UENR University of Energy

and Natural Resources

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Programme: BSc. Computer Engineering

A Laboratory Report Presented to the Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering

©2024 University of Energy and Natural Resources

All Rights Reserved

GROUP 3

LABORATORY REPORT
CENG 203

TITLE OF EXPERIMENTS
1. PN Junction Diode Forward Characteristics
2. Half Wave Rectifier
3. Full wave rectifier using Center Tap Transformer
4. Full wave bridge rectifier

Laboratory Supervisor: Mr. Frank Ofori

© 2024
 Group Members

NAME INDEX №
Salifu Abdul-Rahaman UEB1101522
Ofori Mathias Sekyere UEB1101122
Bennin Humaidu UEB1101222
Frimpong Daniel UEB1101322
Martey Isaac Nii Marlay UEB1101422

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Experiment 1: P-N Junction Diode Forward Characteristics ................................................................. 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 5
Procedure ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Experimental Data and Results ..................................................................................................... 7
Discussion and Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 9
CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Experiment 2: Half Wave Rectifier .................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 10
Procedure ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Experimental Data and Results ................................................................................................... 13
Discussion and Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Experiment 3: Full Wave Rectifier Using Centre-Tapped Transformer ............................................... 15
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 15
Procedure ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Experimental Data and Results ................................................................................................... 18
Discussion and Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Experiment 3: Full Wave Bridge Rectification ................................................................................... 20
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 20
Procedure ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Experimental Data and Results ................................................................................................... 23
Discussion and Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 24

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 Table of Figures

Figure 1.1: Schematic of P-N Junction Diode Forward Characteristics Experiment ......... 6

Figure 1.2: I-V Characteristics of Diode .......................................................................... 8

Figure 2.1: Schematic of a Half Wave Rectifier without Capacitor connected ................ 11

Figure 2.2: Schematic of a Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor connected ..................... 12

Figure 2.3: Waveform of Input and Output Voltages without Capacitor connected ......... 12

Figure 2.4: Waveform of Input and Output Voltages with Capacitor Connected ............. 13

Figure 3.1: Schematic of a Centre-Tapped Full Wave rectifier without Capacitor

connected ...................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 3.2: Waveform of Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectification without Capacitor

connected ...................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 3.3: Schematic of Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor connected 17

Figure 3.4: Waveform of Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectification with Capacitor

connected ...................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 4.1: Schematic of Full wave Bridge Rectifier without Capacitor connected ........ 21

Figure 4.2: Waveform of Bridge Rectifier Without Capacitor connected ........................ 22

Figure 4.3: Schematic of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor connected ............. 22

Figure 4.4: Waveform of Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor connected ............................. 23

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 CHAPTER 1
Experiment 1: P-N Junction Diode Forward Characteristics

Introduction

The junction diode is an important part of an electric circuit which is used to

support the uni-directional flow of current. The diode is forward biased when the
p-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply and
the n-side is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply. In the forward
biased mode, the diode is ON and allows current to pass through it.
In this experiment, we will determine the characteristics of a P-N Junction diode at
certain voltages. The aim of this experiment are as follows:
• To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
• To find Cut-In Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
• To find static and dynamic resistances in forward biased conditions for Silicon
P-N Junction diode.
From the experiment, the results found were as expected to that of the theoretical
results. Only just slight and negligible differences were encountered which was not
enough to alter the expected results.

Procedure

The components and equipment needed to conduct the experiment were as follows:
1. Diode (1N4007)
2. Resistor (1kΩ)
3. Bread Board
4. Regulated Power Supply (0-30 VDC)
5. Digital Ammeter
6. Digital Voltmeter
7. Connecting Wires
The procedure followed when we were conducting the experiment was as follows;

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1. i. The Regulated Power Supply was connected to the 1kΩ Resistor using the
wires.
ii. The Digital Ammeter was connected in series with the Resistor.
iii. The 1N4007 Diode was connected to the Ammeter and the back to the other
terminal of the supply.
iv. The Digital Voltmeter was connected across the ends of the diode.

2. The power supply was varied gradually in steps of 0.3 V up to 6 V and at an

increment of 3 volts onward and noted down VD and the corresponding readings
of ID.

Figure 1.1: Schematic of P-N Junction Diode Forward Characteristics Experiment

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Experimental Data and Results

The values obtained from the experiment were put in a tabular form.
Tab 1.1: Forward Currents Obtained for Different Forward Voltages
RPS Voltage, Vin (V) VD (mV) ID (mA)
0 0 0
0.3 291.135 0.008865
0.6 440.468 0.159532
0.9 489.378 0.410622
1.2 515.8 0.6842
1.5 533.671 0.966329
1.8 547.116 1.253
2.1 557.873 1.542
2.4 566.828 1.833
2.7 574.495 2.126
3 581.194 2.419
3.3 587.141 2.713
3.6 592.487 3.008
3.9 597.342 3.303
4.2 601.789 3.598
4.5 605.889 3.894
4.8 609.694 4.19
5.1 613.243 4.487
5.4 616.568 4.783
5.7 619.695 5.08
6 622.647 5.377
9 645.566 8.354
12 661.492 11.339
15 673.719 14.326
18 683.643 17.316
21 692.024 20.308
24 699.264 23.301
27 705.644 26.294
30 711.351 29.289

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 The table was used to plot a graph of the I-V characteristics of the diode with ID against VD.
35

30

25

20
ID(mA)

15

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-5
VD(mV)
Figure 21.2: I-V Characteristics of Diode

Other Measurements:
i. Cut-In Voltage, Vℽ ≈ 661.492mV at 12V

ii. Static Forward Resistance, RDC = VD/ID = 661.492 ∕ 11.339 = 58.338Ω

iii. Dynamic Forward Resistance, rAC = ∆VD/∆ID = (661.492-645.566) ∕ (11.339-8.354)

>> rAC = 5.335Ω

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Discussion and Conclusion

From theory, the Cut-In Voltage of an ideal Silicon Diode is approximately

between 0.6V and 0.7V. This value may vary due to difference in equipment
calibration. As seen in the value obtained from the simulation, the Cut-In Voltage
is 661.492mV which is within the required range of values.
Also, in theory, the Static Forward Resistance value ranges from 10 to 100Ω. The
value we get from the simulation is in accordance with the theoretical value.

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 CHAPTER 2
Experiment 2: Half Wave Rectifier

Introduction

In half wave rectification, half of the inputted Alternating Current is converted into
Direct Current. During the positive half cycle, the diode is switched on thus
allowing current to pass through it and then through the load resistor. This creates a
voltage across the resistor. In the negative half, the diode is reverse biased and
does not allow current to pass through it. And thus, no voltage is generated across
it.
The aim of this experiment is as follows:
• To examine the input and output waveform of the half wave rectifier
• To find the Ripple Factor

Procedure

The components and equipment needed for the experiment were as follows:
1. Bread Board
2. Oscilloscope
3. Connecting Wires
4. Digital Multimeter
5. Transformer (230V – 12V)
6. BNC Probes
7. Capacitor (100µF)
8. Diode (1N4007)
9. Resistor (1kΩ)

The procedure for the experiment was as follows:

1. i. The AC Power Supply was connected to the Transformer.
ii. A terminal of the Transformer was connected to the Diode.
iii. The other end of the diode was connected to the 1kΩ resistor.

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 iv. For the unfiltered connection, the capacitor was not connected to the load
resistor.
2. The input voltage waveform across the secondary of the transformer was
observed and the voltage across the output was also observed in the
oscilloscope.
3. The waveform of the input and output, the peak voltage, frequency and period
were all observed.
4. The AC and DC voltages at the output were observed using the Digital
Multimeter by keeping the Digital Multimeter in DC Mode for measuring DC
voltage and in AC Mode for measuring RMS voltage.
5. The Ripple factor was measured using the Table 2.1.
6. Then, the capacitor was connected across the load resistor and the step 2 – 4
were repeated to determine the Ripple factor by completing the Table 2.2

Figure 32.1: Schematic of a Half Wave Rectifier without Capacitor connected

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 Figure 2.2: Schematic of a Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor connected

The waveforms of the circuits above are as follows:

Figure 2.3: Waveform of Input and Output Voltages without Capacitor connected

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 Figure 2.4: Waveform of Input and Output Voltages with Capacitor Connected

Experimental Data and Results

The data gathered from the experiment were as follows;

Tab 2.1: Output Measurements Without Capacitor
USING DMM VAC(v) VDC(v) r=VAC/VDC
6.345 5.15 1.232038835

Tab 2.2: Output Measurement with Capacitor

USING DMM VAC(v) VDC(v) r=VAC/VDC
0.798 15.095 0.052865187

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Discussion and Conclusion

This form of rectification is called Half-Wave because only one half of the input
waveform is allowed to pass through the diode. As seen in the figures above, the
output waveform is only half of the input waveform.
Theoretically, the ripple factor is 1.21 but from the simulations it was found to be
1.23 which could be as a result of instability of measurements of the V AC and VDC.

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 CHAPTER 3
Experiment 3: Full Wave Rectifier Using Centre-Tapped Transformer

Introduction

Full wave rectification is the type of rectification in which both halves of the input
alternating waveform are converted to a single output waveform. This can be done
using Centre-Tapped transformer or by bridge rectification. In this experiment, we
focused on using a Centre-Tapped Transformer.
The aim of this experiment is as follows:
1. To examine the input and output waveform of Centre-Tapped Transformer full
wave rectifier.
2. To find the ripple factor.

Procedure

The equipment and components needed for the experiment were as follows;
1. Bread board
2. Oscilloscope
3. Connecting wires
4. Digital Multimeter
5. Centre-Tapped Transformer (230V—12V×2)
6. BNC Probes
7. Capacitor (100µF)
8. Diode (1N4007) ×2
9. Resistor (1kΩ)

The procedure for the experiment was as follows;

1. i. The AC supply was connected to the C.T transformer.
ii. One side of the C.T transformer was connected to one diode and the other
side of the C.T to the other diode.
iii. The unconnected ends of the diodes were connected together.

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 iv. The resistor was connected to the diode connection and the other side of the
resistor to the center terminal of the C.T transformer.
v. For the unfiltered connection, the capacitor was not connected.
2. The input voltage waveform across the secondary of the transformer and also
across the output in the oscilloscope was observed.
3. The AC and DC voltages at the output were measured using Digital Multimeter
(DMM) by keeping the DMM in DC mode to measure the DC Voltage and the
DMM in AC mode to measure the RMS Voltage.

4. The ripple factor was determined using the table 3.1 below and the value
obtained compared to the theoretical value.
5. Then the capacitor was connected across the load resistor and steps 2 – 4
repeated to determine the ripple factor using table 3.2.

Figure 43.1: Schematic of a Centre-Tapped Full Wave rectifier without Capacitor connected

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 Figure 53.2: Waveform of Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectification without Capacitor connected

Figure 63.3: Schematic of Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor connected

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 Figure 73.4: Waveform of Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectification with Capacitor connected

Experimental Data and Results

The data gathered from the simulations were as follows:

Tab 3.1: Output Measurements Without Capacitor
USING DMM VAC(V) VDC(V) r=VAC/VDC
5.221 10.257 0.509018231

Tab 3.2: Output Measurements with Capacitor

USING DMM VAC(V) VDC(V) r=VAC/VDC
0.415 15.8 0.026265823

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Discussion and Conclusion

This experiment is called a Full Wave Rectification because both the positive and
negative half cycles of the input waveform are rectified. This is due to the diodes
being connected to the positive and negative terminal of the Centre-Tapped
Transformer.
Theoretically, the ripple factor is 0.48. However, in our simulation, we had a value
of 0.51 which might be due to the instability of the VAC and VDC values when
reading from the Digital Multimeter.

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 CHAPTER 4
Experiment 3: Full Wave Bridge Rectification

Introduction

Full wave rectification is the type of rectification in which both halves of the input
alternating waveform are converted to a single output waveform. This can be done
using Centre-Tapped transformer or by bridge rectification. In this experiment, we
focused on bridge rectification.
The aim of this experiment was as follows:
1. To examine the input and output waveform of bridge rectifier.
2. To find the ripple factor.

Procedure

The equipment and components needed for the experiment were as follows;
1. Bread board
2. Oscilloscope
3. Connecting wires
4. Digital Multimeter
5. Transformer (230V—12V)
6. BNC Probes
7. Capacitor (100µF)
8. Diode (1N4007) ×4
9. Resistor (1kΩ)

The Procedure of this experiment was as follows;

1. i. The AC power supply was connected to the transformer.
ii. The terminals of two of the diodes were connected together and that
connection to one terminal of the transformer.

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 iii. The other terminals of the remaining diodes were connected together and
then connected to the other terminal of the transformer.
iv. The unconnected terminals of the diodes were connected to each other.
v. The resistor was connected to the diode connection.
2. The input voltage waveform across the secondary of the transformer and also
across the output were observed in the oscilloscope.
3. AC and DC voltages at the output was measured using DMM by keeping the
DMM in DC Mode for DC voltage measurement and in AC Mode for RMS
voltage.
4. The ripple factor was determined by completing Tab 4.1 and comparing the
simulated value to the theoretical value.
5. The capacitor was connected across the load resistor and the steps 2 – 4 were
repeated and the ripple factor determined by completing Tab 4.2.

Figure 84.1: Schematic of Full wave Bridge Rectifier without Capacitor connected

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 Figure 94.2: Waveform of Bridge Rectifier Without Capacitor connected

Figure 104.3: Schematic of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor connected

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 Figure 114.4: Waveform of Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor connected

Experimental Data and Results

The data gathered from the simulations were as follows:

Tab 4.1: Output Measurement without Capacitor

USING DMM VAC(V) VDC(V) r=VAC/VDC

4.885 9.343 0.522851333

Tab 4.2: Output Measurement with Capacitor

USING DMM VAC(V) VDC(V) r=VAC/VDC

0.426 17.879 0.023826836

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Discussion and Conclusion

This experiment is called a Full Wave Rectification because both the positive and
negative half cycles of the input waveform are rectified. This is due to the diodes
being connected to the terminals of the Transformer, and then rectifying the current
in both halves of the wave.
Theoretically, the ripple factor is 0.48. However, in our simulation, we had a value
of 0.52 which might be due to the instability of the VAC and VDC values when
reading from the Digital Multimeter.

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