IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

 It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the research.

 It gives the research insight into what has already been done in selected field,
pinpointing the strengths and weaknesses.
 It enables the researcher to know the kind of additional data needed in the study.
 An understanding of previous work helps the researcher to develop a significant
problem which will provide further knowledge in the field of study.
 Wide reading exposes the researcher to a variety of approaches of dealing with the
research issues.
 It helps in developing an analytic framework or a basis for analysing and interpreting
data

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE LITERATURE REVIEW

 It is critical, organised and analytical in orientation.

 It justifies the need for the study.
 It highlights the relationship between the past and the current study.
 It puts the research problem into perspective.

GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING AN EFFECTIVE LITERATURE REVIEW

 Identify key issues to be addressed by the literature review.

 Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem.
 Identify sources of information
 Analyse critically the articles identified
 Synthesise the information gathered

CHALLENGES FACED IN THE FORMULATION OF THE LITERATURE

REVIEW.

 Large quantities of studies to review

 Failure to connect the reviewed studies with current study.
 Poor presentation
  Lack of documentation
 Lack of referencing
 Failure to review current studies

RESPONDENTS

These are individuals who will to the research instruments.

QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE RESPONDENTS’ SELECTION

 Respondents should be knowledgeable about the research topic being studied

 They should be wiling to share information about they have in relation to the research
topic.
 They should be active participants in the culture or organisation of the study
 They should be willing to give time to the study
 A large sample of respondents is better than a small one

CHALLENGES FACED WHEN SELECTING RESPONDENTS

 Unwilling of the respondents to share information with the researcher

 Language barrier
 Hostility towards the researcher
 Time limitation

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Research instruments refer to the tools that the research uses to collect necessary data. The
most common research instruments include: questionnaires, interview schedules, observation
and focus group discussion.

In formulating research instruments, the researcher should ensure the following:

a) The research objectives of the study are clear.

b) Population sample
c) Geographical distribution
d) The kind of question to be asked. Precautions should be taken when asking questions:
  Begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions
 Avoid vague questions e.g., what do you like?
 Keep the language simple
 Limit the questions to a single idea
 Ask questions relevant to the study
 Have a logical sequence
 Put key questions in the middle
 Avoid emotionally charged questions
 Avoid leading questions e.g., do you think students riot because they are unfairly
treated?
 Avoid acronyms and abbreviation
 Vary questions i.e., closed and open-ended questions

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. Simple choice or closed ended questions: This is a type where the respondents are not
free or have no liberty to express their own opinions or ideas or judgements but only pick
from the provided responses.
Yes ______ No _____

2. Multiple choice i.e., which one of these do you consider the best help in learning?
a) Other students
b) Lecturers
c) Text books
d) Others (please specify)
3. Open-ended this type of questions allows the respondent to give free ranging answers.
4. Semantic-scale questions: These are used to indicate (record) how strongly opinions are
held e.g.,
a) Very satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) fairly satisfied
d) not satisfied

QUESTIONNAIRES
It is used when gathering data over a larger sample.

Advantages

 Information can be collected from a large sample and over a diverse region
 Confidentiality is upheld
 Saves on time
 Biasness is reduced

Disadvantages

 Response rate can be quite slow

 There is no opportunity to ask for further information related to the answer given
 No clear reason can be given for incorrect responses

PILOT STUDY

To ensure the questionnaire is effective and efficient, a pre-test or pilot study is conducted in
order to find out if:

 The questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure

 Wording is clear
 The questions are interpreted by the respondents correctly
 If there is any bias

STEPS IN FORMULATING A QUESTIONNAIRE

 Reflection on the on the general objective and specific objectives

 Formulate questions related to each specific objective
 Pilot study
 Evaluation

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE

 It is simple to understand
 Instructions are clearly written
 Questions are focused and limited to a single idea.
 Each item included has a purpose and contributes to the study.
 There are no leading questions
 There is a balance of questions per topic
 INTERVIEWS

These are questions asked orally.

Interview schedule is a written list of questions or topics that need to be covered by the
interview.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

There are three types of interviews:

1. Unstructured interviews
2. Semi-structured interviews
3. Structured interviews

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

This is the type of interviews used where a researcher has some idea in the mind of the topic
to be covered and may use some list just as a reminder – no predefined questions and open.

Advantages

 It is flexible
 No rigidity is displayed, therefore, the respondents feel part of the team.
 It is appropriate for sensitive topics i.e., abortion
Disadvantages
 It is time consuming
 It is not systematic as respondents can comment in a haphazard way.

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Semi-structured Interviews the questions are predetermined and a sequence is followed but
the actual wordings of the questions are not predetermined. An interview guide is used which
is a list of questions to be covered in an interview.

Advantages

 it is flexible because it contains both closed and open-ended questions

 The researchers may follow up issues of interests for in-depth understanding.
Disadvantages
 Open ended questions are time consuming
 Analysis of data maybe problematic
 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Structured interviews have the order questions and the actual wordings of the questions are
predetermined and a sequence is followed.

Advantages

 Reliability of gathered information is high

 It is systematic
 It is time saving
 It allows gathering of quantifiable data
Disadvantages
 Rigidity displayed by the researcher may affect the respondents’ response.
 The researcher may miss the information may have been missed in the interview
guide.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

A focus group is composed of 6 to 8 individuals who share certain characteristics i.e., gender,
profession, education level, age etc. the discussion is carefully planned and designed obtain
information on the participants’ beliefs and perception in order address the objectives of the
research study. The following criteria are used in selecting focus group participants:

 Topics to be discussed are decided beforehand

 There is a predetermine list of open-ended questions.
 Focus group relies on the discussion among the participants about the topic
presented.

OBSERVATION CHECKLIST

This is a tool that provides information about actual behaviour.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

There are three main types of observation:

1. Participant observation: The researcher becomes an active participant in the in the

activity under study.
 2. Unstructured observation: the researcher takes the position of an onlooker. Data is
collected in form of descriptive accounts. Unstructured interviews are important in
understanding behaviour in physical and social context.
3. Structured observation: the researcher takes the position of an onlooker. The focus is
on small number of specific patterns of behaviours and only those appearing on the
predefined observation list are recorded.
DATA COLLECTION
Data collection refers to the gathering of information for to serve or prove some facts.

Purpose of collecting data

In research, data is collected for various purposes. This includes the following;
a) To stimulate new idea. This is because data collection helps in identifying
areas related to the research topic that need improvement of further evaluation.
b) To highlight a situation and therefore create awareness and improvement.
c) To influence legislative policies and regulations.
d) To provide justification for an existing program or illustrate a need for a new
program.
e) It is the only reliable way to evaluate the responsiveness and effectiveness of
the study.
f) It promotes decision making and resource allocation that are based on solid
evidence rather than on isolated occurrences, assumption, emotion, politics
and so on.

SOURCES OF DATA

There are two major sources of data used by researchers. These are the:

1. Primary sources
2. Secondary sources.

PRIMARY SOURCE

Primary data is information gathered directly from respondents. This is through

questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions, observation and experimental studies.
It involves creating new data. Data is collected from existing sources. In an experimental
study, the variable of interest is identified.
Advantages

 Enables the researcher to draw sure conclusions without fear because the data is from
the horse’s mouth.

 Errors tend to be minimal if it is done by trained researchers.

 It can be less expensive if respondents are co-operative

Disadvantages

 The process of data collection is too involving.

 It can be very expensive if respondents are not co-operative.

 If objectives are not followed it may be faulty.

SECONDARY SOURCES

Secondary information are data neither collected directly by the user nor specifically for the
user. It involves gathering data that already has been collected by someone else. This
involves gathering data that already has been collected by someone else. This involves the
collection and analysis from internal sources. Secondary data collection may be conducted by
collecting information from a diverse source of documents or electronically stored
information. This is often referred to as desk research.

Advantages of secondary data

The main advantage of using secondary data are as follows;

a) It is usually available more cheaply. The collection of secondary data is generally

significantly quicker and easier.
b) Existing data are likely to be available in a more convenient way.
c) It is time saving

Disadvantages secondary data

a) The researcher lacks direct access to information or knowledge

b) The researcher relies on the skills and integrity of other people.
 Steps in data collection

 Define the sample

 Reflect on the research design
 Ensure that research instruments are ready
 Define the data to be collected
 Request for permission to collect data from the relevant authorities
 Pre-test/pilot study

TYPES OF DATA

There are mainly two types of data:

1. Qualitative data
2. Quantitate data

QUALITATIVE DATA

Data that is represented either in a verbal or narrative format is qualitative data. These types
of data are collected through focus groups, interviews, opened ended questionnaire items, and
other less structured situations. A simple way to look at qualitative data is to think of
qualitative data in the form of words.

FORMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The following are the forms of qualitative research, which in educational research they are
referred to as the qualitative research methodologies:

a) Ethnographic research: used for investigating cultures by collecting describing data

that is intended to help in the develop of a theory.
b) Critical social research: used to understand human interaction – how people
communicate and develop symbolic meanings.
c) Ethical inquiry: an intellectual analysis of ethical problems which includes the study
of ethics as related to responsibility, rights, duty, right and wrong, choices etc.
d) Grounded theory: is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the
observation or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources,
including: quantitative data, reviews of records, interviews, observation and survey.
 e) Phenomenological research: it describes the subjective reality of an event, as
perceived by the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon.
f) Philosophical research: it is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a
specific field of study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study
to use an intellectual analysis, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or made a
value judgement concerning an issue in their field of study.

QUANTITATIVE DATA

Quantitative data is data that is expressed in numerical terms, in which the numeric values
could be large or small. numerical values may correspond to a specific category or label.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING DATA COLLECTION

During data collection, the research should ensure the following:

a) Collect only the data need for the purpose of the study
b) Inform each potential respondents about the general nature of the study and the
intended uses of the data.
c) Protect the confidentiality of the information collected from the respondents

ETHICAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION

 The researcher must justify the research via an analysis of the balance cost – benefits
of the study should outweigh the cost.
 The researcher must maintain confidentiality at all times.
 The researchers are responsible for their own work and for the contribution to the
whole study.
 The researcher must obtain informed consent from the researched to ensure all the
respondents participate voluntarily.
 The researcher must explain the research in advance.

CHALLENGES FACED BY RESEARCHERS DURING DATA COLLECTION

 The researcher failing to carry out a pilot study

 Lack of sufficient follow ups on non-respondents
  Inadequate quality control
 Poor targeting of the respondents

DATA ANALYSIS

 Data analysis is the examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and
making deductions and inferences.
 It involves scrutinising the acquired information and making inferences.
 Data can be analysed qualitatively or quantitatively.

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The analytic techniques in qualitative research are as follows:

1. A quick impressionist summary

2. Thematic analysis
3. Content analysis

A QUICK IMPRESSIONIST SUMMARY

This technique of data analysis is used in situations require urgent information to make
decisions e.g., in cholera outbreak. This involves:

 Summarising key findings e.g., noting down the most frequent answers of
participants in a focus group discussion on various issues.
 Explanation
 Interpretation and conclusion

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

The technique categorises related topics. In this form of analysis major concepts or themes
are identified. In this form of data analysis, the researcher does the following:

Themes refers to topics or major subjects that come up in discussions. this form of analysis
categorises related topics.in using this form of analysis major concept or themes are
identified.in this form of data analysis, the researcher does the following;
  Peruses the collected data and identifies information that is relevant to the research
questions and objectives.
 Develops a coding system based on samples of collected data.
 Classifies major issues or topics covered.
 Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and interpretations
 Indicates the major themes in the margins.
 Places the coded materials under the major themes or topics identified. All materials
relevant to a certain topic are placed together.
 Develops a summary report identifying major themes and the associations between
them.
 Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings.
 Reports the intensity, which refers to the number of times certain words or phrases or
descriptions are used in the discussion the frequency with which an idea or word or
description appears is used to interpret the importance, attention or emphasis.

CONTENT ANALYSIS

 Pragmatic content analysis; Classifies signs according to their probable causes and
effects. the emphasis is on why something is said. This could be used to understand
people’s perceptions and beliefs.
 Systematic content analysis; classifies signs according to meaning.
 Designation analysis; determines the frequency with which certain objects or person,
institution or concepts are mentioned. This is a simple counting exercise.
 Attribution analysis; examines the frequency with which certain characterization or
descriptors are used. The emphasis is on the adjectives, verbs and descriptive phrases
and qualifiers. This is counting exercise.
 Assertion analysis; provides the frequency with which certain objectives (persons,
institutions) are characterized in a particular way. Such an analysis often takes the
form of matrix with objects as columns and described as rows

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

In qualitative research, data can also be analysed thematically.

Themes refers to topics or major subjects that come up in discussions. this form of analysis
categorises related topics.in using this form of analysis major concept or themes are
identified.in this form of Data analysis, the researcher does the following;

 Peruses the collected data and identifies information that is relevant to the research
questions and objectives.
 Develops a coding system based on samples of collected data.
 Classifies major issues or topics covered.
 Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and interpretations
 Indicates the major themes in the margins.
 Places the coded materials under the major themes or topics identified. All materials
relevant to a certain topic are placed together.
 Develops a summary report identifying major themes and the associations between
them.
 Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings.
 Reports the intensity, which refers to the number of times certain words or phrases or
descriptions are used in the discussion the frequency with which an idea or word or
description appears is used to interpret the importance, attention or emphasis.

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes,
or concepts within some given qualitative data. Using content analysis, researchers can
quantify and analyse the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes,
or concepts. As an example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to
search for bias or partiality. Researchers can then make inferences about the messages within
the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of surrounding the text.

 Pragmatic content analysis; Classifies signs according to their probable causes and
effects. the emphasis is on why something is said. This could be used to understand
people’s perceptions and beliefs.
 Systematic content analysis; classifies signs according to meaning.
 Designation analysis; determines the frequency with which certain objects or person,
institution or concepts are mentioned. This is a simple counting exercise.
  Attribution analysis; examines the frequency with which certain characterization or
descriptors are used. The emphasis is on the adjectives, verbs and descriptive phrases
and qualifiers. This is counting exercise.
 Assertion analysis; provides the frequency with which certain objectives (persons,
institutions) are characterized in a particular way. Such an analysis often takes the
form of matrix with objects as columns and described as rows#

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

Quantitative analysis entails measuring numeral values.

TECHNIQUES OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

1. Descriptive statistics

These statistics simply describe what you have found when performing a practical. They
make no attempt to go beyond the data obtained. They make no predictions as to whether the
results are likely to be similar if the practical is repeated. They do not explain what caused the
result. This type of statistics allows the results of an experiment to be shown in a way that can
be easily understood e.g., measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.

2. Inferential statistics

This includes methods for making references about a larger group of individuals on the basis
of data concerning a small group. Outcomes after analysing a small group or subset are
generalised to a larger group e.g., t-test, correlation, chi-square and ANOVA.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE

1. Discrete values

Take only a discontinuous or discrete set of values. In other words, it can take only those
values which are integers or whole numbers.

 number of deaths in an accident;

 number of rooms in a house or hotel; and
 number of persons in a family.
Discrete values are taken by jumps because discrete data are generated by the operation of
counting.

2. Continuous values

Normally take on any fractional or integer values between two specified limits. Examples of
continuous variables are the:

 age of a person;
 height of a plant or anything;
 weight of a commodity;
 income of an individual; and
 temperature at a place.

Note that continuous data are always generated by the process of measurement.