. CEO gender (1 = female; 0 = male) 0.23 0.42 0.14**
3. % women in TMT 37 22 0.12** 0.47**
4. Organization size 3.52 0.69 0.13** 0.24** 0.15**
5. Size TMT 7.07 2.63 0.12** 0.14** 0.17** 0.59**
6. Type of organization (1 = for profit) 0.37 0.48 0.19** 0.30** 0.25** 0.18** 0.09

**p < 0.01;

TMT to control for linear trend and the quadratic effect of the per- in step 2. In support of H1, this coefficient was significant
centage of women in TMT in model 3 to test H2. In model 4, we (β = 0.17, p < 0.01).
added the two and three-way interaction terms (i.e., Gender CEO X For H2, the non-linear effect of the percentage of women in
percentage of women in the TMT and Gender CEO X percentage of TMT—both main effect (β = 0.08, p < 0.01) and the quadratic effect
women in TMT2) to test H3. (β = 0.11, p < 0.01) were significant. We calculated the critical mass
Although the organizations are nested within industries and dif- plateau by computing the first derivative of the main and quadratic
ferences in HR practices adoption between industries can be effect and found the critical mass plateau is 34%. Before this critical
expected (see Study 2), we calculated the intraclass correlation (ICC1; mass plateau, the relationship between the percentage of women in
Bliese, 2000) to understand this influence. The ICC1 did not show that the TMTs is 0.21 (p < 0.01), after the plateau, it is 0.04 (n.s.) support-
the IPV-related HR practices differ across industries (ICC1 = 0.02). ing the hypothesized plateau effect. There is no significant difference
This finding may have been influenced by the high percentage of in the steepness between the organizations with a percentage of
respondents who selected “other industry” (40%).4 Therefore, the women in the TMTs below the critical mass threshold/token position
data were analyzed using ordinary linear regression (OLR). (β = 0.22, p < 0.01) and the ones with a percentage of women in the
TMTs between the critical mass threshold and the critical mass pla-
teau (β = 0.19, p < 0.01; t = 0.5, n.s.). Thus, H2 is partially supported
2.4 | Results in that there is a significant non-linear effect but rather than having
no effect, organizations with percentages of women below the critical
2.4.1 | Descriptive statistics and zero-order mass threshold are positively associated with IPV-related HR practices
correlations adoption.
To test H3, which proposes a moderating influence of the non-
Table 1 shows that organizations have, on average, 2.29 IPV-related linear effect of the percentage of women in TMT on the relationship
HR practices (SD = 1.58) in place out of the five practices we provided. between CEO gender and IPV-related HR practices, we entered the
The most common IPV-related HR practices include counseling (70%), two-way (CEO gender x percentage of women in TMT) and three
flexible work arrangements (65%), and leave for IPV victims (53%). Few way-interaction (CEO gender x quadratic effect of percentage of
organizations have in place practices to train their supervisors on how women in TMT) terms in step 4. In support of H3, this interaction is
to recognize IPV victims (18%) and how to help victims disclose IPV significant (β = 0.05, p < 0.01). Figure 1 displays the nature of the
(15%). The correlation table shows a positive relationship between the interactive effect in the first part of the non-linear relationship up
percentage of women in TMT and IPV-related HR practices (r = 0.12, until when there are 50% women and men in TMT. The figure shows
p < 0.01). For organizations led by female CEOs, there are more IPV- that the CEO gender effect (or the differential impact of CEO gender)
related HR practices (r = 0.14, p < 0.01). IPV-related HR practices are on IPV-related HR practices becomes stronger before and plateaus
also more common in larger organizations (r = 0.13, p < 0.01), organiza- after the critical mass plateau. Indeed, the data show that the positive
tions with more TMT members (r = 0.12, p < 0.01) and not-for-profit relationship between female CEO and IPV-related HR practices
organizations (r = 0.19, p < 0.01). As expected, organization size is before the critical mass threshold is significantly stronger (simple
moderately correlated with size of the TMT (r = 0.59, p < 0.01). slope = 0.29, p < 0.01; t = 2.01, p < 0.05) compared to the relation-
ship between male CEO and IPV-related HR practices (simple
slope = 0.10, p < 0.05). We also analyzed the steepness between the
2.4.2 | Hypotheses testing organizations with the percentage of women in the TMTs below the
critical mass threshold, for female and male CEOs separately
Table 2 shows the standardized coefficients of the regression ana- (β = 0.20, p < 0.01 for females and β = 0.12, p < 0.05 for males) and
lyses. To test H1, organizations led by a female CEO tend to adopt the ones with the percentage of women in their TMTs between the
more IPV-related HR practices—the effect of CEO gender was added critical mass threshold and the critical mass plateau (β = 0.18,
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752 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

TABLE 2 Summary of results of regression analysis with IPV-related HR practices as dependent variable (study 1; n = 414)

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 (without controls)


Organization size 0.04** 0.04** 0.04** 0.04**
Size of TMT 0.04* 0.04* 0.04* 0.04*
Type of organization 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Gender CEO (1 = female; 0 = male; H1) 0.17** 0.17** 0.17** 0.21**
% women TMT 0.08** 0.08** 0.09**
% women TMT2 (H2) 0.11** 0.11** 0.10*
Gender CEO x % women TMT 0.02 0.01
Gender CEO x % women in TMT2 (H3) 0.05* 0.04*
Explained variance 0.07 0.11 0.18 0.21 0.12

**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

3.5
IPV
3
related
HR 2.5
Practices
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

female CEO male CEO

FIGURE 1 Non-linear effect of the percentage of women in TMT and CEO gender on the adoption of IPV-related HR practices (study 1)

p < 0.01 for females and β = 0.11, p < 0.05 for males). These differ- In step 5, we present the results without control variables. The
ences are not significant for females (t = 0.4, n.s.) and males (t = 0.2, results are largely consistent with those with controls. They also sup-
n.s.). port our hypotheses in the same way.
We calculate the critical mass plateau for organizations led by
female versus male CEOs. For female CEOs who are already more
likely to support equity-related practices according to social role the- 2.5 | Study 1 discussion
ory (e.g., Cook & Glass, 2016), fewer women in TMTs will be needed
to form a critical mass to shift the dial in terms of IPV-related HR In Study 1, we found general support for the three hypotheses. These
practices. For organizations led by male CEOs, in contrast, the adop- results suggest that organizations led by a female CEO are more likely
tion of IPV-related HR practices will be less prevalent according to to have IPV-related HR practices in place than those led by a male
social role theory and more women in TMTs will be required to create CEO, supporting social role theory. There is also partial support for
a critical mass to change the male CEOs' minds to move the needle. the critical mass perspective in that we found a nonlinear relationship
Thus, we expect that the former plateau to be lower than that of the between women's representation in the TMTs and organizations’
latter. As expected, this analysis shows that organizations led by a adoption of IPV-related HR practices. That is, the more female mem-
female CEO have a lower critical mass plateau (i.e., 0.32 or 32% bers a TMT has, the more IPV-related HR practices are adopted. This
women in the TMT) than that of organizations led by a male CEO positive relationship plateaus when female members reach the critical
(i.e., 0.38 or 37.5% of women in the TMT).5 mass plateau of 34% in TMT. Furthermore, the CEO gender effect
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CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 753

strengthens below and levels off beyond the critical mass plateau. (9%), financial and insurance services (9%), retail (8%), electricity, gas,
We found that organizations led by a female CEO have a lower pla- water, and waste services (8%), administrative and support services
teau (32%) than those led by a male CEO (38%). (5%), mining (5%), agriculture, forestry, and fishing (4%), arts and rec-
Although Study 1 provided empirical support for our hypotheses, reation services (4%), and transport, postal, and warehousing (4%)
the major limitations of this study are that we utilized a cross- industries.
sectional research design and self-report data. Wright et al. (2005)
argued that although numerous HR studies have shown a positive
effect of HR practices on firm performance (e.g., Guthrie, 2001), this 3.2 | Measures
research often lacks sufficient methodological rigor to claim causality
for this relationship. Drawing on Cook and Campbell (1976), Wright 3.2.1 | CEO gender and percentage of women
and his colleagues argued that causality can only be inferred when in the TMT
(a) the cause and effect are correlated, (b) the cause occurs before the
effect, and (c) the relationship between the cause and effect is not This information was collected from the 2015–2016 WGEA dataset.
spurious, in that there are no other explanations for the existence of Organizations were asked to indicate the gender of their CEO
the cause-and-effect association. Cross-sectional survey research, (1 = female; 0 = male) and the percentage of women in the TMT
therefore, can never claim that HR practices causally influenced per- within their organization. In this dataset, while 18% of the organiza-
formance, or in our case that CEO gender and the percentage of tions have no women in the TMT, eight percent of the organizations
women in TMT cause the adoption of IPV-related HR practices. More- have more than 50% women in the TMT. Similar to Study 1, the per-
over, we cannot claim that the Study 1 results showed the adoption centage of women in TMT is not normally distributed (Kolmogorov–
of IPV-related HR practices caused CEO gender or the percentage of Smirnov [4148] = 0.36, p < 0.01) and is skewed to the left (i.e., there
women in the TMT. We, therefore, conducted Study 2 to address are more organizations with a percentage of women in the TMT
these limitations. between zero and 50, and very few organizations with more than
Study 2 aims to replicate Study 1 results and provide evidence for 50% women in the TMT). Consistent with Study 1, we centered this
stronger causal inferences by analyzing two waves of data (2015– variable so that it is more robust for further analyses.7
2016 and 2016–2017) from the Workplace Gender Equality Agency
(WGEA). We also aim to constructively replicate the Study 1 findings
by using a different operationalization of IPV-related HR practices. 3.2.2 | IPV-related HR practices
Lindsay and Ehrenberg (1993) highlighted that the cumulative effect
of replication is vital to generalization such that findings not subjected The dataset for the two waves contains 14 “support mechanisms that
to replication are “virtually meaningless and useless” (p. 219). Along organizations have in place to support employees who are experienc-
similar lines, the converging results between two operationalizations ing family or domestic violence” (see Appendix A). Respondents were
can further bolster our claim that our study findings are robust and asked to indicate whether they have each of the 14 HR practices in
not due to methodological artifacts (Bouchard, 1976). place to support employees who are experiencing family or domestic
violence (“yes” or “no”). The items were targeted to support
employees affected by IPV. As with Study 1, we counted the number
3 | STUDY 2 of practices an organization has in place (Boon et al., 2019).

3.1 | Method
3.2.3 | Control variables
3.1.1 | Data
As with Study 1, we controlled for the size of the organization (log)
Under the Workplace Gender Equality Act 2012, employers are and the size of TMT in Study 2. However, we did not control for the
required to complete and submit an annual report covering standard- type of organization because the WGEA data consist only of non-
ized reporting matters to the WGEA. The WGEA dataset contains public sector organizations.
information related to gender equality issues from non-public sector To strengthen our causal claims, one of the methods Wright et al.
organizations with 100 or more employees in Australia. The 2015– (2005) suggested is to collect data for the dependent variable over
2016 WGEA dataset contains 4697 organizations, while the 2016– time. In this way, one can “explore the relative relationships between
2017 dataset contains 4621 organizations.6 The combined dataset our focal variables [i.e., CEO gender and percentage of women in the
contains 4189 organizations, with an average of 876 employees TMT] and the performance variables [i.e., IPV-related HR practices]
(SD = 3579). Thirteen percent of the organizations are in healthcare assessed prior to, concurrent with, and following the assessment of
and social assistance, 12% in manufacturing, 10% in education and these focal variables” (p. 421). Our dataset allowed us to control for
training, and 10% in professional, scientific, and technical services IPV-related HR practices (2015–2016), which is prior to the period of
industries. The remaining are in accommodation and food services our study. In using this method, our confidence in the hypothesized
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754 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

effect of CEO gender and percentage of women in TMT (assessed in 3.4 | Results
2015–2016) on the adoption of IPV-related HR practices (2016–
2017) increases (Wright et al., 2005). This evidence, however, does 3.4.1 | Descriptive statistics and zero-order
not necessarily prove that there is no reverse causality. correlations
As with Study 1, we report the results of our analyses with and
without controls (Carlson & Wu, 2012; Sturman et al., 2022). In Table 3, we reported means, standard deviations, and zero-order
correlations among the study variables. There is a positive relation-
ship between HR practices in wave 1 (2015–2016) and in wave
3.3 | Data analytic approach 2 (2016–2017): r = 0.58, p < 0.01. Mirroring the Study 1 findings,
organizational size and size of the TMT were positively related to
We followed the same approach as Study 1 to test H1–H3. Since the adoption of IPV-related HR practices (r = 0.14, p < 0.01;
organizations are nested in industries (ICC1 = 0.09; Bliese, 2000) and r = 0.13, p < 0.01). Female CEOs (2015–2016) are more likely to
the percentage of women in the industry is a higher order construct adopt IPV-related HR practices (2016–2017; r = 0.14, p < 0.01).
(Snijders & Bosker, 1994), we analyzed the data using hierarchical lin- Percentage of women in TMTs (r = 0.06, p < 0.05) in 2015–2016
ear modeling (HLM) with industry at the higher level and organizations were related to the adoption of IPV-related HR practices in
at the lower level. 2016–2017.
The model fit for multi-level models is calculated in SPSS, mixed
models using the 2 log likelihood, and four information criteria,
including the Akaike's Information Criteria. These statistics follow the 3.4.2 | Hypotheses testing
“small-is-better” interpretation, meaning that the model with the
smaller value is the one with the better overall fit (see Bickel, 2007, Table 4 reports the HLM results. To test H1, the effect of CEO
p. 93). This means that by adding more variables (and interaction gender was added in step 3. In support of H1, this coefficient was
terms), the model fit becomes better in every model (see also significant (β = 0.14, p < 0.01). To test H2, the non-linear effect of
Cavanaugh, 2005). To determine whether the model fit is significantly the percentage of women in TMT, we added the main effect and
better than the previous model, the deviance difference between the quadratic effect of the percentage of women in TMT in step 3. Both
two models can be calculated with the degrees of freedom as the the linear (β = 0.07, p < 0.01) and the non-linear effect (quadratic:
additional variables in the model. The deviance difference is distrib- β = 0.09, p < 0.01) were significant thereby supporting H2. We
uted (approximately) in a similar manner as a Chi-Square distribution calculated the critical mass plateau by computing the first derivative
(Bickel, p. 94). The deviance in the model fit for model 1 is χ2(2) = 934 of the main and quadratic effect and the plateau is 33%. The simple
and is calculated by subtracting the model fit for model 1 (i.e., 11,941) slopes analyses show that before this critical mass plateau, the rela-
from that of the empty model (i.e., model without any variable, tionship between the percentage of women in the TMT is 0.24
12,874). The deviance in the model fit of model 5 (i.e., the model with- (p < 0.01), and after the plateau, it is 0.02 (n.s.) supporting the
out the controls) is calculated in relation to the empty model hypothesized plateau effect. There is no significant difference in the
(i.e., χ2[5] = 6372; 12,874–6502). steepness between the organizations with percentages of women
Unlike a linear regression model, the explained variance of a below the critical mass threshold (token position: 0.24, p < 0.01;
multi-level model needs to be calculated by hand for each step (see t = 0.2, n.s.) and the ones with percentages of women between the
for instance Bickel, 2007, p. 132). The explained variance (R2) for critical mass threshold and plateau (0.25, p < 0.01). Thus, H2 is par-
model 1 is calculated by the following formula (Bickel, p. 133): tially supported in that the non-linear effect is significant, but rather
than having no effect, organizations with percentages of women
1 – ðVariance organizational level Model 1 below the critical mass threshold are positively associated with IPV-
2 þ Variance industry level Model 1= related HR practices adoption.
R ¼
Variance organizational level Empty Model To test H3 (i.e., the moderation of the non-linear effect of
þ Variance industry level Empty ModelÞ 100
percentage of women in TMT on the CEO gender effect), we
entered the relevant two way- and three way-interaction (CEO
The variance of the empty model (i.e., the model without any vari- gender x quadratic effect of percentage of women in TMT) terms
ables) is 0.05 for the organizational level, and 0.95 for the industry in step 4 (see Study 1). In support of H3, this interaction is signifi-
level. This means that the explained variance for model 1 is as follows: cant (β = 0.05, p < 0.01). Figure 2 displays the nature of the
interactive effect before there are 50% women and men in the
R2 ¼ 1 – ð:03 þ :69=:05 þ :95Þ 100 ¼ 1 – :72 100 ¼ 28% TMT. The CEO gender effect (or the differential impact of CEO
gender) on IPV-related HR practices becomes stronger before the
The same formula is used to calculate the explained variances for the critical mass plateau and levels off after the plateau. Indeed, the
other models. relationship between female CEO and IPV-related HR practices
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CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 755

TABLE 3 Mean, SD, and correlations among the main study variables (study 2, n = 4189)

Variables Mean SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. IPV-related HR practices 0.27 0.22
2. CEO gender (1 = female; 0 = male) 0.14 0.20 0.14**
3. % women in TMT 31 47 0.06* 0.19**
4. Organization size 876 3579 0.14** 0.03 0.02
5. Size TMT 8.44 2.65 0.13** 0.10* 0.09* 0.55**
6. IPV related HR practices 2015–2016 0.22 0.20 0.58** 0.13** 0.05** 0.14** 0.14**
7. % women in the organization 47 24 0.05* 0.51** 0.18* 0.02 0.04 0.04*
8. % women in the industry 30 30 0.10** 0.29** 0.23** 0.01 0.08 0.09* 0.25**

**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

TABLE 4 Summary of results of HLM analysis with IPV-related HR practices 2016–2017 as dependent variable (study 2; n = 4148)

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 (without controls)


Organization size 0.04** 0.04** 0.04** 0.04**
Size of TMT 0.03* 0.03* 0.03* 0.03*
IPV-related HR practices (2015–2016) 0.58** 0.58** 0.58** 0.58**
Gender CEO (1 = female; 0 = male; H1) 0.14** 0.14** 0.14** 0.25**
% women TMT 0.07** 0.07** 0.15**
% women TMT (H2) 2
0.09** 0.09** 0.11*
Gender CEO x % women TMT 0.01 0.04
Gender CEO x % women in TMT2 (H3) 0.05* 0.07*
Model fit 11,941 9942 7524 5917 6502
Deviance in model fit χ2(2) = 934** χ2(1) = 1999** χ2(2) = 2418** χ2(2) = 1607** χ2(5) = 6372**
Variance
Variance at the organizational level 0.05* 0.01* 0.01* 0.01* 0.02*
Variance at the industry level 0.95** 0.60** 0.59** 0.57** 0.61**
Explained variance 0.28 0.39 0.40 0.42 0.37

**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

before the critical mass plateau is stronger (simple slope = 0.33, 3.4.3 | Robustness checks
p < 0.01; t = 3.47, p < 0.01) in comparison to the relationship
between male CEO and IPV-related HR practices (simple Percentage of women in the organization and percentage of women
slope = 0.11, p < 0.05). We also analyzed the steepness between in the industry
the organizations with a percentage of women in the TMTs below In this robustness check, we controlled for the percentage of women
the critical mass threshold, for female and male CEOs separately in the organization and the percentage of women in the industry
(β = 0.32, p < 0.01 for females and β = 0.12, p < 0.05 for males) because these percentages can explain the gender of the CEO, the
and the ones with a percentage of women in their TMTs between percentage of women in the TMTs, and the adoption of IPV-related
the critical mass threshold and the critical mass plateau (β = 0.33, HR practices. The presence of larger percentages of women in both
p < 0.01 for females and β = 0.10, p < 0.05 for males). These dif- the organization and the industry will likely be related to more female
ferences are not significant for both females (t = 0.07, n.s.) and CEOs and a higher percentage of women in the TMTs (e.g., Cook &
males (t = 0.02, n.s.). Glass, 2014). The presence of more women in the organization and
As expected and consistent with Study 1, organizations led by a the industry will also likely translate into a stronger need for IPV-
female CEO have a lower critical mass plateau of 0.32 (i.e., 32% related HR practices (cf. Shi et al., 2017).
women in the TMT) than that of organizations led by a male CEO The percentage of women in the organization was already avail-
(i.e., 0.35 or 35% of women in the TMT). able in the WGEA data set. The percentage of women in the industry
In step 5, we conducted the same analysis without controls. The was collected from the Australian Bureau for Statistics (ABS, 2015;
results are largely consistent with the results with controls and sup- 2016) and matched with WGEA industry data for each organization,
port our hypotheses in the same way.8 and subsequently added to the Study 2 WGEA dataset. The ABS
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756 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

IPV-
related
HR 7
Practices
6

1
female CEO male CEO
0
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

FIGURE 2 Non-linear effect of the percentage women in TMT and CEO gender on the adoption of IPV-related HR practices (study 2)

provides the percentage of workers of 19 industries by gender. robustness check analyses, the three hypotheses were supported
Women made up 45.6% of the total workforce and men comprised similarly.9
54.4%. The percentages of female workers varied across the indus-
tries. For instance, healthcare and social assistance have 79% female
employees, while financial and insurance services and construction 4 | GENERAL DISCUSSION
have 48.1% and 12% female employees, respectively.
The descriptive statistics and correlations for the percentage of Intimate partner violence is not only a societal problem, it also nega-
women in the organization and the percentage of women in the tively impacts organizations and their employees (e.g., Duffy
industry are reported in Table 3. While both variables are significantly et al., 2004). Organizations can and should ameliorate the situation by
related to the gender of CEO (r = 0.51, p < 0.01; r = 0.29, p < 0.01, adopting, for instance, HR practices to support employees affected by
respectively), the percentage of women in the TMT (r = 0.18, IPV (Tolentino et al., 2016; cf. de Jonge, 2018; Wilcox et al., 2021).
p < 0.05; r = 0.23, p < 0.01, respectively), and the adoption of IPV- Indeed, a recent meta-analysis showed that there are benefits to such
related HR practices (r = 0.05, p < 0.05; r = 0.10, p < 0.01, respec- workplace interventions, including supervisors' and allies' increased
tively), controlling for the percentages of women in the organization knowledge in recognizing IPV, willingness to intervene, and likelihood
and in industry had no effect on the effect sizes of the focal variables. to provide resources to those affected by IPV and to take a leadership
As such, this did not change the support of our hypotheses. role in stopping IPV (Adhia et al., 2019). Despite the potency of HR
practices in combating the negative effects of IPV, there is limited
Comparison of IPV-related HR practices between study 1 and research on why organizations vary in the extent to which they adopt
study 2 IPV-related HR practices (e.g., SHRM, 2013). To better address this
The content (and the number) of IPV-related HR practices items in the question, we conducted two studies using a survey and two waves of
WGEA dataset are somewhat different from the content (and the archival data from Australian organizations. Drawing on research
number) of IPV-related HR practices items in Study 1. A direct and showing the important role women leaders play in supporting socially
stringent comparison of the results from the two studies is thus diffi- responsible practices (e.g., Glass & Cook, 2018), we examined the
cult to make. As another robustness check, we, therefore, compared influence of women's representation in leadership positions on the
the two lists of items and reanalyzed the Study 2 data with only the likelihood of organizations adopting IPV-related HR practices.
items that overlap with the HR function themes that were covered by Three main findings were consistent across the two studies. First,
Study 1 items: (1) paid and unpaid domestic violence leave (equivalent organizations led by female CEOs are more likely to adopt IPV-related
to IPV leave in Study 1), (2) training for key personnel (i.e., training for HR practices than organizations led by male CEOs. Second, the per-
supervisors to recognize IPV victims and to help IPV victims to dis- centage of women in the TMTs is positively associated with the adop-
close IPV in Study 1), (3) Employee Assistance Program tion of IPV-related HR practices. However, this positive relationship
(i.e., counseling for IPV victims in Study 1), and (4) flexible working levels off when women's representation in the TMT reaches a critical
arrangements. While the effect sizes differ between the main and this mass plateau (i.e., the average of Studies 1 and 2: 33.5%), beyond
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CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 757

which more women in TMTs have no additional statistical impact on IPV-related HR practices even when their numerical representation is
our dependent measures. Third, this non-linear effect moderates the below the critical mass threshold. This suggests the negative dynamics
CEO gender effect such that the latter strengthens below and levels usually experienced by token women may not be experienced by our
off after the critical mass plateau has been reached. Organizations led groups of women. The arguments forwarded in token theory focus on
by female CEOs have a lower plateau (average of Studies 1 and 2: group proportions (e.g., dominant vs. token; minority vs. majority;
32%) than those led by male CEOs (36.3%), which suggests that fewer Kanter, 1977), without consideration of contextual and social factors,
women in the TMTs are needed to shift the dial when an organization such as the relative status of the social groups in which tokens and
is led by a female CEO. dominants belong (e.g., male vs. female) and the extent to which orga-
nizations value egalitarianism (e.g., Yoder, 1991; Zimmer, 1988). Our
samples of high-status women are influential individuals (without
4.1 | Theoretical and practical implications evoking gender identities). Recent empirical studies have shown that
token women who are of high status are still able to exert their influ-
Our findings have implications for theory and practice. First, by focus- ence in both work and political domains (e.g., Bratton, 2005; Cook &
ing on organizational responses to IPV, our research reveals that the Glass, 2017; Elstad & Ladegard, 2012). This may be so because high-
influence of CEO gender and gender representation in TMTs on DEI status female board directors have been found to be less conforming
practices is more complex than originally theorized and demonstrated and traditional and more risk-loving than both high-status male board
in previous research. Prior research generally shows that female CEOs directors and the general population of women (Adams &
and the percentage of women on boards are positively related to the Funk, 2012). Moreover, McDonald et al. (2004) found that when
adoption of DEI policies and practices, such as LGBT-friendly policies increasing the status (via education) of female tokens, the negative
and employee benefits addressing work-family concerns (e.g., Cook & expectations associated with tokenism decreased. Our research sug-
Glass, 2016; Glass & Cook, 2018). Integrating social role theory and gests that when considering token dynamics, scholars should consider
the critical mass perspective, our theorizing extends this research by the extent to which such dynamics apply to and how they may mani-
empirically demonstrating that having both female CEOs and women fest in their research contexts.
on the TMTs matter until the critical mass plateau of 33.5% (average Third, there is some evidence in our data that suggest that the
from Studies 1 and 2) is reached, beyond that, a greater percentage of findings for IPV-related HR practices may generalize to the adoption
women in TMTs does not add statistically significant influence on the of other DEI practices that are more consistent with the female, rather
adoption of IPV-related HR practices. Our research provides novel than male, gender role (e.g., care for all employees and stakeholders
insights to the literature on the effect of gender diversity on organiza- versus maximizing self- and shareholders' interests). For example,
tions' strategy in that the benefits of having more women in leader- Study 1 findings show that organizations' adoption of IPV-related HR
ship positions may not be perfectly linear as previous research implies practices is associated with that of anti-bullying policy, inclusion and
(e.g., Abebe & Dadanlar, 2019; Cook & Glass, 2017; Glass & diversity practices, mentoring programs, and mental health issue prac-
Cook, 2018; Konrad et al., 2008). tices. However, in considering how our research expands existing
Of note, our research findings do not in any way imply that orga- research on female leaders and adoption of DEI practices, it is useful
nizations should refrain from recruiting more than 33.5% women on to recognize there are two distinct types of DEI programs in organiza-
their TMTs. Rather, our findings suggest that strategic decisions may tions. The identity-conscious programs target specific identity groups
no longer be driven as much by homophily processes (within social (e.g., preferential hiring or “special measures” in the Australian
demographic groups in which leaders belong) after women have context—positions identified for women or for Aboriginal and Torres
reached the critical mass plateau. After the plateau, strategic decisions Strait Islander people), while the identity-blind type does not target
may be based more on other factors and processes, such as leaders' any specific groups (e.g., Equal Employment Opportunity practices,
individual characteristics and vision for the organization, as well as the flexible work practices available to all; Konrad & Linnehan, 1995). We
stronger interdependence and mutual support between women and view IPV-related HR practices as situated very closely to identity-
men as their relationship stabilizes (cf. Allmendinger & blind DEI programs because employees belonging to any identity
Hackman, 1995). Striving to have an equal number of women and groups can be victimized by IPV (e.g., Deen et al., 2022). Given that
men (and other social groups) in the TMTs to bring in diverse perspec- past research on the role of female leaders on DEI-related organiza-
tives to enhance organizational outcomes is still of significance tional outcomes has mainly focused on identity-conscious issues and
(e.g., van Knippenberg et al., 2004). The two studies presented build practices, such as those supporting LGBTQI, women, and ethnic
on and complement each other. They allow us not only to establish minorities (e.g., Abebe & Dadanlar, 2019; Ali & Konrad, 2017; Cook &
the validity of our theorizing but also to illustrate the criticality of hav- Glass, 2016), our research adds nuance to this literature by demon-
ing women in positions of decision-making power. strating female leaders also promote identity-blind practices that go
Second, our findings contribute to research that reveals the beyond benefiting traditionally marginalized identity groups. Further-
boundary conditions of token theory (e.g., Yoder, 1991). The results more, given the well-documented general lack of support for identity-
of our two studies consistently showed that women are still able to conscious DEI practices by both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries
push forward their agenda and influence their organizations to adopt (e.g., Leslie, 2019), we suspect that organizations may need an extra
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758 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

push by requiring a higher female representation in their TMTs when contextual sensitivity and that this issue should be considered when
it comes to the adoption of such practices. Thus, future research can theorizing and designing empirical research. Therefore, it is possible
compare the influence of female representation in leadership on the that the adoption of IPV-related HR practices is more sensitive to
adoption of different types of DEI programs. these legislative forces than women's representation in leadership,
Finally, our research has important implications for upper eche- such that the former effects take over or serve as alternatives to the
lons theory. This theory posits that the decisions made, and practices latter effects (cf. Dobbin et al., 2011). It is also possible that countries
adopted by organizations are driven by top executives' personalized with a higher level of economic, social, and legislative support for IPV
interpretation of situations, which is in turn is a function of their char- issues may encourage organizations to adopt more innovative and
acteristics (e.g., tenure, age, sex), values, and cognitive frames effective types of IPV practices, such as advance pay or loan options
(Hambrick & Mason, 1984). We contribute to this line of research by to IPV victims and a focus on preventative measures by contributing
introducing a novel dependent variable, the adoption of IPV-related to educational projects on “Respectful Relationships”. Future research
HR practices, as well as by demonstrating that this important HR deci- can therefore attempt to tease apart the relative influence of various
sion can be shaped by gender differences in the social role expecta- high level contextual forces and women representation in leadership
tions of top executives and gender composition of decision-making on the adoption of IPV-related HR practices.10 Future research can
bodies in organizations. We highlight the importance of the TMT- also investigate whether and how gender representation in leadership
CEO interface in upper echelons theory (Simsek et al., 2017). The positions, including CEOs and TMTs in organizations outside of
interaction between the two leadership bodies suggests that the ben- Australia influence the adoption of quantity and “quality” of IPV-
efits of appointing female CEOs on the adoption of IPV-related HR related HR practices.
practices are enhanced by having more women in the TMTs. Second, Study 1 is limited by the self-report and cross-sectional
nature of the data. Because our survey is not a formal reporting
requirement, the HR professionals may have reported incomplete or
4.2 | Limitations and future research out-of-date data about the availability of IPV-related HR practices, as
well as the gender composition of the TMTs in their respective organi-
While the current research advances the literature on gender diversity zations. However, these limitations are mitigated by Study 2. Data
in leadership and equity and inclusion HR practices, our studies have from Study 2 originate from formal organizational reporting that must
some limitations that can be addressed in future research. First, the pass data quality standards to comply with the Workplace Gender
data for the current studies come from public and for-profit firms of Equality Act 2012. We also drew on two years of WGEA data to more
various sizes in Australia. Given that macro-level factors, such as fed- confidently infer that the gender composition of the two bodies of
eral and state laws, public sentiments and political attitudes, media leadership influenced the adoption of IPV-related HR practices
coverage, and gender representation in the industry (Chuang (Wright et al., 2005). Future research can utilize a longitudinal design
et al., 2011; Dobbin et al., 2011; Wald et al., 1996) influence the with at least three time points to infer causality more confidently, as
adoption of DEI policies and practices, the focus on Australian data well as to address complex research questions related to possible
may limit our ability to fully generalize our findings to organizations in change dynamics between gender representation in leadership and
other countries. the adoption of IPV-related practices (cf. Ployhart & Vandenberg,
Consider, for instance, the White Ribbon organization in Australia 2010). For instance, one could test a potential “Matthew effect” in
(https://www.whiteribbon.org.au/), which is a part of a global social which organizations starting with a high representation of women in
movement working to stop gendered violence, has a Workplace the TMTs will adopt more DEI HR practices, including IPV-related
Accreditation Program that supports and recognizes workplaces that ones, which in turn will increase women representation in the TMTs
take steps to respond to and prevent IPV that occurs inside and out- (cf. Gallardo-Gallardo et al., 2013). The same dynamics may apply to
side of work. Furthermore, data for both studies were collected when organizations that begin with low women representation in the TMTs,
two legislative reforms providing stronger employment protections but in a downward spiral.
for IPV victims were under national consideration. The two reforms Third, we did not collect or have data for general HR practices
include the Australian Capital Territory becoming the first state to (e.g., general training, performance management) or bundles of HR
consider those subjected to domestic violence a protected class in practices, such as high-performance work systems (HPWS;
April 2017 and IPV victims' entitlement to five days of unpaid domes- Appelbaum et al., 2000) in the two studies. Therefore, we cannot
tic violence leave per year for all employees was passed nationally in completely rule out the possibility that our findings could be con-
August 2018 (see Roff, 2020 for details of these legislations). More- founded by the extent to which organizations invest in general HR
over, in 2018 Australian courts seemed to begin moving closer to practices. However, we controlled for organization size and type in
holding employers liable for acts of domestic violence at work Study 1 and organization size in Study 2. These two variables may
(Guthrie & Babic, 2021). These legislative forces hold organizations influence how much organizations invest in their general HR practices.
more accountable and therefore can have significant implications on The fact that controlling for these variables did not change the pattern
how IPV victims are treated and supported in the workplace. Indeed, of our results gives us additional confidence that the adoption of
Johns (2017) highlighted that variables and relationships vary in their IPV-related HR practices is not simply a function of how much
1099050x, 2023, 5, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hrm.22157 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [05/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL. 759

resources organizations devote to HR practices but reflects gender using communication channels to engage in acts of aggression while
dynamics at the decision-making levels of organizations. their partners are at work. Moreover, most IPV victims and perpetra-
Fourth, although we drew on social role theory to understand tors are in paid employment (McFerran, 2011). We thus contend that
gender differences and the adoption of IPV-related HR practices, we IPV is a critical issue that organizational scholars must attend to. In
acknowledge that gender differences can also be explained through light of the increased reports of IPV associated with COVID-19 lock-
other theoretical lenses, including gender belief system model downs and in response to the #MeToo movement, whereby
(Deaux & Kite, 1987), gender schema theory (Bem, 1981), cognitive bystanders and hopefully IPV victims are more likely to speak up, our
social learning theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999), evolutionary psy- research calls for management scholars and HR practitioners to seize
chology (Buss, 1995), and the interactionist perspective (i.e., an inter- this moment and investigate how organizations can better support
play between biological mechanisms and social-cultural influences; their employees impacted by IPV.
e.g., Eagly & Wood, 2013). Future research may draw upon these the-
oretical lenses to further explain how gender differences shape ACKNOWLEDG MENTS
leaders' strategic decisions to adopt certain HR practices. We acknowledge Anne O'Leary-Kelly for her helpful comments in an
Fifth, the current research did not measure the processes through earlier version of the manuscript. Open access publishing facilitated
which gender representation in leadership positions is associated with by University of New South Wales, as part of the Wiley - University
the adoption of IPV-related HR practices. That is, we were unable to of New South Wales agreement via the Council of Australian Univer-
measure the proposed team dynamics, including homophily that sity Librarians.
shapes the non-linear relationship between the percentage of women
in the TMTs and IPV-related HR practices. As recommended by Kulik DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
and Metz (2017), scholars can contribute to the gender diversity liter- The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
ature by disentangling the mediating mechanisms that explain the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
relationship between gender diversity in leadership positions and
organizational outcomes. Future research can draw on qualitative OR CID
methodology, including interviews with CEOs and TMT members and Suzanne Chan-Serafin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6242-3901
participant observation of TMT meetings, to further provide in-depth Karin Sanders https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0385-1690
insights into the proposed processes. Lu Wang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4531-7912
Finally, our research focuses on the effect of gender representa- Simon Lloyd D. Restubog https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1602-2530
tion in leadership on IPV-related HR practices and social roles. Yet,
extant research suggests that other social attributes, including ethnic- ENDNOTES
1
ity, religiosity, and social economic status may also impact individuals' Research on what constitutes this critical mass threshold varies. Dah-
attitudes, decisions, and behaviors within organizations (e.g., Chan- lerup (2006) and Kanter (1977) theorized that the critical mass thresh-
old is 30% or 35% in the political arena and 15% in the workplace,
Serafin et al., 2013). In this respect, intersectionality may also matter
respectively. Empirical research has shown that the critical mass is
as the experiences of white heterosexual women and men are likely between 9% and 30% depending on the dependent variables in ques-
to be very different from those of women and men of color from the tion (e.g., Biswas et al., 2021; Cohen et al., 1998; Heilman, 1980;
LGBTQI community (e.g., García Johnson & Otto, 2019). Moreover, Knouse & Dansby, 1999; Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2002). Other
researchers conceptualized the critical mass threshold as the number of
gender is socially constructed and can be experienced and expressed
women rather than a percentage and the consensus for this is three
in nuanced and complex manners (West & Zimmerman, 1987). Yet, women in the context of Board of Directors (equivalent to 25% to 33%
our measure of gender, which comes from third-party reports as Boards often comprise of 9–12 members; Cook & Glass, 2017;
(i.e., survey and WGEA data), may overlook these complex issues, Konrad et al., 2008; Torchia et al., 2011). Accordingly, the critical mass
such as an individual's psychological androgyny (Bem, 1974). Future threshold is likely to range between 9% to about 30–35%.
2
researchers can theorize and analyze the intersections of gender and The histogram of the percentage of women in TMT variable can be
requested from the corresponding author.
other social categories, such as ethnicity and sexual orientation, as
3
We also controlled for Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) organization,
well as consider the fluidity of leaders’ gender on the adoption of HR
age, and education level of the CEO, as well as gender, age, and educa-
practices to support employees affected by IPV. tion level of the respondent. They were later excluded from the analyses
and tables because they were not significantly related to the variables of
interest and did not exert any influence on the study results.

5 | C O N CL U S I O N 4
Unfortunately, information for the 40% “other industry” is not available
in our dataset.
5
Some practitioners and academics argue that IPV should be treated For a male CEO, the critical mass plateau of 37.5% was assessed by
calculating the first derivative of the main and quadratic effect (0.09x–
exclusively as a domestic concern because they see it as a private
0.24x2). For a female CEO, the critical mass plateau is 0.32 (first deriva-
family matter, outside the purview of organizations (O'Leary-Kelly tive of 0.11x–0.34x2).
et al., 2008). However, IPV can occur within the confines of organiza- 6
The format of this report includes a workplace profile and a reporting
tions in the form of perpetrators physically entering the workplace or questionnaire (see Act 2012, 2016–2017 Indicative format, p. 3).
1099050x, 2023, 5, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hrm.22157 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [05/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
760 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

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764 CHAN-SERAFIN ET AL.

APP E NDIX A: MEAN AND SD OF IPV-RELATED HR PRACTICES (STUDY 2)

2015–2016 (n = 4621; α = 0.85) 2016–2017 (n = 4697; α = 0.84)

HR practices to support employees affected by IPVa Mean SD Mean SD


1. Access to paid domestic violence leave 0.07 0.19 0.10 0.23
2. Access to unpaid leave 0.26 0.28 0.34 0.29
3. Employee Assistance Program (EAP)/access to 0.66 0.47 0.73 0.45
psychologist, chaplain, or counselor
4. Training of key personnel 0.11 0.31 0.14 0.35
5. Domestic violence clause in enterprise/workplace 0.07 0.25 0.10 0.31
agreement
6. Workplace safety planninga 0.08 0.28 0.14 0.34
7. Confidentiality of matters disclosed 0.41 0.49 0.54 0.50
8. Flexible working arrangements 0.49 0.50 0.61 0.49
9. Provision of financial support (e.g., advanced 0.11 0.32 0.16 0.40
pay/bonus payment)
10. Emergency accommodation assistance 0.04 0.20 0.06 0.24
11. Access to medical services (e.g., doctor/nurse) 0.10 0.30 0.15 0.35
12. Protection from any adverse action or discrimination 0.21 0.41 0.29 0.45
based on the disclosure of domestic violence
13. Offer change of office location 0.14 0.34 0.20 0.40
14. Referral of employee to appropriate domestic violence 0.27 0.44 0.35 0.48
support services for expert advice

a
The HR practices items were all targeted to support employees affected by IPV. The question stem for each item is: “Do you have any support
mechanisms in place to support employees who are experiencing family or domestic violence?”
b
See example here: https://humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/Annex%20B%20safety_planning.pdf.

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