LESSON 1 o particles are somehow close to each

other
Nature and Properties of Matter o particles are not arranged in an orderly
manner.
o particles can slide past each other,
HISTORY OF MATTER allowing the liquid to flow freely and take
• It was the Greek philosophers who began the shape of the container in which it is
questioning the beginning of all things. placed.
• They believed that all things around us was made • Gas
up of single element. o takes the shape of its container
o Anaximenes – matter was made up of o has a high kinetic energy (the movement
air. of particles and molecules)
o Thales – matter was made up of water. o has no definite shape and volume
o Heraclitus – matter was made up of fire o if uncontained, the gas will spread out
• However, according to Empedocles, matter is indefinitely.
made up of all 4 fundamental elements: earth, o if contained, the gas will expand to fill its
air, fire, and water. He believed that the container.
proportions of the fundamental elements depend o When a gas is put under pressure by
on what the matter is. reducing the volume of the container, the
space between particles is reduced. And
• But more philosophers noticed that when
the gas is compressed.
materials disintegrate or are broken down, they
don’t resemble the fundamental elements. • Plasma
o consists of highly charged particles with
• Law of Constant Proportion - this idea states that
all things of the same type have the same extremely high kinetic energy
proportions of the elements that compose them. o the noble gases (such as helium, neon,
• Then, Leucippus and Democritus wondered what argon, krypton, xenon, etc.) are often
would happen if they cut a piece of gold used to make glowing signs through
indefinitely. They concluded that there is a certain electricity because the particles are
size that cannot be broken down. They called this ionized in plasma state.
“size” as atomos. • Bose-Einstein Condensate
o atomos means uncuttable. o created by scientists in 1995
• The main principles of Leucippus and o they used the combination of lasers and
Democritus’ theory include the following: magnets.
o Matter is made up of atoms that is too o a group of atoms cooled within
tiny to be seen by the naked eye. temperatures very close to absolute zero
o Atoms are in constant motion around an
(0 K).
empty space called the void.
o Atoms are completely solid. o When absolute zero is reached, the
o Atoms are uniform, with no internal atoms are hardly moving relative to each
structure. other. They almost have no free energy
o Atoms come in different shapes and to do so.
sizes. o The atoms begin to clump together and
• Epicurus of Samos further enhanced the theory of enter the same energy state.
Leucippus and Democritus. He popularized
atomism. PROPERTIES OF MATTER
o Atomism – all atoms have the same • Features of Matter:
speed, but different weights o Mass – the amount of matter a
o This idea was opposed by Plato and substance has
Aristotle. o Volume – how much space an object can
• These early theories of matter were only based on hold
logic. But, now, the modern scientists have come o Weight – the force acting on something
to agree and confirm that: due to gravity which is based on where
o All matter is composed of atoms. you are. (weight on Earth is different on
o All matter has different sub-atomic Mars)
particles. • Properties of matter can be classified as a
o Matter can be characterized based on its physical or chemical property.
state or phases.
Physical Property
STATES / PHASES OF MATTER • properties that are observable without changing
the composition of a substance.
• Solid • ex. phase, conductivity, color, volatility, solubility,
o has definite shape and volume because melting point, boiling point, viscosity
of the molecules (appearance doesn’t
change)
o molecules are tightly packed Chemical Property
o particles vibrate • properties that can be measured or observed only
o its appearance can’t change. when matter undergoes a change.
o molecular motion in a solid matter is • ex. reactivity to acid / metal, flammability, abilitiy
confined to a very small vibration. to rust (corrosion)
o solids have a fixed shape because they
vibrate in a fixed position. • Matter may also be described in terms of
• Liquid extensive and intensive.
o has no definite shape because particles
are loosely packed than solid.
Extensive Property Mixtures
• extensive properties depend on the amount of • made when 2 or more substances are physically
matter present. combined (not combined chemically).
• includes mass, length, size, and volume • the components of a mixture can be easily
• the more matter there is, the greater is its separated and keep their original properties.
extensive properties. • can be homogenous or heterogenous
• examples: • Homogenous – the appearance, properties, and
o Length of a pencil composition are uniform throughout the sample.
o Volume of water o Solution – a homogenous mixture
o Big and small car composed of solute and solvent.
▪ Solute – the one being
Intensive Property dissolved
▪ Solvent – the dissolving
• intensive properties are substance properties
medium
• they depend on the type of matter. o Water is considered as the universal
• includes density, color, physical state, melting solvent.
point, boiling point, freezing point, and thermal o When salt (solute) is mixed in water
conductivity (solvent), salt crystals dissolves in water
• may be used to identify a substance which creates saltwater.
• examples: • Heterogenous – not evenly distributed and can be
o Electric conductivity physically identified. (ex. oil and water mixture)
o Smell of garlic
Methods of Separating Mixtures:
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER
• Magnets - used to separate metals from non-
• Matter can also be classified as a pure substance metals
or a mixture.

Pure Substances
• has a fixed chemical composition • Decantation – process of separation of liquid from
• only contains one kind of matter solid and other immiscible liquid.
• unchanging or specific composition
• combined chemically
• has 2 types: elements and compounds
• Elements:
o the simplest type of matter with one kind
of atom
o Parts of an Element:
▪ Symbol – the letter that
represents the element (capital
letter then is succeeded by a
small letter; if there is)
▪ Atomic Number – the number
above the symbol
▪ Atomic Mass – the number • Evaporation – used to separate components of a
below the symbol mixture with a dissolved solid in a liquid.
▪ Name – mostly found the below
the element symbol in periodic
tables

• Compounds:
o composed of 2 or more elements
combined chemically in definite
proportions.
o can be covalent or ionic
o ex. Na-Cl (sodium chloride)
• Sublimation – a separation technique where a o Soaps and Detergents – mixtures of
substance makes a transition from solid to gas surfactants, water softeners, stain
directly. removers, enzymes, and perfumes, etc.
▪ Surfactants – an agent that
lowers the surface tension of
water, allowing the surface to
be wet to be cleaned.
• Personal Care Products – products that improve
the overall appearance of a person and are
usually used to cleanse and beautify.
o Makeup – a general term for products
applied externally to face for
beautification which includes foundations
and lipsticks.
▪ All foundations contain the
same compounds that serve as
moisturizers, colorants, and
• Distillation – a physical separation based on the fillers such as talc.
vaporization of the different components of the ▪ Talc – a compound and
mixture to be separated. (used for liquids with naturally occurring mineral that
different boiling points) prevents the caking of the
product and ensures the
smooth distribution of makeup
to the skin.
▪ Lipsticks – made of assorted
ingredients such as wax, oil,
moisturizers, and pigments
especially a color additive or
dye, derived primarily from
petroleum.
o Lotion – generally used to moisturize or
hydrate the skin.
▪ Glycerin – a common
moisturizing agent which helps
provide hydration and gives the
• Chromatography – used to separate components smooth feel of the skin.
of different degrees of solubility using a moving o Toothpaste – normally come as
and a stationary fluid. (works in separating the heterogenous pastes or gels.
colors pigments of inks) ▪ Compounds with fluoride help
prevent plaque and tartar
(hardened plaque), and protect
the mouth from gum diseases. It
also help strengthen the enamel
of the teeth.

PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES

IN CONSUMER PRODUCTS
• Consumer Product – any item bought for
consumption
• Household Cleaning Products
o Bleach – helps clean and whiten
surfaces by generally lowering the
stability of the chemical bonds in stain
molecules. These are oxidizers which
can burn the skin and eyes if used in
concentrated forms.
▪ Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCL)
– a common bleaching agents
that is usually found in chlorine
bleach.
▪ Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) – a
common bleaching agent that
usually releases oxygen and
found in oxygen bleach.
LESSON 2 • Ernest Rutherford – The one who performed the
gold foil experiment and discovered the proton.
Fundamental Particles of Matter o He found out that an atom has a tiny,
positive center in which he called the
proton.
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMISTRY
• Robert Boyle – defined that element is the
simplest composition of matter. It cannot be
broken down, but can be combined to form a
compound.
• Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier – he found out that the
gas discovered by Joseph Priestly is actually an
oxygen. He also formulated the law of
conservation of mass.
o Oxygen is involved in the processes of
combustion and respiration.
o Law of Conversation of Mass – states
that matter cannot be created nor
destroyed; therefore, the amount of
matter produced is the same as the
reacted matter even in different states.
• Joseph Louis Proust – he established the law of
definite proportions / composition. • James Chadwick – he discovered that in the
o Law of Definite Proportions – states that nucleus, another type of particle is present in
there will always be a given chemical which he called the neutron.
compound and it contains the same o Neutron – an uncharged or neutral
element in the same or exact same particle.
proportion / mass.
o Ex. A 100 g water contains 89% oxygen
and 11% hydrogen by mass. A 100 kg
water also contains the same
percentages by mass.
• John Dalton – A British scientist that proposed the
law of multiple proportions.
o Law of Multiple Proportions – it states
that when 2 elements are combined with
each other to form more than 1
compound, the weight of 1 element that
combined with a fixed weight of the other
are in ratio of small whole numbers.
o He also proposed the 4 postulates of • Characteristics of Sub-atomic Particles:
atomic theory.

DALTON’S POSTULATES OF ATOMIC THEORY

• Matter is made up of extremely small, indivisible
particles called atoms.
• Atoms of the same element are identical, and are
different from those of other elements.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of different
elements combine in certain whole-number ratios.
o Ex. Water (H2O) – 2 hydrogen and 1 ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS
Oxygen; therefore, the ratio is 2:1.
• Since atoms cannot be created nor destroyed,
atoms rearrange only during a chemical reaction
to form new compounds.

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
• Because of Dalton’s postulates of atomic theory,
many scientists were able to conceptualize the Isotopic Configuration // Normal Configuration
structure of an atom. of an Element
• Joseph John Thomson – he used a cathode ray
tube and discovered, like a plum pudding, an • Atomic Mass / Mass Number (A) – indicates the
atom has electrons in a positively-charged area. total number of protons and neutrons. It is an
estimate of the element’s atomic mass.
• Atomic Number (Z) – represents the number of
protons in its nucleus.
• The picture of the left side is followed when
isotopic configuration is being found.
• Formula:
• Example:

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

79 44 • The left side of the periodic table (first two
columns except the hydrogen) are mostly metals.
• The right side of the periodic table (last 6
ISOTOPES columns) are mostly non-metals.
• Hydrogen is seen on the metal elements even
• Isotopes – atoms with the same atomic number
though it is a non-metal on the periodic table. This
(Z), but different atomic mass (A).
is because most of the metals are stable atoms.
• To represent an isotope, write the element name
• Elements in the “zig-zag” line on the right side of
or symbol, followed by a hyphen then its mass
the periodic table are called metalloids which
number.
includes Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic,
o Ex. H-1, H-2, H-3 (hydrogen-1,…)
Antimony, and Tellurium.
• Isotopes of Hydrogen:
o Metalloids – elements that have both
properties of metals and non-metals.

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
• Ionic Compound - It results from the interaction
between cation and anion.
o The attraction between 2 charged
particles / atoms.
▪ cation – positively-charged
particles
▪ anion – negatively-charged
particles
o This happens when a metal and a non-
metal combine.
o + (sign) – the giver of electron/s to an
PRACTICE EXERCISES element
1. Bismuth-213 is used in radiation therapy to treat o – (sign) – the receiver of electron/s from
leukemia, while strontium-89 is utilized to treat an element.
bone metastasis. Write the isotropic symbols of o Examples:
the two atoms. How many protons and neutrons ▪ NaClO4
does each atom have? ▪ Li3P
▪ KHSO4
• Covalent Compound – formed when non-metals
shared electrons.
o Examples:
▪ P2O3

TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS

• Empirical Formula – shows the simplest whole
number ratio of a chemical formula.
o expressed in a reduced / lowest form.
o depends on the molecular formula.
o ex. CH
• Molecular Formula – shows the number of each
atom in a molecule.
o ex. C2H2
• Structural Formula – shows how atoms in a
molecule are bonded.
o can be single-bonded / double-bonded
2. A radioactive element contains 93 protons and o ex.
144 neutrons. Identify the element and write its
isotopic symbol.
EXAMPLES ON CHEMICAL FORMULAS:
C6H6
• Empirical Formula: CH
• Molecular Formula: C6H6
• Structural Formula:

C2H6O2
• Empirical Formula: CH3O
• Molecular Formula: C2H6O2
• Structural Formula:
 C2OH4
• Empirical Formula: COH2
• Molecular Formula: C2OH4
• Structural Formula:

C4H4O
• Empirical Formula: C2H2O
• Molecular Formula: C4H4O
• Structural Formula:

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND MOLE CONCEPT

LESSON 3 • Because we cannot count the number of atoms /
Atoms in Reaction mass of an element, the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), they used
the concept of mole to quantify the amount of
ATOMIC MASS substance in a compound.
• To establish a universal scale for atomic mass, • In honor of the Italian scientist, Amedeo
Carbon-12 was used as a reference to express Avogadro, they named it as mole or the
the atomic mass of each element. This is because Avogadro’s number.
Carbon-12 is an abundant isotope. o Avogadro’s Number – a constant used to
o mass of 1 atom of C-12 = 12.00 amu quantify the number of particles of an
• Atomic Mass Unit (amu) – the unit used to element or compound.
express the atomic mass of an element. o 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023
o 1 amu = 1.660539 x 10−24 g • Mole – the unit that refers to the quantity of
• Relative Atomic Mass – the standardized number particles of a substance (atoms, ions, molecules,
that is assumed to be correct. formula unit) that is equal to the Avogadro’s
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 number.
o 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 Examples:
• Average Atomic Mass – only true for only a
specific sample. • 1 mole of H2O = 2 atoms of H and 1 atom of O
o atomic mass x abundance
Example:
• Lithium has 2 known stable isotopes–lithium-6
and lithium-7. Lithium-6 has an isotopic mass of
6.015 amu and percent abundance of 7.59%;
lithium-7 has a mass of 7.016 amu at 92.41%
abundance. Calculate the average atomic mass of
lithium.

MOLAR MASS
• Molar Mass (MM) – used to quantify the mass of
one mole of an element or compound.
Examples:
• Find the molar mass of diatomic oxygen.
 • Calculate the molar mass of acetaminophen
(C8H9NO2), an over-the-counter pain reliever
also known as paracetamol.

• Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is commercially

known as baking soda. How many atoms of
oxygen are there in 15 grams of sodium
bicarbonate? The molar mass of NaHCO3 is
84.01 g/mol.

CONVERSION OF MOLES, MASS, AND NUMBER OF

PARTICLES
• Formula:

Example:
• How many moles of carbon dioxide (CO2) does
250 grams of the substance have? How many
molecules of CO2 are there? The molar mass of
CO2 is 44.01 g/mol.

• What is the mass of 4.0 x 1023 formula units of

potassium chloride (KCl)?
LESSON 4
Percent Composition and Formula Mass

PERCENT COMPOSITION
• defined as the ratio of the amount of each element
to the total amount of individual elements present
in the compound multiplied by 100.

(𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴) 𝑥 (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴)

%𝐴 = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

where A is the element of interest.

CHEMICAL FORMULA
• may also be derived from a given percent
compound.
• Empirical Formula – simplest ratio of the atoms

SAMPLE PROBLEMS • Determine the mass percent of each element in

Al2(SO4)3.
• Tartaric acid (C4H6O6) is naturally found in fruits
like grapes and banana. It is used in the food
industry as a leavening agent that gives a sour
taste. Determine the percent composition of each
element in the compound.
• What are the empirical and molecular formulas of
a compound that is 40.27% potassium, 26.78%
chromium, and 32.95% oxygen? The molar mass
of the compound is 194.2 g/mol.
 • A compound is found to contain 63.52% iron and • Arrow – “equal to”
36.48% sulfur. Find its empirical formula.
EVIDENCES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• change in color
• evolution of gas
• evolution / absorption of heat
• change in odor
• formation of precipitate

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Synthesis – happens when elements combine into
one compound.
o “the get-together”
o A + B -> AB
• Decomposition – happens when a compound
disintegrates / separates from each other
o “the break-up”
o AB -> A + B
• Single Replacement – happens when one
compound replaced one element, leaving the
other with itself.
o “the cheater”
o AB + X -> AX + B
• Double Replacement – happens when 2 or more
compounds replaced an element with another
element from another compound.
o “the swap”
o AB + XY -> AX + BY
• Neutralization Reaction – a reaction between an
acid and a base in which the product will always
be salt or water.
o acid + base = salt (NaCl) / water (H2O)
• Precipitation Reaction – a reaction between both
aqueous (aq) or both liquid (l) reactants in which
the product will always be a solid and an aqueous
/ liquid compound.
o aq + aq / l + l = solid + aq / l
• Oxidation-Reduction Reaction (Redox) – a
reaction in which a reduction of electrons causes
an oxidation.

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION

• Law of Conservation of Mass – atoms cannot be
created nor destroyed.
• In balancing chemical equation, only the
coefficients (molecules) can be changed or
LESSON 5 increased by number. The subscripts (atoms)
cannot be changed.
Chemical Equations and Balancing

CHEMICAL EQUATION
• chemical equation – a written representation of a
chemical reaction.

• Reactants – the elements / compound on the left

side of the chemical equation
• Products - the elements / compound on the right
side of the chemical equation. This will be the new
chemical formula.
• Coefficients – represents the number of molecules
a compound have
• Subscript – represents the number of atoms each
element has.