Physics

Paper No. : Physics at Nanoscale - III

Module : Calculation of Density of States (DOS)

Physics at Nanoscale - III

Physics
Quantum Mechanics and Nanoscale structures
 Description of Module
Subject Name Physics
Paper Name Physics at Nanoscale - III
Module Name/Title Quantum Mechanics and Nanoscale Structures

Module Id

Physics at Nanoscale - III

Physics
Quantum Mechanics and Nanoscale structures
MODULE III
3.3 Calculation of Density of states (DOS)
3.3.1 DOS in 3D
3.3.2 DOS in 2D
3.3.3 DOS in 1D
3.3.4 DOS in 0D

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 4

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CALCULATION OF DENSITY OF STATES (DOS): Quantum Wells, Wires and
Dots
3.3.1 DOS for 3 dimensions (Bulk)
Consider the volume in "k" space
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑘 3 (3.44)
3

where for a particle in this space

2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = , 𝑘𝑦 = and 𝑘𝑧 = (3.45)
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧

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 Figure . Electron state is defined by a point in k-space.

Note that the 2𝜋 arises from the constraints of periodic boundary conditions as proposed to the more
general 𝑛𝜋 where n=0, 1, 2, 3... The volume of a given mode is then= 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑧 . The number of modes
(N) in the sphere is,
4
𝑉 3
𝜋𝑘 3
𝑁= = 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 (3.46)
𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑧 8𝜋3

Say the particle in an electron and we consider spin (up and down), then we multiply N by 2.
4
𝜋𝑘 3
′ 3
𝑁 = 2𝑁 = 2 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧
8𝜋 3
𝑘3
= 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 (3.47)
3𝜋2

is the total number of states in sphere. Now consider the density

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 𝑁′
𝜌=
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧
𝑘3
=
3𝜋 2
is the number of states per unit volume. Now consider the energy defined as
𝑘3
𝑑𝜌 𝑑 (3𝜋2) 1 𝑑𝑘 3
𝜌′ = = = 2
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 3𝜋 𝑑𝐸
2𝑚𝐸
𝑘=√
ћ2
3
′ 1 2𝑚 2
Therefore, 𝜌 = ( ) √𝐸 (3.48)
2𝜋2 ћ2

Figure . Density of states in 3 dimension (Eq.3.48)

3.3.2 DOS in Two Dimensions (well)

Here we have 1D that is quantized. Let's us assume it is the z-direction. The total energy of this system
is a sum of the energy along the quantized direction plus the energy along the other 2 free directions. It
is expressed as
ћ2 𝑘𝑧2 ћ2 𝑘 2
𝐸𝑇 = + = 𝐸𝑛 + 𝐸𝑥,𝑦 (3.49)
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑛𝜋
where𝑘 2 = 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 and 𝑘𝑧 = . Consider now an area in k-space
𝐿𝑧

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑘 2
where for the particle

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 2𝜋
𝑘𝑥 =
𝐿𝑥
2𝜋
𝑘𝑦 =
𝐿𝑦
The area of a given mode is then 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 with the total number of modes (N) in the area being
𝜋𝑘 2 𝑘 2 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦
𝑁= 𝐿 𝐿 =
4𝜋 2 𝑥 𝑦 4𝜋
Again if the particle is an electron and we consider spin, multiply by 2 to get
𝑘 2 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦
𝑁 ′ = 2𝑁 = (3.50)
2𝜋

𝑁′ 𝑘2 2𝑚𝐸
Consider now density, 𝜌 = = , and we have 𝑘 = √
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 2𝜋 ћ2

And the energy density is defined as

𝑑𝜌 𝑚
𝜌′ = = 2
𝑑𝐸 𝜋ћ
This is the energy density of the sub-band for a given 𝑘𝑧 or (En). For each successive 𝑘𝑧 there will be an
𝑚
additional and hence another subband. Therefore the density of the states is written
𝜋ћ2
′ 𝑚
𝜌2𝐷= ∑𝑛 Ѳ(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑛 ) (3.51)
𝜋ћ2

Where Ѳ is the heavy side function.

ρ(E)

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 Figure Density of states in 2 dimension. Shaded area presents occupied states.

3.3.3 DOS in One Dimensions (Wire)

Consider now the situation where there are two dimensions confined and only 1 degree of freedom (say
the x-direction). The total energy of the system can be written as
ћ2 𝑘𝑧2 ћ2 𝑘𝑧2 ћ2 𝑘 2
𝐸𝑇 = + + = 𝐸𝑛 + 𝐸𝑚 + 𝐸𝑥 (3.52)
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚

where
2𝜋
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥 =
𝐿𝑥
Furthermore along the confined directions,
𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋
𝑘𝑧 = , and 𝑘𝑦 = and m, n are integers. Consider a length 2k. The number of modes along this
𝐿𝑧 𝐿𝑦

length is
2𝑘 2𝑘 𝑘𝐿𝑥
𝑁= = 2𝜋 = (3.53)
𝑘𝑥 (𝐿 ) 𝜋
𝑥

Number of states along the line

Now if we consider an electron again, ensure to take into account the spin degeneracy
2𝑘𝐿𝑥
𝑁 ′ = 2𝑁 =
𝜋
Now a density is
𝑁′ 2𝑘 2 2𝑚𝐸
𝜌= = = √ is the number of states per unit length.
𝐿𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 ћ2

Consider the energy density

𝑑𝜌 1 2𝑚
𝜌′ = = √
𝑑𝐸 𝜋 𝐸ћ2

This is the energy density for a given n, m value, the expression taking into account all m, n combination
is

′ 1 2𝑚 1
𝜌1𝐷 √ ∑𝑛,𝑚 Ѳ(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑛,𝑚 ) (3.54)
𝜋 ћ2 √𝐸−𝐸𝑛,𝑚

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 ρ(E)

Figure Density of states in 1 dimension. Shaded area presents occupied states.

3.3.4 Zero dimensions (Quantum Dot)

Here since all three dimensions are confined. The density of states is basically a series of delta functions.
The total energy of the system is
ћ2 𝑘𝑥2 ћ2 𝑘𝑦
2
ћ2 𝑘𝑧2
𝐸𝑇 = + + = 𝐸𝑚 + 𝐸𝑛 + 𝐸𝑜 (3.55)
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚

where m, n, o are integers and

𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = , 𝑘𝑦 = , 𝑘𝑧 =
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧
The density of states is
′
𝜌0𝐷 = 𝛿(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑚,𝑛,𝑜 ) (3.56)

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3.3.5 More density of states
Density of states in the conduction band
For this we need to know the probability that an electron will occupy a given stats of energy E. The
Probability, P(E), is referred as the Fermi Dirac distribution. In addition we need to know the density of
states (𝜌′ ). The density of states has units of number of unit volume per unit energy. Therefore 𝜌′ 𝑑𝐸 is
the number of states per unit volume. The number of occupied states at a given energy per unit volume
is therefore
𝑛𝑒 (𝐸) = 𝑃𝑒 (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 (3.57)
where the Fermi Dirac distribution is
1
𝑃𝑒 (𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 (3.58)
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Here 𝐸𝐹 is the Fermi energy.

the total concentration of electrons in the conduction band is therefore the integral over all available
energies
∞
𝑛 𝑇 = ∫𝐸 𝑃𝑒 (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 (3.59)
𝑐

where𝐸𝑐 is the energy where conduction band starts. For the case of three dimensional material
3
′ 1 2𝑚 2
𝜌 = ( 𝑒) √𝐸 (3.60)
2𝜋2 ћ2

Taking account into conduction band begins, the density of states can be written as

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 3
′ 1 2𝑚 2
𝜌 = ( 𝑒 ) √𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 (3.61)
2𝜋2 ћ2

the total concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given as 𝑛𝑇 =

3
1 2𝑚 2 ∞ 1
( 𝑒) ∫𝐸 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 √𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑑𝐸 (3.62)
2𝜋2 ћ2 𝑐
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

The integral is called the Fermi integral or Fermi Dirac integral.

Consider the case where, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ≫ 𝐾𝑇 and the Fermi Dirac distribution function becomes
1 1 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑃𝑒 (𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 𝑒− 𝑘𝑇

1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

which is the Boltzmann distribution law. Therefore

3
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 2𝑚 2 ∞
𝑛𝑇 = 2 ( 2𝑒) ∫𝐸 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 √𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑑𝐸 (3.63)
2𝜋 ћ 𝑐

𝐸−𝐸𝑐
Now change variables and let 𝑥 = , such that 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝑥𝑘𝑇 and 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥. Note also that the
𝑘𝑇

limits of integration will change accordingly. This leads to

3
1 2𝑚𝑒 2 ∞ [(𝐸−𝐸𝑐)+(𝐸𝑐−𝐸𝐹)]
𝑛𝑇 = 2 ( 2 ) ∫ 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 √𝑥𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 ћ 0
3
1 2𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2 ∞ −𝑥
𝑛𝑇 = 2 ( ) ∫ 𝑒 √𝑥𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 ћ2 0
∞ 3
∫𝐸 𝑒 −𝑥 √𝑥𝑑𝑥 is gamma function equal to Г (2), therefore
𝑐
3
1 2𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2 −(𝐸𝑐−𝐸𝐹) 3
𝑛𝑐 = 𝑛 𝑇 = 2 ( ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 Г ( )
2𝜋 ћ2 2
3
1 2𝑚 𝑘𝑇 2 3
𝑁𝐶 = ( 𝑒2 ) Г ( ) (3.64)
2𝜋2 ћ 2
(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑛𝑐 = 𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 (3.65)
This is the expression for the effective density of states of the conduction band.

Density of states in the valance band

The number of holes at a given energy per unit volume is given as
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 𝑛ℎ (𝐸) = 𝑃ℎ (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 (3.66)
where we use the relation
𝑃𝑒 (𝐸) + 𝑃ℎ (𝐸) = 1
1
𝑃ℎ (𝐸) = 1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

and the density of states is

3
′ 1
2𝑚 2
𝜌 = ( ℎ) √𝐸𝑉 −𝐸 (3.67)
2𝜋2 ћ2

Where Ev is the energy where valance band starts. The total concentration of holes in the valance band
is the integral over all energies.
𝐸𝑣
𝑝𝑇 = ∫ 𝑃ℎ (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸
−∞
3
1 2𝑚ℎ 2 𝑣 𝐸 1
𝑝𝑇 = ( ) ∫−∞ (1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) √𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝑑𝐸 (3.68)
2𝜋2 ћ2
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Since generally speaking E<EF

3
1 2𝑚 2 𝐸𝑣 1
𝑝𝑇 = ( ℎ) ∫−∞ (1 − 𝐸 −𝐸 ) √𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝑑𝐸
2𝜋2 ћ2 − 𝐹
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
3
12𝑚ℎ 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 −𝐸
𝑝𝑇 = ( ) ∫−∞ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 √𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝑑𝐸 (3.69)
2𝜋2 ћ2
𝐸𝑣 −𝐸
As with the conduction band case earlier, make a change of variables by letting, 𝑥 = as well as
𝑘𝑇

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑣 − 𝑘𝑇𝑥 and 𝑑𝐸 = −𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥. Note that the limits of integration change accordingly resulting in
3
1 2𝑚ℎ 2 0 [(𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑣)+(𝐸𝑣−𝐸)]
𝑝𝑇 = 2 ( 2 ) ∫ 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 √𝑘𝑇𝑥(−𝑘𝑇)𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 ћ ∞
3
1 2𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2 −(𝐸𝐹−𝐸) 0 −𝑥
𝑝𝑇 = 2 ( ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫ 𝑒 √𝑥𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 ћ2 ∞
3
1 2𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸) 3
𝑝𝑇 = 2 ( 2 ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 Г ( ) (3.70)
2𝜋 ћ 2
(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)
𝑝𝑇 = 𝑁𝑣 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇

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This is the effective density of the states in the valance band.
Summary
Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor
If the bulk semiconductor is intrinsic, there has been no doping of the material and hence no extra
electrons or holes anywhere. in this situation
𝑛𝑐 = 𝑝𝑣
therefore
(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐹 ) (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)
𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑣 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇

3
(−𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝐹 +𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 )
− 𝑚ℎ 2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =( )
𝑚𝑒
𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑣 3 𝑚ℎ
𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( ) (3.71)
2 4 𝑚𝑒

One can therefore see that at T=0 the Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor is at the halfway
point between the top of the valance band and the bottom of the conduction band.

Density of states in the conduction band

We start with the Fermi Dirac distribution for electrons and also the density of states
′ 𝑚𝑒
𝜌2𝐷= ∑𝑛 Ѳ(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑛 ) (3.72)
𝜋ћ2

Consider only one of the subband. In this case the density of states simplifies to
′ 𝑚𝑒
𝜌2𝐷= (3.73)
𝜋ћ2

Now recall from the previous section that the number of states at a given energy per unit volume
𝑛𝑒 (𝐸) = 𝑃𝑒 (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸
the total concentration of electrons in this first subband is the integral over all available energies. Rather
than use ntot as before let's just stick to nc from the start
∞
𝑛𝑐 = ∫𝐸 𝑃𝑒 (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸𝑑𝐸 (3.74)
𝑐

1
Where 𝑃𝑒 (𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 is the Fermi Dirac distribution. Therefore we have
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

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 𝑚𝑒 ∞ 1
𝑛𝑐 = ∫𝐸 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝑑𝐸 (3.75)
𝜋ћ2 𝑐
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Since the band really begins at en as opposed to Ec like in the bulk the integral change from

𝑚𝑒 ∞ 1
𝑛𝑐 = ∫ 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝑑𝐸
𝜋ћ2 𝐸𝑛
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

if now E-EF>>kT
𝑚𝑒 ∞ −𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑐 = 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
𝜋ћ 𝐸𝑛
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑛𝑐 = − 𝑒− 𝑘𝑇 |∞
𝐸𝑛 (3.76)
𝜋ћ2

this leads the final expression to the carrier density of the nth subband i.e.
𝐸𝑛 −𝐸𝐹
𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑛𝑐 = 𝑒− 𝑘𝑇 (3.77)
𝜋ћ2

Density of states in the valance band

As with the conduction band case we need the probability of occupying a given state in the valance
band. This denoted 𝑃ℎ (𝐸) and is evaluated from
𝑃𝑒 (𝐸) + 𝑃ℎ (𝐸) = 1
Therefore
1
𝑃ℎ (𝐸) = 1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

The number of states at a given energy per unit volume

𝑛ℎ (𝐸) = 𝑃ℎ (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸
𝑚ℎ
If, as in the conduction band case, we consider only the nth subband 𝜌′ = and for the simplicity the
𝜋ћ2

first. The total concentration of holes in this first subband is the integral over all energies. we get
𝐸𝑉
𝑝𝑉 = ∫ 𝑃ℎ (𝐸)𝜌′ (𝐸)𝑑𝐸
−∞

𝑚ℎ 𝐸𝑉 1
= ∫ (1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑑𝐸 (3.78)
𝜋ћ2 −∞
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
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Since the nth subband begins at 𝐸𝑛 rather than 𝐸𝑉 , therefore
𝑚ℎ 𝐸𝑛 1
𝑝𝑉 = ∫ (1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑑𝐸 (3.79)
𝜋ћ2 −∞
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

and since for the valance band 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹

𝑚ℎ 𝐸𝑛 1
𝑝𝑉 = ∫−∞ (1 − 𝐸 −𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 (3.80)
𝜋ћ2 − 𝐹
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

𝑚ℎ 𝐸𝑛 −𝐸𝐹−𝐸
𝑝𝑉 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
𝜋ћ2 −∞
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑛
𝑚ℎ𝑘𝑇
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑒− 𝑘𝑇 (3.81)
𝜋ћ2

Fermi level position :2D

The procedure for finding the Fermi level position is the same as in the 3D
Consider a spherical volume of
4
𝑉𝑘 = 𝜋𝑘 3
3
The volume of a given mode was, recall 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑧 where
2𝜋
𝑘𝑥 =
𝐿𝑥
2𝜋
𝑘𝑦 =
𝐿𝑦
2𝜋
𝑘𝑧 =
𝐿𝑧
The number of modes or states in the given sphere is then
4
𝑉𝑘 𝜋𝑘 3
3
𝑁= = 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑧 8𝜋 3 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
For an electron, multiply this by 2 to account for spin we have
𝑘3
𝑁 ′ = 2𝑁 = 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
3𝜋 2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Now the density is

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 𝑁′ 𝑘3
𝜌= =
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 3𝜋 2
is the number of states per unit volume and the energy density is given as
3
𝑑𝜌 1 2𝑚 2
𝜌′ = = 2 ( 2 ) √𝐸
𝑑𝐸 2𝜋 ħ
𝑑𝜌 𝑘 2
𝜌2′ = =
𝑑𝑘 𝜋 2
Divide by 2 to go back to only 1 spin orientation since in an optical transition spin slips are generally
forbidden
𝑘2
𝜌1′ =
2𝜋 2
The expression applies to either conduction band or valance band. Applying the following equivalence
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝜌1′ (𝑘)𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) = 𝜌2′ (𝑘)
𝑑𝐸
𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘
= 2
2𝜋 𝑑𝐸
where𝜌𝑗 is the desired joint density of the states. Now from the conservation of momentum, transition in
k are vertical such that the initial k value in the valance band is the same k value as in the conduction
band (ka=kb=k) where ka is the k value in the valence band and kb is the value in the conduction band.
The energy of the initial state in the valance band is
ħ2 𝑘𝑎2
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑣 −
2𝑚ℎ
Likewise the energy of the final state in the conduction band is
ħ2 𝑘𝑏2
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑐 +
2𝑚𝑒
The energy of the transition is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐸𝑎
ħ2 𝑘𝑏2 ħ2 𝑘𝑎2
𝐸 = (𝐸𝑐 + ) − (𝐸𝑣 − )
2𝑚𝑒 2𝑚ℎ
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 ħ2 𝑘𝑏2 ħ2 𝑘𝑎2
𝐸 = (𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 ) + +
2𝑚𝑒 2𝑚ℎ
ħ2 𝑘 2 1 1
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑔 + ( + )
2 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ
𝑑𝐸 𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚ℎ
= ħ2 𝑘
𝑑𝑘 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ
leading to the desired expression
𝑑𝑘 1 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ
= 2 ( )
𝑑𝐸 ħ 𝑘 𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚ℎ
Since
𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) = ( )
2𝜋 2 𝑑𝐸
𝑘2 1 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) = ( )
2𝜋 2 ħ2 𝑘 𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚ℎ
𝑘𝜇
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) =
2𝜋 2 ħ2

Where for notational simplicity we have used the reduced mass

𝑚 𝑒 𝑚ℎ
𝜇=
𝑚 𝑒 + 𝑚ℎ
Therefore
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑔 +
2𝜇

√2𝜇(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 )
𝑘=
ħ

𝜇𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) =
2𝜋 2 ħ2
𝜇
= √2𝜇(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 )
2𝜋 2 ħ3

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 3
1 2𝜇 2
= 2 ( 2 ) √(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 )
4𝜋 ħ
2D Well
Area in k-space
𝐴𝑘 = 4𝜋𝑘
Where the area occupied by a given mode or state is 𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑧 .Here we assume that 𝑘𝑥 represents the
confined direction
2𝜋
𝑘𝑦 =
𝐿𝑦
2𝜋
𝑘𝑧 =
𝐿𝑧
Together, the number of modes in the area is
𝐴𝑘 4𝜋𝑘 2 𝑘2
𝑁= = 𝐿 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧
𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑧 4𝜋 2 𝑦 𝑧 𝜋
Multiply by 2 to account for spin

′
2𝑘 2
𝑁 = 2𝑁 = 𝐿 𝐿
𝜋 𝑦 𝑧
Now consider the density
𝑁′ 2𝑘 2
𝜌= =
𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 𝜋
With the energy density given by
𝑑𝜌 𝑚
𝜌′ = = 2
𝑑𝐸 𝜋ħ
𝑑𝜌 4𝑘
=
𝑑𝑘 𝜋
Starting with the energy density
𝑑𝜌 4𝑘
𝜌′ = =
𝑑𝑘 𝜋
Divide by 2 to get rid of the spin since formally speaking, spin flip optical transitions are forbidden
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 𝜌2′ 2𝑘
𝜌′ = =
2 𝜋
Now applying the following equivalence
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝜌2′ (𝑘)𝑑𝑘
One obtains
𝑑𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) = 𝜌1′ (𝑘)
𝑑𝐸
2𝑘 𝑑𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) =
𝜋 𝑑𝐸
where𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) is the desired joint density of states. As before in the 3D case, the conservation of
momentum means that transition in k-space are vertical. That is the initial k value in the valance band
is the same as the final k value in the conduction band (𝑘𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏 = 𝑘) where 𝑘𝑎 (𝑘𝑏 ) is the valance
(conduction) band values.
The energy of the initial state in the valance band is
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑛2 −
2𝑚ℎ
Likewise the energy of the final state in the conduction band is
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑛1 −
2𝑚𝑒
The transition energy is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐸𝑎
ħ2 𝑘 2 1 1
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛1 − 𝐸𝑛2 + ( + )
2 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑔 +
2𝜇
This leads to
𝑑𝐸 ħ2 𝑘
=
𝑑𝑘 𝜇
Or

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 𝑑𝑘 𝜇
= 2
𝑑𝐸 ħ 𝑘
Such that when replaced into our main expression the desired expression for the joint density of states
is
2𝜇
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) =
ħ2 𝜋
1D wire
Consider the length in k-space
𝐿𝑘 = 2𝑘
The length occupied by a given mode or state is 𝑘𝑥 where
2𝜋
𝑘𝑥 =
𝐿𝑥
The number of states in the given length is
𝐿𝑘 2𝑘 𝑘𝐿𝑥
𝑁= = 𝐿𝑥 =
𝑘𝑥 2𝜋 𝜋
Multiply this by 2 to account for spin, we get total number of states as
𝑘𝐿𝑥 𝑘𝐿𝑥
𝑁′ = 2 =
2𝜋 𝜋
Consider the density ie number of states per unit length
𝑁 ′ 2𝑘
𝜌= =
𝐿𝑥 𝜋
And the energy density is given by

𝑑𝜌 1 2𝑚 −1
𝜌′ = = √ 𝐸 2
𝑑𝐸 𝜋 ħ2

Or alternately
𝑑𝜌 2
=
𝑑𝑘 𝜋
Starting with the energy density
𝑑𝜌 2
𝜌2′ = =
𝑑𝑘 𝜋

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Divide by 2 to consider only one spin orientation since spin flip transition are generally forbidden
𝜌2′ 1
𝜌1′ = =
2 𝜋
Now apply the following equivalence
𝑑𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) = 𝜌1′ (𝑘)
𝑑𝐸
1 𝑑𝑘
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) =
𝜋 𝑑𝐸
where𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) is the desired joint density of states. As before in the 3D and 2D case, the conservation of
momentum means that transition in k-space are vertical so that 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏 = 𝑘) where 𝑘𝑎 (𝑘𝑏 ) is the
valance (conduction) band values.
The energy of the initial state in the valance band is
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑚2,𝑛2 −
2𝑚ℎ
Likewise the energy of the final state in the conduction band is
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑚1,𝑛1 −
2𝑚𝑒
The transition energy is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐸𝑎
ħ2 𝑘 2 1 1
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚1,𝑛1 − 𝐸𝑚2,𝑛2 + ( + )
2 𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑔 +
2𝜇
This leads to
𝑑𝐸 ħ2 𝑘
=
𝑑𝑘 𝜇
Or
𝑑𝑘 𝜇
= 2
𝑑𝐸 ħ 𝑘

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Such that when replaced into our main expression the desired expression for the joint density of states
is
𝜇 1
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) =
ħ2 𝜋 𝑘
Now to continue towards our final expression we express k fully. Since
ħ2 𝑘 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑔 +
2𝜇
1 ħ
=
𝑘
√2𝜇(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 )

This leads to the final expression for the joint density of states
1 𝜇 1
𝜌𝑗 (𝐸) = √
𝜋 2ħ2
√(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 )

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