DSE-4T (AD)

Research Methodology and

Design

“Planning of Research design and

experiment”
Meaning of Research

Research is the search for knowledge through

objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem.

Thus, research is an original contribution to the

existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
Objectives of Research

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to

achieve new insights into it.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group.
• To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else.
• To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship
between variables.
Types of Research

• Descriptive vs. Analytical

• Applied vs. Basic or fundamental

• Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Descriptive Research
It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business
research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research
projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure such items as for example,
• frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data.
Analytical Research
In this type of research, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental
(to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of
a theory.
Fundamental Research
It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake
is termed fundamental research.

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to

pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research
• Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried
on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour,
are also examples of fundamental research.
Applied Research

It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a

society or an industrial/business organization.

• Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a

concrete social or business problem is an example of Applied
research

• Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a

solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic
research is directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge.
Quantitative Research
It is based on the quantitative measurements of some
characteristics. It is applicable to phenomenon that can be
expressed in terms of quantities or amount.

Qualitative Research
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomenon
relating to or involving quality or kind.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives
and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other
techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion tests and similar other
projective techniques.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behaviour.
• Through such research we can analyse the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make
people like or dislike a particular thing.
CONCEPT OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• A research Design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the

researcher to answer questions validly, objectively, accurately and
economically.
• Research design is considered as a "blueprint" for research,
dealing with at least four problems: (According to Philliber,
Schwab, & Samsloss, 1980).

1. Which questions to study,

2. Which data are relevant,
3. What data to collect, and
4. How to analyse the results.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to
the research purpose with economy in procedure (According to
Seltiz, Deutsch and cook, 1962).
•Through research design researcher decides to communicate to
others on the decision regarding the study design that propose to
use, how the information has been collected, analysed and how the
findings would be addressed.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
•A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation,
so conceived as to obtain answer to research questions or
problems. The plan is the complete program of the research. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the
hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis
of data. – Kerlinger, 1986.
•A traditional research design is the blue-print or detailed plan for
how a research study is to be completed – operationalizing
variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to
study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypothesis
and analysing the results – Thyer 1993.
•Green and Tull, “ It is the specification of techniques and processes
for obtaining the information required. It is the over-all operational
pattern or framework of the project which states what data is to be
gathered from which source by what processes.”
 DESIGN VERSUS METHOD

Failing to distinguish between design and method

leads to poor evaluation of designs. Equating cross-
sectional designs with questionnaires, or case
studies with participant observation, means that
the designs are often evaluated against the
strengths and weaknesses of the method rather
than their ability to draw relatively unambiguous
conclusions or to select between rival plausible
hypotheses.
 Research Methods versus Methodology

• Research methods may be understood as all those

methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research.

• Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the

methods the researchers use in performing research
operations. In other words, all those methods which are
used by the researcher during the course of studying his
research problem are termed as research methods.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into
the following Three Groups

1. In the first group we include those methods which are

concerned with the collection of data. These methods will
be used where the data already available are not
sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

2. The second group consists of those statistical

techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are

used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.
Research Methodology

• Is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

• It may be understood as a science of studying how
research is done scientifically.
• In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them.
• It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his
methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem
to problem.
• Thus research methodology has many dimensions and research
methods constitute a part of the research methodology.
• The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research
methods.

Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of

the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain :

• Why we are using a particular method or technique

• Why we are not using others so that research results are capable
of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Importance of Knowing How Research is Done

• The study of research methodology gives the students

necessary training in :
•gathering material and arranging or card-indexing them.
•Participation in the field work when required.
•Training in techniques for the collection of data
appropriate to particular problem
•In the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled,
experimentation.
•Recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting.
The following order provide procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
• (1) Formulating the research problem.
• (2)Eextensive literature survey.
• (3) Developing the hypothesis
• (4) Preparing the research design.
• (5) Determining sample design.
• (6) Collecting the data.
• (7) Execution of the project
• (8) Analysis of data.
• (9)Hypothesis testing.
• (10) Generalisations and interpretation and
• (11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the
results, i.e.; formal write-up of conclusions reached.
1. Formulating the research problem

• At the very outset the researcher must single out the

problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that
he would like to inquire into.

• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the

research problem, viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive literature survey

• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it

should be written down.
• At this juncture the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
• For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals
and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first
place to go to.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government
• reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem.
• In this process, it should be remembered that one
source will lead to another.
• The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study
in hand should be carefully studied.
• A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
• print and Non – Print sources are all included in this
category.
3. Development of working hypotheses:
• After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences.
• As such the manner in which research hypotheses are
developed is particularly important since they provide the
focal point for research.
• They also affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the
quality of data which is required for the analysis.
Approach to Develop a working Hypothesis

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the

problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution
(b) Examination of data and records, if available,
concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities
and other clues.
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies
on similar problems and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves
original field interviews on a limited scale with interested
parties and individuals with a view to secure greater
insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design:

• The research problem having been formulated in clear

cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a
research design. i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted.

• In other words, the function of research design is to

provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure f effort, time and money.

• But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on

the research purpose
5. Determining sample design:

• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry

constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• As Census inquiry is not possible in practice under many
circumstances.
• Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes.
• The items so selected constitute what is technically
called a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design.
• In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined
before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
• Samples can be either probability samples or nonprobability
samples.
• With probability samples each element has a known probability of
being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do
not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
•Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling.
• whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
6. Collecting the data
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which
differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey.
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
• But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or
more of the following ways:
• By observation
• Through personal interview
• Through personal interview
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires
• Through schedules:
7. Execution of the project:

• Execution of the project is a very important step in the

research process.

• If the execution of the project proceeds on correct

lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable.

• The researcher should see that the project is executed

in a systematic manner and in time.

• If the survey is to be conducted by means of

structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed.
8. Analysis of data
• After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to
the task of analysing them.

• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related

operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

• Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some

purposeful and usable categories such as:

• Coding operation is usually done at this stage through

which the categories of data are transformed into symbols
that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the
data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for
tabulation.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein

the classified data are put in the form of tables. The
mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A
great deal of data, specially in large inquiries is tabulated
by computers.

Computers not only save time but also make it possible to

study large number of variables affecting a problem
simultaneously.
9.Hypothesis-testing:
• After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher
is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
• Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to
be contrary.
• The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object
of research inquiry.
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.
• If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalisations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.
10. Generalisations and interpretation:
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation,
i.e., to build a theory.
• As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalisations
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory.
• It is known as interpretation.
• The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off
new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.
Criteria of Good Research
• Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one
thing that is important is that they all meet on the common
ground of scientific method employed by them.

• One expects scientific research to satisfy the following

criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient

detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already
been attained.

• 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully

planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

• 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its

significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.

• 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of

the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.

• 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is

experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
• In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research.
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is
structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well defined set of
rules.

• Good research is logical: This implies that research is

guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research.

• 3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is

related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation
and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.