GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF NURSING

JODHPUR

Presentation On
Research Approaches & Designs
Subject: - Nursing Research

Submitted To Submitted By
Mrs. Mamta Parihar Gaje Singh
Associate Professor M.Sc. (N) Previous
GCON Jodhpur Batch 2023
GCON Jodhpur
 RESEARCH APPROACHES AND DESIGNS
INTRODUCTION:
• Research approach and research design are two terms that are frequently used interchangeably; However
research design is a broader plan to conduct a study, and research approach is an important element of
the research design, which governs it.
• A research design is the framework or guide used for the planning, implementation, and analysis of a
study.
• It is a systematic plan of what is to be done, how it will be done, and how the data will be analysed.
• Research design basically provides an outline of how the research will be carried out and the methods
that will be used.
• It includes the descriptions of the research approaches, dependent and independent variables, sampling
design, and a planned format for data collection, analysis, and presentation.
• It also helps in answering research questions or hypotheses that may arise.

DEFINITION

• The research design is the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and
analyzing the needed information in a research study.
• Research design can be defined as a blue print to conduct a research study, which involves the
description of research approach, study setting, sampling size, sampling technique, tools and method of
data collection and analysis to answer a specific research question or for testing research hypotheses.
• Research design is a plan of how, when and where data are to be collected and analyzed.
• Research design is the researcher’s overall plan for answering the research questions or testing the
research hypotheses.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:-

APPROACH
INTRODUCTION
❑ The approach helps to decide about the presence or absence as well as manipulation and control over
variables.
❑ In addition, it helps to identify the presence or absence of and comparison between groups.
DEFINITION:

• It is a systematic investigative process employed to increase, revise current knowledge by discovering

new facts.
OR
• It involves the description of the plan to investigate the phenomenon under study in a structured
(Quantitative), unstructured (Qualitative) or a combination of the two methods (Qualitative and
Quantitative).

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH APPROACH

• Population, Sample, and Sampling Technique.
• The Time, Place, and Sources of data collection.
• Tools and methods of data collection.
• Methods of the data analysis.

1)Population, Sample and Sampling Technique

Researcher design also provides the researcher with directions about,
a) Population: Is the set of people or entities to which the results of a researcher are to be generalized.
• For example: A researcher needs to study the problems faced by postgraduate nurses of India; in
this the ‘population will be all the postgraduate nurses who are Indian citizens.
b) Sample: Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target population, which is to be worked upon
by researchers during their study.
c) Sampling Technique: Means technique i.e Probability and Non-probability sampling technique which
can be used in research study.
Example:
In an ethnographic qualitative research design, a researcher gets the directive (authorative instruction)
that the population will be a specific cultural group and the study will include a small sample selected
through a nonprobability sampling technique.

2) The time, Place, and Sources of data collection:

❖ Time: (Specifying days, months and years of study).
❖ Place: (location(Study settings)).
❖ Sources: (i.e personal experience, Practical experience, critical appraisal of literature, previous research,
etc).
Are the other important constituents essential to ensure effective planning to conduct a research study.
3) Tools and methods of data collection:
• This element of research design involves the description of different tools and methods of data
collection.
• Example:
Questionnaires, interviews, direct observation or any other methods suit the particular approach of the
research as well as nature of the phenomenon under study.
4) Methods of the data analysis:

• A researcher design must also include the description of the methods of data analysis – either
quantitative or qualitative data analysis techniques- that helps the researcher to collect the relevant data
which later can be analysed as per the research design plan.
 • Without a formal plan of data analysis a researcher may collect irrelevant data, which can later become
difficult to analyse.

SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• The selection of a research design depends on the nature of the research problem, the research available,
accessible of subjects and research ethics.
•
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
❖ Nature of the research problem.
❖ Purpose of the study.
❖ Researcher’s knowledge and experience
❖ Researcher’s interest and motivation
❖ Research ethics and principles
❖ Subjects/ Participants.
❖ Resources
❖ Time
❖ Possible control on extraneous variables.
❖ Users of the study findings

1)Nature of the research problem:

• It helps the researcher to decide about the selection of a research design.
• Based on the nature of research problem or phenomenon, researchers decide whether it should be
investigated through an experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental approach.
2) Purpose of the study:
• Study may be conducted for the purpose of prediction, description, exploration or correlation of the
research variables.
• Therefore, the purpose of the research study helps the researcher to choose a suitable research design.
3) Researcher’s knowledge and experience

• Selection of research design is largely influenced by the researcher’s knowledge and experience, because
they avoid using those designs wherein they lack confidence, relevant knowledge, or experience.
• Hence the awareness of and expertise in existing research designs are important factors pertaining to the
researchers.
4) Researcher’s interest and motivation:

• Interest and motivation levels help researchers decide about the particular research design(s).
• Motivated researchers always analyse most aspects of research design before selecting one or a
combination, while casual and callous researchers may choose research design(s) that may lead to
failure.
5) Research ethics and principles

• The incorporation and application of ethical and legal principles in the research design are essential.
• This includes moral obligations such as respect for participants and their rights, informed consent, and
protection from harm, including any adverse effects to educational progress, health, and well-being.
• Selection of a research design is significantly influenced by the ethics of the researcher study.
• Example: a researcher may be willing to conduct a research study through a certain experimental
approach, but problems of ethical approval may stop the researcher to do so and he or she may have to
settle for another available possible research design.

6) Subjects/Participants:
 • The number of study subjects may influence the selection of research design. If only few subjects are
involved, an in-depth qualitative research design study may be chosen method, but in case of a large
sample, the researcher may be option for a quantitative research design.

7) Resources:

• None of the researches can be conduct without resources such as money, equipment, facilities, and
support from colleagues.
• However, some of the studies require more amounts of resources as compared to others.
• Therefore, the selection of a research design may be affected by the availability of resources for the
research study.
8) Time:

• Time is also a major deciding factor for the selection of research design.
• For example, a researcher needs more time to conduct longitudinal studies, while cross-sectional
studies may be conducted in shoter time.
• Therefore, time is also a significant contributing factor in selection of a research design.
9) Possible control on extraneous variables:

• An efficient design can maximize results, decrease errors, and control pre-existing or impaired
conditions that may affect the outcome of the study.
• The maximized efforts of the researcher should maximize control.
• Therefore, possible control over the extraneous variables may affect the selection of a research
design.
• For example: a researcher wants to conduct a study through true-experimental design but because of
inability to control selected extraneous variables, other similar design has to be optained for, such as
quasi-experimental or pre-experimental research design.
10) Users of the study:

• A researcher design also involves various methods of data collection and data analysis.
• Therefore, while choosing a research design, researcher must ensure that research design is an
appropriate for the users of the study findings as possible, so that maximum advantage of the result can
be obtained.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
❖ Quantitative research design
❖ Qualitative research design

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Quantitative research is an inquiry into a identified problem based on testing a theory composed of variables,
measured with numbers and analyzed by using statistical technique.
➢ EXAMPLE: Conducting a quantitative study is a key variable was depression, we need to measure how
depressed study participants were. We might ask thinking about past life, how depressed you have been
on scale 0-10 where ‘0’ means- NOT AT ALL and 10 means MOST.
❑ The numeric value for all subject in study comprise the data on depression.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1)Quantitative research design is quantifying the relationship between variables.
2) The research knows in advance what he/she is looking for.
GOAL :
3) Prediction, Control, Confirm, Test hypothesis.
4) All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

➢ Experimental research designs
➢ Non-experimental research designs
➢ Other additional research design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

• It is defined as ‘observation under controlled conditions’.
• It is concerned with examination of the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable, where
the independent variable is manipulated through treatment or intervention (s), and the effect of these
interventions is observed on the dependent variable.
• EXAMPLE : A study was conducted to test the effect of an breast massage intervention for breast
engorgement. Some women took it for 5 days and others did not took.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1) True experimental design (6)
❖ Post-test-only control design
❖ Pre-test-post-test control group design
❖ Solomon four-group design
❖ Factorial design
❖ Randomized block design
❖ Crossover design
2) Quasi-experimental design (2)
✓ Non- randomized control group design
✓ Time-series design
3) Pre-experimental design (2)
❑ One-shot case design
❑ One-group pre-test-post-test design

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

True experimental research designs are those where researchers have complete control over the extraneous
variables and can predict confidently that the observed effect on the dependable variable is only due to the
manipulation of the independent variable.
CHARACTERISTICS

MANIPULATIO
N CONTROL

RANDOMIZATION

MANIPULATION
➢ Manipulation refers to conscious control of the independent variable by the researcher through
treatment or intervention(s) to observe its effect on dependent variable.
➢ In other words, it is a conscious act by the researcher, where he or she varies the independent variable
and observe the effect that manipulation has on the dependent variable of interest.
➢ FOR EXAMPLE: A researcher is conducting a study on the efficacy of chlorhexidine mouthwash on
the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) among patients admitted in ICUs.
• In this example chlorhexidine mouthwash is the independent variable, which is manipulated by the
researcher, and is used as an intervention for the experimental group, while the control group is kept
deprived of it to observe its effect on the incidence of VAP.
• In another e.g, suppose we hypothesize that gentle massage is effective as a pain relief measure for
elderly nursing home residents. Providing gentle massage to elderly in experimental group, and
withholding for others in control group is considered manipulation of independent variables, where the
effect of this manipulation is observed on the pain level in both the groups.

• Gental Massage
Independent • (As manipulation which can be given to
Variable some patients and withholding it from
others in control group).
Dependent
• Pain Level
Variable

CONTROL

• Control is another essential elements of true experimental design.

• Control refers to the use of control group and controlling the effect of extraneous variables on the
dependent variable in which researcher is interested.
 • The subjects in the control and experimental groups are similar in number and characteristics, but the
subjects in the control group receive no experimental treatment or any intervention at all.
• The experimental group receives the planned treatment or intervention, and a comparison is made with
the control group to observe the effect of this treatment or intervention.

MEASURE TO CONTROL EXTRANEOUS VARABLE

1. Matching
2. Counterbalancing
3. Homogeneity by statistical test

A. Matching:
➢ A conscious ‘matching’ of the subject characteristics in both the groups.
➢ It is a weak but common method of control over extraneous variables.
➢ In, matching, the researcher identifies one or more extraneous variables to be controlled, which
are supposed to have effect on dependent variable.
➢ As soon as subjects are recruited for one of the treatment groups, the researcher tries to find
subjects are recruited for one of the treatment groups, the researcher tries to find subjects for the
other group, similar to the subjects of the first group based on the specific matching variables.
➢ For example, if the age and gender are the matching variables of interest in a two-group study,
and a 65-years-old woman is recruited for the first group, the researcher would try to find another
65-years-old woman to be included in the second group.
➢ However, matching is not always feasible because of several reasons, such as not being able to
find subjects with similar characteristics in the population under study may affect dependent
variable(s), and the need to match more than three or four characteristics simultaneously may
further make it even more difficult.
A. Counterbalancing:
➢ The use of ‘counterbalancing’ is another way to exert active control over extraneous variables.
➢ Counterbalancing is used in studies in which the researcher is concerned that the orders in which
treatments or interventions are administered influence the study results.
➢ With counterbalancing all the subjects receive all the treatment, but the order of administration of
treatment is varied.
➢ For Example: counterbalancing can be used to study the effect of several different relaxation
techniques by varying the order in which they are administered to subjects.

B. Homogeneity by statistical test:

➢ The researcher may also exert control by conducting a statistical test to find no significant
difference in the basic characteristics of subjects that may affect the dependent variables among
different group under study.
➢ For example, to ensure the homogeneity of the demographical characteristics among two groups
under study, a chi-square test may be applied on the frequency distribution of selected
characteristics in two group, and there should not be a significant statistical difference in
demographical characteristics of two groups to establish the adequate control as depicted.
➢ However, finding such statistical difference is not easy because a researcher needs to have prior
knowledge about the characteristics of subjects which may affect the dependent variables and
must collect relevant information for statistical comparison before starting the experiment.

3) Randomization
 • Randomization means that every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to experimental or
control group.
• This is also known as random assignment of subjects, which involves the placement of study
subjects on a random basis.
• Through random assignment of subjects under experimental or control group, chances of systemic
bias is eliminated.
• Randomization is used in true experimental research designs to minimize the threat of internal
validity of the study and to eliminate the effect of extraneous variable on dependent variables.
• Through randomization, on an average the characteristics of the subjects in experimental and control
group are similar; thus influence of extraneous variables on dependent variable is eliminated by
dispersing the variability of the subject characteristics equally in both the groups.
•
METHOD OF RANDOMIZATION

• Random assignment of subjects may done with simple flip of a coin for each subject; if coin lands on its
‘head’, subject are assigned to first group and with ‘tail’ subjects are assigned to second group.
• Another possible method is to write the names of the subjects on slips of paper and put the slips into a
bowl and then draw lots. The first designated numbers of subjects are placed in one group, and rest are
assigned under another group.
• Thirdly a random table may used to facilitate the randomization process. In this method, blind-folded
subjects choose a number from a table of number from a table of numbers horizontally (row) or
vertically (columns), till a requisite number is reached for both experimental and control groups.
Computer-assisted random sequences also may be used for the random assignment of the subjects.
Using the random assignments, in a study of 16 subjects and two groups, the first person to enter
the study would be assigned to Group I, second would be assigned to Group II and so on. This method
ensures that the sample sizes for both the groups being compared are equal.

TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

❖ Six types of true experimental design

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Post-test Crossover
only

Pretest post- Randomized

test only block

POST-TEST-ONLY CONTROL DESIGN

Solomon
4 groups Factorial

Experimental group Treatment Post-test

Random assignment
Control group Post-test
 ❖ Composed of two randomly assigned groups, i.e. experimental and control, but neither of which is
pretested before the implementation of treatment on the experimental group.
❖ In addition, while treatment is implemented on the experimental group only, post-test observation is
carried out on both the groups to assess the effect of manipulation.
❖ This design can be helpful in situations where it is not possible to pretest the subjects.
❖ For EXAMPLE: to study the effect of an educational intervention related to urinary incontinence on the
subsequent help-seeking behaviour of older adults.

PRETEST- POST-TEST-ONLY DESIGN

Experimental Pretest Treatment Post-test

Random group
Assignment

Control group Pretest Post-test

❖ In this research design, subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group.
❖ The effect of the dependent variable on both the groups is seen before the treatment (pretest).
❖ Later, the treatment is carried out on experimental group only, and after –treatment observation of
dependent variable is made on both the groups to examine the effect of the manipulation of independent
variable on the dependent variable.
❖ For EXAMPLE: such a design could be used for ‘an experimental study to assess the effectiveness of
cognitive behavioural therapy interventions for patients with breast cancer.’

SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN

Experimental Treatment
Pretest Post-test
Group 1

Control Group 1 Pretest Post-test

Random
Assignment

Experimental Treatment Post-test

Group 2

Control Group 2 Post-test

❖ There are two experimental groups (experimental group 1and experimental group 2) and two control
groups (control group 1 and control group 2).
❖ Initially, the investigator randomly assigns subjects to the four groups.
❖ Out of the four groups, only experimental group 1 and control group 1 receives the pretest, followed
by the treatment to the experimental group 1 and experimental group 2.
 ❖ Finally, all the four groups receive post-test, where the effect of the dependent variables of the study
are observed and comparison is made of the four groups to assess the effect of independent variable
(experimental treatment) on the dependent variable.
❖ In this, experimental group 2 was observed at one occasion, and that score should be similar to
averaged scores of those in experimental and control groups.
❖ To estimate the amount of change in experimental and control group 2, the average test scores of
experimental and control group 1 are used as baseline.
❖ The Solomon four-group design is believed to be most prestigious experimental research design,
because it minimizes the threat to internal and external validity.
❖ This design not only controls all of the threats to internal validity, but also the reactive effects of the
pretest.
❖ Any differences between the experimental and the control groups can be more confidently attributed to
the experimental treatment.
❖ Unfortunately this research design require a large sample and statistical analysis, and therefore it is not
commonly used by nursing and other health care researchers.

FACTORIAL DESIGN
❖ In factorial design, researcher manipulates two or more independent variables simultaneously to observe
their effects on the dependent variables.
❖ This design is useful when there are more than two independent variables, called factors to be tested.
❖ For example, a researcher wants to observe the effects of two different protocols of mouth care on
prevention of VAP when performed at different frequencies in a day.
❖ This design also facilitates the testing of several hypotheses at a single time.
❖ Typical factorial design incorporates 2x2 or 2x3 factorial, but it can be in any combination.
❖ The first number (α) refers to the independent variables or the types of experimental treatments, and the
second number (β) refers to the level or frequency of the treatment.

Frequency of mouth care Protocols of the mouth care

Chlorhexidine (α1) Saline (α2)
4 hourly (β1) α1....β1 α2...β1
5 hourly (β2) α1...β2 α2...β2
8 hourly (β3) α1...β3
α2…β3
RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN
❖ Control of inherent differences between experimental subjects and differences in experimental
conditions is one of the difficult problems faced by researchers in biological sciences.
❖ When there are a large number of experimental comparison groups, the randomized block design is used
to bring homogeneity among selected different groups.
❖ This is simple method to reduce the variability among the treatment groups by a more homogeneous
combination of the subjects through randomized block design.
❖ For example: a researcher wants to examine the effects of three different antihypertensive drugs on
patients with hypertension.
❖ In this example, to ensure the homogeneity among the subjects under treatment, researcher randomly
places the subjects in homogeneous groups (blocks) like patients with primary hypertension, diabetic
patients with hypertension, and renal patients with hypertension.
❖ This design looks similar to a factorial design in structure, but out of two factors, one factor is not
experimentally manipulated, like in the given example there are two factors: type of antihypertensive
drugs and type of patients with hypertension, where only the type of drug is manipulated and type of
 patients with hypertension are simply grouped in different blocks with similar characteristics to ensure
homogeneity.

TYPES OF BLOCKS
ANTIHYPERTENSIVE
DRUGS
PATIENTS WITH DIABETIC RENAL PATIENTS
PRIMARY PATIENTS WITH WITH
HYPERTENSION (I) HYPERTENSION HYPERTENSION
(II) (III)
A A,I A,II A,III
B B,I B,II B,II
C C,I C,II C,III

CROSSOVER DESIGN
❖ In this design, subjects are exposed to more than one treatment, where subjects are randomly assigned to
different orders of treatment.
❖ It is also known as ‘repeat measure design’.
❖ This design is more efficient in establishing the highest possible similarity among subjects exposed to
different conditions, where groups compared obviously have equal distribution of characteristics.
❖ Though crossover design is considered as an extremely powerful research design, sometimes of the
second condition may be influenced by their experience in the first condition.
❖ For Example: When we are comparing the effectiveness of the chlorhexidine and saline mouth care
protocol, first we administer the chlorhexidine mouth care protocol on group I and saline mouth care
protocol on the subjects of group.
❖ Later, the treatment is swapped, where group I receives the saline mouth care and group II receives
chlorhexidine.
❖ In such studies subjects serve as their own control.

GROUPS PROTOCOLS OF THE

MOUTH CARE
GROUP I Chlorhexidine (α1) Saline (α2)
GROUP II Saline (α2) Chlorohexidine (α1)

ADVANTAGES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

➢ Experimental research designs are considered the most powerful designs to establish the casual
relationship between independent variables.
➢ Where the purpose of research is explanation, casual relationship may be established among the
variables by experimentation, especially in studies involving physical objects, where the variables are
more easily controlled than in human studies.
➢ In these studies, the controlled environment in which the study is conducted can yield a greater degree of
purity in observation.
➢ Conditions not found in a natural setting can be created in an experimental setting, where the
independent variable is manipulated by investigator.
 ➢ In the experimental approach, we can often create conditions in a short period of time that may take
years to occur naturally. For example, in genetic studies we can breed strains in very small time, which
would take a long time in nature to occur.
➢ When the experiment is conducted in a laboratory, experimental unit, or other specialized research
setting, it is removed from the pressure and problems of real-life situations and the research setting, it is
removed from the pressure and problems of real-life situations and the researcher can pursue his or her
studies in a more leisurely, careful, and concentrated way.

DISADVANTAGES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

➢ Most of the times, the results of experimental research designs cannot be replicated in studies conducted
on human beings due to ethical problems.
➢ For certain research problems, because of the danger to physical and psychological health on the human
subjects, it is not possible to conduct experimental on human beings.
➢ Many of the human variable neither have valid measurable criteria nor instruments to measure them. For
e.g, patients welfare or level of wellness cannot be measurd on any scale or by any instrument. In these
situations, if a refined experimental design is used, there may be a mismatch of research design and the
variable-measuring instruments.
➢ In experimental studies conducted in natural settings like hospitals or community, it is not possible to
impose control over extraneous.
➢ Another disadvantage of the experimental research design is that it is very difficult to get cooperation
from the study participants, because it may involve medical or surgical treatment or intervention.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

DEFINITION
Quasi-experimental research design involves the manipulation of independent variable to observe the effect on
dependent variable, but lacks at least one of the two characteristics of the true experimental design:
randomization or a control group.

• In other words, quasi-experimental designs have an element of manipulation but lack at least one of the
other two properties that characterize true experiments: randomization or a control group.
• Quasi-experimental designs are generally used to establish the causality (effect of independent variable
on dependent variable) in situations where researchers are not able to randomly assign the subjects to
groups or for various reasons no control group is available for an experimental study.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
✓ Manipulation of the independent variables to observe the effects on the dependent variables.
✓ Lack of at least one of the two other essential characteristics of the true experiment, i.e. random
assignment of subject or a control group.
✓ Quasi-independent variables are used instead of true independent variables. Where independent variable
is not manipulates in complete controller situations.
TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL

NONRANDOMIZE TIME-SERIES
D CONTROL
GROUP DESIGN DESIGN

NONRANDOMIZED CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

❖ It is also known as the ‘nonequivalent control groupdesign’.
❖ This design identical to the pretest-posttest control group design, except there is no random assignment
of subjects in experimental and control groups.
❖ In this design, experimental and control groups are selected without randomization, and dependent
variables are observed in experimental as well as control groups before the intervention.
❖ Later, the experimental group receives treatment and after that posttest observation of dependent
variable is carried out for both the groups to assess the effect of treatment on experiment group.

EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT
PRETEST POST-TEST
GROUP

CONTROL GROUP PRETEST POST-TEST

❖ For EXAMPLE, this method was used to study ‘the effects of integrated care on quality of work in
nursing homes: a quasi-experimental’.
❖ The purpose of this study was to examine he implementation of integrated care in the nursing home
sector, and its effect on the quality of work of the caregivers.
❖ A nonequivalent pretest-posttest control group design was used in this study.
❖ Data was collected by through a questionnaire.
❖ The result showed that the intervention appeared to be one successful on the somatic wards.
❖ The caregivers of these wards were more successful in creating a home-like environment for their
residents.
❖ Regarding the effect of the intervention on the quality of work factors, the result included an increase of
social support by supervision.
❖ The intervention on the psychosomatic wards was unsuccessful, though the introduction of integrated
care on the somatic wards was fairly successful.
 TIME-SERIES DESIGN
EXPERIME O1 O2 O3 TREATMENT O1 O2
NTAL
GROUP

O3
❖ This design is useful when the experimental wants to measure the effects of a treatment over a long
period of time.
❖ The experimenter would continue to administer the treatment and measure the effects a number of times
during the course of the experiment.
❖ Generally it is a single-subject research, in which the researcher carries out an experiment on an
individual or on a small number of individuals, by alternating between administering and then
withdrawing the treatment to determine the effectiveness of the intervention.
❖ For example, a researcher might assess pain levels of a group of patients with low-back pain. After 3
week of pain assessment, subject are taught special exercises to reduce that pain. During the next 3
weeks, pain levels would again be measured.
❖ Measuring a child’s school performance on a weekly basis, and then introducing a new teaching
technique. Then again measuring on a weekly basis.

ADVANTAGES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

❑ Quasi-experimental design are more frequently used because they are more practical and feasible to
conduct research studies in nursing, where in the absence of a large sample, size, randomization and/or
availability of control groups are not always possible.
❑ This design is more suitable for real-world natural setting than true experimental research designs.
❑ It allows researchers to evaluate the impact of quasi-independent variable under naturally occurring
conditions.
❑ It may be able to establish causal relationship, wherein some of the hypotheses are practically answered
through this design only.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
❑ There is no control group or a lack of control over the setting makes the results of this design less
reliable and weak for the establishment of casual relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
❑
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
This research design is considered very weak, because the researcher has very little control over the experiment.
TYPES OF PRE-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

ONE GROUP
ONE SHOT CASE
PRETEST-POSTTEST
DESIGN
DESIGN
ONE-SHOT CASE DESIGN
➢ In this research design, a single experimental group is exposed to a treatment and observations are made
after the implementation of that treatment.
➢ There is no random assignment of subjects to the experimental group and no control group at all.

EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT POST-TEST

GROUP

ONE-GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN

➢ It is the simplest type of pre-experimental design, where only the experimental group is selected as the
study subjects.
➢ A pretest observation of the dependent variables is made before implementation of the selected group,
the treatment is administered, and finally a posttest observation of dependent variables is carried out to
assess the effect of treatment on the group.
➢ Some researcher also argue this design as sub type of quasi-experimental research design.
➢ However in absence of both randomization and control group.
➢ This design ethically cannot be placed under the classification of quasi-experimental research design.
➢ This design measures the effect on the experimental group, based on their state before the beginning of
the experiment (pretest) and the difference achieved at the end of the experiment (posttest). There is no
control group in this design.

EXPERIMENTAL PRETEST TREATMENT POST-TEST

GROUP

❖ For example, ‘a study on the effect of interventions on the stress-coping resources of associate degree
nursing students’.
• In this study, a pretest and posttest design was used to examine three groups in nursing
programmes. Each group completed the instrument, Coping Resources Inventory for
Stress (CRIS), at the beginning and at the end of the first-year nursing course.
• The modified-curriculum group received interventions for the development of stress-
coping resources in their initial nursing course.
• The second group experienced self-directed interventions, and the third group received
no intervention. This study concluded that curriculum intervention for first-year degree
nursing students resulted in a measured increase of stress monitoring and tension-control
coping resources.

ADVANTAGES OF PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

➢ Very simple and convenient to conduct these studies in natural settings, especially in nursing.
➢ Most suitable design for the beginners in the field of experimental research.
DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
➢ Considered a very weak experimental design to establish casual relationship between independent and
dependent variables, because it controls no threat to internal validity.
➢ It has very little control over the research.
➢ It has a higher threat to internal validity of research, and may have a selection bias, which can be very
serious threats for in using this particular design.
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
It is one of the broad categories of research designs, in which the research observes the phenomena as they
occur naturally, and external variables are introduced.

NEEDS OF NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

❖ The independent variables cannot be manipulated.
❖ It is unethical to manipulate the independent variable.
❖ The research situations where it is not practically possible to conduct experiments.
❖ Descriptive type studies that do not require any experimental approaches.

TYPES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

❖ DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
✓ Univariant descriptive design
✓ Exploratory descriptive design
✓ Comparative descriptive design
❖ CORRELATIONAL/EX-POST FACTO DESIGN
✓ Prospective design
✓ Retrospective design
❖ DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
✓ Cross-sectional design
✓ Longitudinal design
❖ EPIDERMIOLOGICAL DESIGNS
✓ Case-control studies
✓ Cohort studies
❖ SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

It is used to observe, describe, and document aspect of a situation as it naturally occurs, and sometimes to serve
as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.
MAIN FEATURES
➢ Used to observe, document, and describe a phenomenon occurring in natural setting.
➢ To gain more information about characteristics within a particular field of inquiry.
➢ Used to develop theories, identify problems with practices, make judgments, or determine other
practices in similar situations.
➢ It provide an impression of situation as it occurs in natural setting.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

✓ Univariant descriptive design
✓ Exploratory descriptive design
 ✓ Comparative descriptive design

UNIVARIANT DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

• Univariant descriptive designs are undertaken to describe the frequency of a phenomenon.
• This design does not focus on the study of a single variable; there may be one or more variables involved
in the study.
❖ For Example, a researcher is interested in assessing the experiences of patient suffering from rheumatoid
arthritis.
▪ In this study, the researcher may describe the frequency of different symptoms experienced by
the patients and the type of treatment they received during the course of disease, etc.
▪ There are multiple variables in the research study.

EXPLORATORY DESIGN
It is used to identify, explore, and describe existing phenomenon and its related factors.
❖ For example, an exploratory study to assess the multifactorial dimensions of falls and home safety
measures for elderly people living in selected communities in the city Ludhiana.

COMPARATIVE DESIGN
It involves comparing and contrasting two or more sample of study subject on one or variables often at a single
point of time.
❖ For example, ‘A comparative study on health problems among rural and urban older people in district
Bikaner, Rajasthan’.
CORRLATIONAL/EX-POST FACTO RESEARCHE DESIGN
This is a nonexperimental design, where researcher examines the relationship between two or more variables
in a natural setting without manipulation or control.
❖ For example, this design was used for ‘A correlation study on the effect of smoking on lung cancer
among people in New Delhi’.
❖
MAIN FEATURES
➢ The researcher find the strength of relationship between the variables.
➢ Generally it has independent and dependent variables effect of independent variable is observe without
manipulating the dependent variable.
➢ Sometimes identification of dependent and independent variable.
➢ It finded by using correlation and coefficient.

TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN

❖ Prospective research design
❖ Retrospective research design

PROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Here the researcher relates the present to the future is a prospective research design.
 ❖ For example, a researcher conducting ‘a prospective correlational study on effect of maternal infection
during pregnancy on foetal development and pregnancy outcome’.
• In this study, the researcher starts by collecting data from pregnant women regarding any history
of infection among women during their current pregnancies, next observes foetal development
and pregnancy outcome, and finally analyses the relationship of maternal infection during
pregnancy and foetal development and pregnancy outcome.

RETROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Here the researcher studies the current phenomenon by seeking information from past.
❖ For example, this design was used in ‘a retrospective correlational study on substance-abuse-related
high-risk factors among traumatic head injury patients admitted in neurosurgery ICU of Dayanand
Medical College and Hospital (DMCH), Ludhiana’.
• In this study, the researcher first approached head injury patients, and then tried to identify the
number of head injuries that occurred under the influence of substance abuse.

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

It examines the phenomenon with reference to time
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
✓ Cross-sectional design
✓ Longitudinal design

CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
In which researcher collect data at particular time (one period of data collection) it is more convenient.
✓ For example, a researcher is interested in assessing the awareness on swine flu among people of an area.
Here the researcher interacts only once to collect awareness-related data respondents.

LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
Here the data collect at long time (long time study).
❖ IT HAS THREE TYPES;
• Trend studies
• Panel studies
• Follow-up studies
1) Trend studies: These helps to investigate a sample from a general population over a time with respect to
some phenomenon. Trend studies permit researchers to examine pattern and rate of changes and to some
phenomenon.
2) Panel studies: A panel In research is referred to the sample of people involved in a study.
3) Follow-up studies: These are undertaken to determine the subsequent states of subjects (s) with a
specified condition or those who have received a specified intervention.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

• It involves investigate the distribution and causes of the diseases in population.
 • Therefore, epidemiological studies are generally conducted to investigate causes of different diseases in
either prospective approaches (causes to effect) or retrospective approaches (effect to cause)
• However, in epidemiology different terminology is used for prospective and retrospective designs.
• The prospective studies are known as cohort study and retrospective studies are called case-control
studies.

TYPES

1) COHORT
STUDIES

2) CASE-CONTROL
STUDIES

1) COHORT STUDIES
• Here the longitudinal approach is used to investigate the diseases and causes.
• For example, a researcher longitudinally observes the smokers for development of lung cancer.

2) CASE-CONTROL
• In this design, causes of a disease are investigated after the occurrence of a disease.
• For example, a researcher investigates the history of smoking in patients diagnosed with lung cancer.

SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN

❖ A survey is a research design which is used to collect information from doifferent subjects within a
given population having some characteristics of interest.
❖ If the survey is conducted on a sample population, it is called sample survey.
❖ If the entire population is involved, it is called a population survey such as censuses, etc,.
❖ In a survey, information is collected regarding prevalence, distribution, and interrelationship of variables
within a population.
❖ A survey helps to collect wide range of data from a given population such as actions, attitudes, opinions,
perceptions, behaviours, awareness, practices, etc.
❖ Survey could be descriptive, exploratory, comparative, or correlational depending on the nature of
phenomenon under study.

MAIN FEATURES
➢ Survey research is the process of gathering current required data from the subjects so that new
information can be obtained.
➢ Information is collected from a ix of subjects who represent the total population in the characteristics
being studies.
➢ It Is a mode of enquiry that relies heavily upon the validity of verbal reports.
 ➢ Survey can be collected in number of ways. The most common method is questioning. The information
is obtained directly from the respondents by self-reporting questioning; however, face interview method
also may be used.
➢ Personal interviews are regarded as the most useful method of collecting survey data.

TYPES OF THE SURVEY

1) DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF PHENOMENON UNDER STUDY
2) BASED ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1) DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF PHENOMENON UNDER STUDY:

Surveys are classified as descriptive, exploratory, comparative, and correlational surveys.
❖ Descriptive survey: It is undertaken to describe the frequency of a phenomenon rather than to
study relationships.
❖ Exploratory Survey: It is the survey of a phenomenon, and its related factors, about which much
is not known.
❖ Comparative Survey: Comparing and contrasting the existence of a certain phenomenon in two
or more groups is done by comparative surveys.
❖ Correlational Survey: It is a study of the relationship between two or more variables in a natural
setting without manipulation or control.

2) BASED ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Based on the method of data collection, survey researchers can be classified as written, oral, and electronic
surveys.
❖ Written Survey: In a written survey, data are collected with the help of written, structured tools, such as
questionnaires, opinionnaires, etc.
❖ Oral Survey: Data in an oral survey is collected by using face-to-face or telephonic conversation or oral
interview with respondents.
❖ Electronic Survey: When data is collected by using electronic means such as electronic-mail messages
(Emails), web forms, mobile short message services (SMS); etc., it is know as electronic survey.

ADVANTAGES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

➢ It is a convenient method.
➢ Suitable for nursing research.
➢ It is simple.
➢ Low cost compare to experiment.
DISADVANTAGES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
➢ The relationship between variables finding is never clear.
➢ It has more error.
➢ Non randomized method will resulting in error.
➢
OTHER ADDITIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
❖ There are some of the research designs, which cannot be categorized under either experimental or
nonexperimental research designs.
 METHODOLOGICAL
STUDIES
OPERATIONAL METE-
RESEARCH ANALYSIS

TYPES
EVALUATION SECONDARY
STUDIES DATA
ANALYSIS
OUTCOME
RESEARCH

METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES
Research conducted to develop, test, and evaluate the research instruments and methods.
STEPS OF METHODOLOGICAL STUDY
➢ Defining the behavior.
➢ Formulating the items for tool.
➢ Developing instruments for users and respondents.
➢ Testing the reliability and validity of research tool.
• For example, a researcher may conduct ‘a methodological study to develop a pressure sore risk
assessment tool for patients admitted in orthopedic wards’.

META-ANALYSIS
Quantitatively combining and integrating the findings of the multiple research studies on a particular topic.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING A META-ANALYSIS
There are 5 steps:
a) Define hypothesis: First, there must be a well-defined statement of the relationship between the variables
under investigation, so that researcher can carefully define the inclusion and exclusion criteria when
locating potential studies.
b) Locate the studies: A meta-analysis is only informative if it adequately summarize the existing literature,
so a thorough literature search is critical to retrieve every relevant study, such as database searches,
ancestry approaches, descendancy approaches, hand searching, and the invisible college(i.e. network of
researchers who know about unpublished studies, conference proceedings, etc.)
c) Input data: Empirical findings are gathered from primary studies (e.g. p value and effect size) and input
into statistical database. Not every study provides sufficient statistical information to calculate the effect
size statistics.
 d) Calculate effect sizes: The overall effect is calculated by converting all statistics to a common metric,
making adjustments as necessary to correct for issues like sample size or bias, and then central tendency
(e.g. mean effect size and confidence intervals around that effect size) and variability (e.g. heterogeneity
analysis) are calculated.
e) Analyse variables: If heterogeneity exists, you may want to analyse moderating variables in the database
and analysing either mean differences (for categorical variables) or weighted regression (for continuous
variable) to see if the variable accounts for the difference in the effect size.
❖ For example, this design can be used for ‘a meta-analysis study on the coping behaviour of the people
with cancer diagnoses’. In this study, the researcher selects quantitative studies with coping behaviour of
the people with cancer, which are conducted on the similar age groups, and later carry out a statistical
analysis on the results of the selected studies.

SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS

A research design in which the data collected in one research is reanalyzed by another researcher, usually to test
new hypotheses.
❖ It can be performed by using both quantitative and qualitative data.
❖ For example, (for quantitative); A researcher used data from a previous study of patients with chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease to test an explanatory model of factors affecting functional status in this
disorder.
• (for qualitative); A researcher carried out a secondary analysis of data from a qualitative study of clients
with end-stage renal disease. The original study was designed to examine how and by whom were the
decisions about treatment modality made; the secondary study examined factors that influenced those
decisions.

OUTCOME RESEARCH
Outcome research involves the evaluation of care practices and systems in place. It is used in nursing to develop
evidence-based practice and improve nursing actions.

STRUCTURES (HAVING THE PROCESSES (Doing the right OUTCOMES (Having the right
RIGHT THINGS) things) results)

• For example, ‘An research on the effectiveness of Quality Assurance Programme (QAP)
Implemented in Nehru Hospital, PGIME, Chandigarh and Safdarjung Hospital New Delhi.’

EVALUATION STUDIES
It is research design which involves the judgement about success of a programmes, practices, procedures, or
policies.
❖ Evaluation research could be either formative evaluation or summative evaluation research.
1) Formative evaluation research refers to the assessment of a programme as it is being implemented; the
focus is on evaluation process of a programme rather than the outcome.
2) Summative evaluation research refers to the assessment of the outcome that is conducted after the
completion of the programme.
 ❖ For example, ‘An evaluation study on the implementation of the National Rural Health Mission
Programme in selected districts of Rajasthan’.

OPERATIONAL RESEARCH
Operational research involves the study of complex human organizations and services to develop new
knowledge about institutions, programmers, use of facilities, and personnel in order to improve working
efficiency of an organization.
❖ For example, An operational research study on patients’ comfort with, and perception of single-and
double-corridor ward design in selected hospitals at New Delhi’.
❖ Or ‘An operational research study on the patients, perception about different patient assignment methods
for providing nursing care in selected hospitals of Hyderabad.’

SUMMARY:

Various type of research approaches and design are use. The research approaches are broadly categorized in to
qualitative and quantative approach under quantitative research approach are experimental and non-
experimental other additional. further experimental are divided in three categories true experimental Quasi
experimental pre-experimental design. On experimental divided in six categories

CONCLUSION:
Research design is a master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information.
It is a strategy for how the data will be collected it provide the scheme for answering research questions
It maintain control to avoid bias that may effect the outcome .

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