Air pollution

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Sources
Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are: Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel

"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc. Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest. Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle

Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutantsspecifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compoundsto produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[6] Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

Particulate control o Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones) o Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
o

Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

Acid gas
Acid gas is natural gas or any other gas mixture which contains significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), or similar contaminants. The terms acid gas and sour gas are often incorrectly treated as synonyms. Strictly speaking, a sour gas is any gas that specifically contains hydrogen sulfide in significant amounts; an acid gas is any gas that contains

significant amounts of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or hydrogen sulfide. Thus, carbon dioxide by itself is an acid gas but not a sour gas. Before a raw natural gas containing hydrogen sulfide and/or carbon dioxide can be used, the raw gas must be treated to reduce impurities to acceptable levels and this is commonly done with an amine gas treating process.[1][2] The removed H2S is most often subsequently converted to byproduct elemental sulfur in a Claus process or alternatively converted to valuable sulfuric acid in a WSA Process unit. Processes within oil refineries or natural gas processing plants that remove mercaptans and/or hydrogen sulfide are commonly referred to as sweetening processes because they result in products which no longer have the sour, foul odors of mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic gas. It also restricts the materials that can be used for piping and other equipment for handling sour gas, as many metals are sensitive to sulfide stress cracking.

Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (also sulphur dioxide) is the chemical compound with the formula SO2. It is released by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide unless the sulfur compounds are removed before burning the fuel. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] Sulfur dioxide emissions are also a precursor to particulates in the atmosphere. Both of these impacts are cause for concern over the environmental impact of these fuels.

Structure and bonding

SO2 is a bent molecule with C2v symmetry point group. In terms of electron-counting formalism, the sulfur atom has an oxidation state of +4 and a formal charge of 0. It is surrounded by 5 electron pairs and can be described as a hypervalent molecule. From the perspective of molecular orbital theory, most of these valence electrons are engaged in SO bonding.

Three resonance structures of sulfur dioxide Although sulfur and oxygen both have six valence electrons, the molecular bonds in SO2 are not the same as those in ozone. The SO bonds are shorter in SO2 (143.1 pm) than in sulfur monoxide, SO (148.1 pm), whereas the OO bonds are longer in ozone (127.8 pm) than in

dioxygen, O2 (120.7 pm). The mean bond energy is greater in SO2 (548 kJ/mol) than in SO (524 kJ/mol), whereas it is less in O3 (297 kJ/mol) than in O2 (490 kJ/mol). These pieces of evidence lead chemists to conclude that the SO bonds in sulfur dioxide have a bond order of at least 2, unlike the OO bonds in ozone, which have a bond order of 1.5.[3]

Production

Combustion routes
Sulfur dioxide is the product of the burning of sulfur or of burning materials that contain sulfur: S8 + 8 O2 8 SO2 Sulfur dioxide is typically produced in significant amounts by the burning of common sulfurrich materials including wool, hair, rubber, and foam rubber such as are found in mattresses, couch cushions, seat cushions, and carpet pads, and vehicle tires. Ferrous metals such as steel exposed to sulfur dioxide combustion fumes are rapidly oxidized and sulfidated. In house fires, this sometimes produces apparently molten steel comprising iron oxides and iron sulfide. The most common example of this phenomenon is apparently melted steel bedsprings that are found by fire investigators. The burning foam rubber in the mattress produces sulfur dioxide which reacts with the hot metal, further heating it until the oxide/sulfide melts, giving the appearance of melted bed springs. After the foam rubber burns away, a further heating of the apparently melted bedsprings in the presence of an excess of oxygen, re-releases the sulfur dioxide: 4 FeS2 + 11 O2 2 Fe2O3 + 8 SO2

The combustion of hydrogen sulfide and organosulfur compounds proceeds similarly. 2 H2S + 3 O2 2 H2O + 2 SO2 The roasting of sulfide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) also releases SO2: 4 FeS2 + 11 O2 2 Fe2O3 + 8 SO2 2 ZnS + 3 O2 2 ZnO + 2 SO2 HgS + O2 Hg + SO2 A combination of these reactions is responsible for the largest source of sulfur dioxide, volcanic eruptions. These events can release millions of tonnes of SO2.

Reduction of higher oxides

Sulfur dioxide is a by-product in the manufacture of calcium silicate cement: CaSO4 is heated with coke and sand in this process: 2 CaSO4 + 2 SiO2 + C 2 CaSiO3 + 2 SO2 + CO2 The action of hot sulfuric acid on copper turnings produces sulfur dioxide. Cu + 2 H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 + 2 H2O

From sulfite
Sulfite results from the reaction of aqueous base and sulfur dioxide. The reverse reaction involves acidification of sodium metabisulfite: H2SO4 + Na2S2O5 2 SO2 + Na2SO4 + H2O

Reactions

Industrial reactions
Treatment of basic solutions with sulfur dioxide affords sulfite salts: SO2 + 2 NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O Featuring sulfur in the +4 oxidation state, sulfur dioxide is a reducing agent. It is oxidized by halogens to give the sulfuryl halides, such as sulfuryl chloride: SO2 + Cl2 SO2Cl2 Sulfur dioxide is the oxidising agent in the Claus process, which is conducted on a large scale in oil refineries. Here sulfur dioxide is reduced by hydrogen sulfide to give elemental sulfur: SO2 + 2 H2S 3 S + 2 H2O The sequential oxidation of sulfur dioxide followed by its hydration is used in the production of sulfuric acid. 2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2 2 H2SO4

Laboratory reactions
Sulfur dioxide can react with certain 1,3-dienes in a cheletropic reaction to give organosulfur compounds.

Sulfur dioxide can bind to metal ions as a ligand to form metal sulfur dioxide complexes, typically where the transition metal is in oxidation state 0 or +1. Many different bonding modes (geometries) are recognized, but in most cases the ligand is monodentate, attached to the metal through sulfur, which can be either planar and pyramidal 1.[3]

Mercury (element)
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum (from "hydr-" water and "argyros" silver). A heavy, silvery dblock element, mercury is the only metal that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine, and metals such as caesium, francium, gallium, and rubidium melt just above room temperature. With a freezing point of 38.83 C and boiling point of 356.73 C, mercury has one of the narrowest ranges of its liquid state of any metal.[1][2][3] Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red pigment vermilion is mostly obtained by reduction from cinnabar. Cinnabar is highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of the dust. Mercury poisoning can also result from exposure to watersoluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), inhalation of mercury vapor, or eating seafood contaminated with mercury. Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, some electrical switches, and other scientific apparatus, though concerns about the element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favor of alcohol-filled, galinstan-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. It remains in use in scientific research applications and in amalgam material for dental restoration. It is used in lighting: electricity passed through mercury vapor in a phosphor tube produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor to fluoresce, making visible light.

Properties

Physical properties

A pound coin (density ~7.6 g/cm3) floats in mercury due to the combination of the buoyant force and surface tension. Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal. As compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity.[4] Mercury has an exceptionally low melting temperature for a d-block metal. A complete explanation of this fact requires a deep excursion into quantum physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has a unique electronic configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d and 6s subshells. As such configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gas elements, which form weak bonds and thus easily melting solids. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell. An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus (see lanthanide contraction). The absence of a filled inner f shell is the reason for the somewhat higher melting temperature of cadmium and zinc, although both these metals still melt easily and, in addition, have unusually low boiling points. Metals such as gold have atoms with one less 6s electron than mercury. Those electrons are more easily removed and are shared between the gold atoms forming relatively strong metallic bonds.[2][5] At its freezing point (38.86 C), the density of mercury is[6] 13.534 g/cm3.

Chemical properties
Mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, although oxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate[disambiguation needed ], nitrate[disambiguation needed ], and chloride[disambiguation needed ] salts. Like silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury even reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury vapors (spill kits also use activated carbon and powdered zinc).[7] Amalgams

Mercury-discharge spectral calibration lamp Mercury dissolves to form amalgams with gold, zinc and many other metals. Because iron is an exception, iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. Other metals that do not form amalgams with mercury include tantalum, tungsten and platinum. Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. Since the amalgam reacts with air to give aluminium oxide, small amounts of mercury corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an

aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.[8]

Isotopes
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with 202Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are 194Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203Hg with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. 199Hg and 201Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of 12 and 32 respectively.[4]

Scrubber
Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term is also used to describe systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue gas condensation.[1] There are several methods to remove toxic or corrosive compounds from exhaust gas and neutralize it.

Wet scrubbing
The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered harmful to the environment, and the scrubber may remove or neutralize those substances. A wet scrubber is used to clean air, flue gas or other gases of various pollutants and dust particles. Wet scrubbing works via the contact of target compounds or particulate matter with the scrubbing solution. Solutions may simply be water (for dust) or solutions of reagents that specifically target certain compounds. Process exhaust gas can also contain water soluble toxic and/or corrosive gases like hydrogen chloride HCl or ammonia NH3. These can be removed very well by a wet scrubber[3]. Removal efficiency of pollutants is improved by increasing residence time in the scrubber or by the increase of surface area of the scrubber solution by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers or an aspirator. Wet scrubbers may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible stack plume, if the gas is sent to a stack.

Dry scrubbing
A dry or semi-dry scrubbing system, unlike the wet scrubber, does not saturate the flue gas stream that is being treated with moisture. In some cases no moisture is added; while in other

only the amount of moisture that can be evaporated in the flue gas without condensing is added. Therefore, dry scrubbers do generally not have a stack steam plume or wastewater handling/disposal requirements. Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases (such as SO2 and HCl) primarily from combustion sources.

In spray dryer absorbers, the flue gases are introduced into an absorbing tower (dryer) where the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry. Acid gases are absorbed by the slurry mixture and react to form solid salts which are removed by the particulate control device. The heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets, leaving a non-saturated flue gas to exit the absorber tower. Spray dryers are capable of achieving high (80+%) acid gas removal efficiencies. These devices have been used on industrial and utility boilers and municipal waste incinerators.

Absorber
Many chemicals can be removed from exhaust gas also by using absorber material. The flue gas is passed through a cartridge, filled with one or several absorber materials, adapted to the chemical properties of the components that should be removed from the exhaust gas[4]. This type of scrubber is sometimes also called dry scrubber. The absorber material has to be replaced after its surface is saturated.

Mercury removal
Mercury is a highly toxic element commonly found in coal and municipal waste. Wet scrubbers are only effective for removal of soluble mercury species, such as oxidized mercury, Hg2+. Mercury vapor in its elemental form, Hg0, is insoluble in the scrubber slurry and not removed. Therefore, additional process of Hg0 conversion is required to complete mercury capture. Usually addition of the halogens to the flue gas are used for this purpose. The type of coal burned as well as the presence of a selective catalytic reduction unit both affect the ratio of elemental to oxidized mercury in the flue gas and thus the degree to which the mercury is removed.

Nitrogen oxide
compounds:

Nitric oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, (NO), nitrogen(II) oxide Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen(IV) oxide Nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen(I) oxide Nitrosylazide (N4O), nitrogen(I) oxide + diatomic nitrogen Nitrate radical (NO3), nitrogen(VI) oxide Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3), nitrogen(II,IV) oxide Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), nitrogen(IV) oxide Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5), nitrogen(V) oxide Trinitramide (N(NO2)3)

In atmospheric chemistry and air pollution and related fields, nitrogen oxides refers specifically to NOx (NO and NO2).[1][2] Only the first three of these compounds can be isolated at room temperature. N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5 all decompose rapidly at room temperature. Nitrate radical is very reactive. N2O is stable and rather unreactive at room temperature, while NO and NO2 are quite reactive but nevertheless quite stable when isolated.

NOx
NOx (often written NOx) refers to NO and NO2. They are produced during combustion, especially at high temperature. These two chemicals are important trace species in Earth's atmosphere. In the troposphere, during daylight, NO reacts with partly oxidized organic species (or the peroxy radical) to form NO2, which is then photolyzed by sunlight to reform NO: NO + CH3O2 NO2 + CH3O NO2 + sunlight NO + O The oxygen atom formed in the second reaction then goes on to form ozone; this series of reactions is the main source of tropospheric ozone. CH3O2 is just one example of many partly oxidized organic molecules that can react with NO to form NO2. These reactions are rather fast so NO and NO2 cycle, but the sum of their concentration ([NO] + [NO2]) tends to remain fairly constant. Because of this cycling, it is convenient to think of the two chemicals as a group; hence the term NOx. In addition to acting as a main precursor for tropospheric ozone, NOx is also harmful to human health in its own right.

NOx may react with water to make nitric acid, which may end up in the soil, where it makes nitrate, which is of use to growing plants.

Volatile organic compound

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at ordinary, room-temperature conditions. Their high vapor pressure results from a low boiling point, which causes large numbers of molecules to evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid form of the compound and enter the surrounding air. An example is formaldehyde, with a boiling point of 19 C (2 F), slowly exiting paint and getting into the air. Many VOCs are dangerous to human health or cause harm to the environment. VOCs are numerous, varied, and ubiquitous. They include both man-made and naturally occurring chemical compounds. VOCs play an important role in communication between plants. [1] Anthropogenic VOCs are regulated by law, especially indoors, where concentrations are the highest. VOCs are typically not acutely toxic, but instead have compounding long-term health effects. Because the concentrations are usually low and the symptoms slow to develop, research into VOCs and their effects is difficult.

Definitions
The definitions of VOCs used for control of precursors of photochemical smog used by EPA, and U.S. States with their own outdoor air pollution regulations include exemptions for VOCs that are determined to be non-reactive, or of low-reactivity in the smog formation process. EPA formerly defined these compounds as Reactive Organic Gases (ROG) but changed the terminology to VOC. In the USA, different regulation exists per state - most prominent is the VOC regulation by SCAQMD and by California ARB. However, this specific use of the term VOCs can be misleading, specifically when applied to indoor air quality because many chemicals that are not regulated for controlling outdoor air pollution can still be important for indoor air pollution there is no correlation between VOC content in a product and VOC emissions from that product into indoor air.

Biologically generated VOCs

Not counting methane, biological sources emit an estimated 1150 teragrams of carbon per year in the form of VOCs.[9] The majority of VOCs are produced by plants, the main compound being isoprene. The remainder are produced by animals, microbes, and fungi, such as molds. The strong odor emitted by many plants consists of VOCs. Emissions are affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature, which determines rates of volatilization and growth, and sunlight, which determines rates of biosynthesis. Emission occurs almost exclusively from the leaves, the stomata in particular. A major class of VOCs is terpenes, such as myrcene.[10] Providing a sense of scale, a forest 62,000 km2 in area (the U.S. state of Pennsylvania) is estimated to emit

3,400,000 kilograms of terpenes on a typical August day during the growing season.[11] Induction of genes producing volatile organic compounds, and subsequent increase in volatile terpenes has been achieved in maize using (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol and other plant hormones.[12]

Anthropogenic sources
Anthropogenic sources emit about 142 teragrams of carbon per year in the form of VOCs.[9]

Specific components
Paints and coatings A major source of man-made VOCs are coatings, especially paints and protective coatings. Solvents are required to spread a protective or decorative film. Approximately 12 billion liters of paints are produced annually. Typical solvents are aliphatic hydrocarbons, ethyl acetate, glycol ethers, and acetone. Motivated by cost, environmental concerns, and regulation, the paint and coating industries are increasingly shifting toward aqueous solvents.[13] Chlorofluorocarbons and chlorocarbons Chlorofluorocarbons, which are banned or highly regulated, were widely used cleaning products and refrigerants. Tetrachloroethene is used widely in dry cleaning and by industry. Industrial use of fossil fuels produces VOCs either directly as products (e.g., gasoline) or indirectly as byproducts (e.g., automobile exhaust).

Regulation of indoor VOC emissions

In most countries, a separate definition of VOCs is used with regard to indoor air quality that comprises each organic chemical compound that can be measured as follows: Adsorption from air on Tenax TA, thermal desorption, gas chromatographic separation over a 100% nonpolar column (dimethylpolysiloxane). VOC (volatile organic compounds) are all compounds that appear in the gas chromatogram between and including n-hexane and n-hexadecane. Compounds appearing earlier are called VVOC (very volatile organic compounds) compounds appearing later are called SVOC (semi-volatile organic compounds). See also these standards: ISO 160006, ISO 13999-2, VDI 4300-6, German AgBB evaluating scheme, German DIBt approval scheme, GEV testing method for the EMICODE. Some overviews over VOC emissions rating schemes [2] have been collected and compared. France and Germany have enacted regulations to limit VOC emissions from commercial products, and industry has developed numerous voluntary ecolabels and rating systems, such as EMICODE,[24] M1,[25] Blue Angel[26] and Indoor Air Comfort[27] In the United States, several standards exist; California Standard CDPH Section 01350[28] is the most popular. Over the last few decades, these regulations and standards changed the marketplace, leading to an increasing

number of low-emitting products: The leading voluntary labels report that licenses to several hundreds of low-emitting products have been issued (see the respective webpages).

Health risks
Respiratory, allergic, or immune effects in infants or children are associated with man-made VOCs and other indoor or outdoor air pollutants.[30] Some VOCs, such as styrene and limonene, can react with nitrogen oxides or with ozone to produce new oxidation products and secondary aerosols, which can cause sensory irritation symptoms.[31][32] Unspecified VOCs are important in the creation of smog.[33] Health effects include: Eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss of coordination, nausea; damage to liver, kidney, and central nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans. Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation, nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum cholinesterase levels, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness. The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects various' s greatly from those that are highly toxic, to those with no known health effect. As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on many factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have experienced soon after exposure to some organics. At present, not much is known about what health effects occur from the levels of organics usually found in homes. Many organic compounds are known to cause cancer in animals; some are suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in humans.[34]

Acid Gas/SO2 control o Wet scrubbers o Dry scrubbers o Flue gas desulfurization Mercury control o Sorbent Injection Technology o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) o K-Fuel Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipment o Source capturing systems o Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)