ENVS 310 Toxic Tour Project-Tessa Moul

Link to Google Map: (Map 9)

https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=10XSIC_XYkpj-Jk1yGVivz5zvlqbkF-SB&ll=35.826303
615475794%2C-111.4019002960899&z=11

I grew up in Tuba City, Arizona and have learned/heard about uranium mining on tribal land all
throughout my childhood so that is why I chose this area.

Site 1: Highway 160 Radiation Site

Location/Address: Five miles east of Tuba City, AZ 86045
Coordinates: +36.122992, -111.186839
Site Background: This site is located on Highway 160 which is a frequently traveled road. Back
in the 1950s and 1960s, this area was used as an uranium processing mill that was run by The
Rare Metals Corporation and the El Paso Natural Gas Company (U.S. Department of Energy).
The site gained its UMTRCA (Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act) title because of the
way radioactive waste was disposed of while the mill was active. The milling practices used in
this area created sandy radioactive tailings which were “conveyed in a slurry from the mill to
evaporation ponds at the site” (U.S. Department of Energy). The main environmental health and
human health concerns associated with this area had to do with nearby water sources as well
as the neighboring communities. The Highway 160 site is located in close proximity to Moenkopi
Wash which eventually drains into the Little Colorado River so this could be an easy way for
there to be groundwater contamination from the radioactive tailings and this is important
because a large number of people depend on the Colorado River for drinking water. Also, the
area around the Highway 160 site is used for domestic and agricultural purposes which could be
impacted by “windblown tailings” (U.S. Department of Energy) from the site. Multiple cleanup
projects have been completed at the site with the help of the Navajo Nation Environmental
Protection Agency.
Socio-Demographics:
-Population density: 30
-Percent of population below the poverty level: 78%
-Median household income: 12,187
-Education level:
-14% of the population have less than a 9th grade education, 17% have a high
school education but no diploma, 35% are high school graduates, 23% have
some college education, 7% have an associates degree, and 11% have a
bachelor's degree or more
-Community Ethnicity/Race: 99% American Indian and 1% White
-Age:
-74% of the population are between ages of 18-65, 26% are between the ages of
4-17, 12% are above the age of 65, and 9% are between the ages of 0-4
Potential Health Effects: The two main ways uranium can impact your health is through
chemical and radioactive methods. As I mentioned earlier, the Highway 160 site is located near
a waterway that empties into the Little Colorado River which is an important water source for
many people (including the individuals living near the site). Contamination of the groundwater
could lead to people ingesting varying amounts of uranium which will lead to chemical effects.
Large amounts of the metal can have adverse effects on our autoimmune function or
reproductive function and can lead to high blood pressure or kidney disease (EPA). Also, as I
mentioned earlier, the main concern associated with the Highway 160 site was the disposal of
the mill tailings. These tailings have radioactive properties which can have radioactive effects on
the people in the surrounding communities. Radioactive materials can be found in homes
through building materials or can be found in rocks and soil. A few of the radioactive effects
include lung cancer or bone cancer and disruption of kidney function (EPA). The EPA website
from which I retrieved some of this information mentioned that uranium “is found naturally in
small amounts but coming in contact with higher levels of uranium can be harmful to your
health” which I think is interesting to consider when these communities are exposed to varying
levels of uranium but for a long period of time.
Relevant Websites:
-Report of a remediation project done on the Highway 160 site:
New World Environmental, Inc. (2011). Navajo Nation Environmental Protection Agency
Highway 160 Project Remediation Completion Report. Nrc.gov.
https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1213/ML12135A460.pdf
-More information of uranium health effects:
(2011). Potential Human Health Effects of Uranium Mining, Processing, and
Reclamation. National Library of Medicine.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201047/
-More information on mining history in Arizona:
Abandoned Mine History. Arizona State Mine Inspector.
https://asmi.az.gov/abandoned-mine-history
References:
-Location/Address/Coordinates:
Superfund Site Information. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0908355
-Socio-demographic info:
(2022). EJSCREEN ACS Summary Report. United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
https://ejscreen.epa.gov/mapper/demogreportpdf.aspx?report=acs2017&coords=-111.18
6839%2C36.122992&feattype=point&radius=1.0
-Site Background:
(2021). Tuba City, Arizona Disposal Site. United States Department of Energy.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/TubaCityFactSheet.pdf
-Health Effects:
(2021). Health Effects of Uranium. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/navajo-nation-uranium-cleanup/health-effects-uranium

Site 2: Tuba City Landfill

Location/Address: Tuba City, AZ 86045
Coordinates: 36.136667, -111.240000
Site Background: The Tuba City landfill was first opened in the 1950s by the Bureau of Indian
Affairs and during this time, disposal of waste in this area was generally unregulated (Nrc.gov).
Over the next thirty to forty years, there were a series of waste trenches or pits that were
actively being used by people choosing to dump their trash there. This brings up to 1997 when
the landfill was closed so the “surface debris was consolidated and covered” (Nrc.gov) and the
“new cells were fenced” (Nrc.gov). Even though this landfill was closed, there were a lot of
concerns being raised about the contents of the waste that was sitting in the landfill and the
impact the closed landfill would have on the surrounding environment or peoples. First, this
landfill “overlies alluvium and Navajo Sandstone” (Nrc.gov) which serve as the materials found
around the aquifer in the area that is used to supply drinking water. This leads to a possibility of
groundwater contamination through leachate. During the process of closing the landfill,
groundwater quality had to be tested in a variety of areas around the site and through these
tests, it was determined that the water contained chemicals like arsenic, lead, selenium,
uranium, etc. at levels that exceeded the Maximum Contaminant Level (Nrc.gov). This led
residents to be concerned about the quality of their drinking water. Also, tests were done on the
gasses emitted from the landfill and these tests found “methane and VOCs at low levels”
(Vrc.gov).
Socio-Demographics:
-Population density (per sq. mile): 1,631
-Percent of population below the poverty level: 26%
-Median household income: 15,843
-Education level:
-6% of the population have less than a 9th grade education, 6% have a high
school education but no diploma, 32% are high school graduates, 35% have
some college. 12% have an associates degree, 21% have a Bachelor’s degree
or more
-Community Ethnicity/Race: 94% American Indian, 4% White, 2% Asian, 2% Hispanic
-Age:
-7% of the population are between ages of 0-4, 31% are between the ages of
4-17, 69% are between the ages of of 18-65, and 7% are over the age of 65
Potential Health Effects: As I mentioned earlier, higher than recommended levels of arsenic,
lead, and uranium were found in the water sources near the abandoned landfill. Constant
ingestion of these metals for long periods of time can cause a lot of harm to human health and
the symptoms can often go undetected until it becomes a more serious issue or can become
harder to effectively treat. Exposure to arsenic has been linked to cancers like lung, bladder, and
skin. Also, ingesting large amounts of arsenic “can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle
weakness and cramping, skin rashes” (cancer.org). If we look at long term exposure, that can
cause “skin changes, liver and kidney damage, and a shortage of red and white blood cells”
(cancer.org) which can severely impact immune function. Air quality was also a concern at the
Tuba City landfill site due to the presence of methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Volatile organic compounds are responsible for a wide variety of health effects. A few include:
“eye, nose, and throat irritation” (EPA), “headaches or loss of coordination and nausea” (EPA),
“damage to liver, kidney, and central nervous system” (EPA), and some cancers. Individuals in
the community are exposed to the materials through inhalation because they are present in the
air.
Relevant Websites:
-Information about the EPAs involvement in the Tuba City landfill closure:
(2013). Tuba City Dump Community Involvement Plan. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. https://clu-in.org/conf/tio/cip/CIP_Region9_TubaCityDump.pdf
-More information about the consequences of abandoned landfills:
(2001). Human Health Hazards: Former Dumps and Landfills. State of Wisconsin.
https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/publications/p4/p45017.pdf
-More information on the health effects of living near a landfill:
Vrijheid, M. (2000). Health Effects of Residence Near Hazardous Waste Landfill Sites: A
Review of Epidemiologic Literature. Environmental Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-03/documents/health_effects_of_residence_
near_hazardous_waste_landfill_sites_3v.pdf
References:
-Location/Address/Coordinates:
Superfund Site Information. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0900154
-Socio-demographic info:
(2022). EJSCREEN ACS Summary Report. United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
https://ejscreen.epa.gov/mapper/demogreportpdf.aspx?report=acs2017&coords=-111.24
%2C36.136667&feattype=point&radius=1.0
-Site Background:
Miller, M. (2008). Tuba City Landfill Closure. Nrc.gov.
https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0827/ML082760142.pdf
-Health Effects:
(2020). Arsenic and Cancer Risk. Cancer.org.
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/chemicals/arsenic.html
-VOC Health Effects:
Volatile Organic Compounds Impact on Indoor Air Quality. United States Environmental
Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-
quality

Site 3: Yazzie No.1 Mine

Location/Address: Outside of Cameron, AZ
Coordinates: 35.72423, -111.30652
Site Background: The Yazzie No.1 Mine is located outside of Cameron, Arizona near the Indian
Route 6730. This mine site “is classified as Tribal Trust Land” (EPA) and “historical documents
showed the operator of the mine as the Foley Brothers from 1956 to 1957” (EPA). The main ore
mined from this site was uranium as is the case for many of the mines in this area. The main
concerns coming from this site are the proximity in which the site is to the Little Colorado River
and the levels of gamma radiation that were detected at the site. This old mine is located very
close (0.25 miles away) to a piece of the Little Colorado River which could be an easy way for
there to be waterway contamination and this is a common concern with many of the old mines in
this area. As I have mentioned before, the Colorado River is used by large numbers of people
so water quality is crucial. The gamma radiation levels from this site were “greater than two
times the site-specific background levels” (EPA) which raised concerns for nearby communities
or structures. The report I am getting this information from is from 2011 so that is when these
gamma radiation levels were measured.
Socio-Demographics: (There are no residential structures within one mile of this site so the
socio-demographic data I am presenting is for the city of Cameron, AZ since it is the closest city
to the site)
-Population Density: 885
-Percent of population below the poverty level: 30.5%
-Median household income: 35,656
-Education level:
-75.3% of the population have a high school education or higher, 4.2% have a
Bachelor’s degree or higher, 1.2% have a graduate or professional degree
-Community Ethnicity/Race: 95.9% American Indian, 1.8% Hispanic, 0.6% White, 0.3%
put two or more races
-Age: Median Resident Age is 33.7 years
Potential Health Effects; As I mentioned earlier, the gamma radiation levels raised concern
about the impacts it might have on the environment or surrounding communities. Health effects
of radiation can be quite serious because the damage happens at a cellular level which “if the
damage is not repaired correctly, a cell may die or eventually become cancerous” (EPA). Low
level exposure to gamma radiation over a long period of time can increase an individual’s risk of
developing cancer due to the damage radiation does to genetic material. As we know, “the
higher the dose, the greater the risk” (EPA) so exposure to higher levels of radiation can have
more noticable effects especially when exposed to these high levels over a short period of time.
These effects include, “nausea and vomiting within hours and can sometimes result in death
over the following days or weeks” (EPA). Another concern of the site was the possibility of
uranium entering a water source which would cause communities to be exposed to low levels of
uranium through ingestion of the water. I have talked about the health effects of ingestion of
uranium in some of the other sites but a main one is damage done to kidney function.
Relevant Websites:
-More information on abandoned mines in the west:
Western Abandoned Uranium Mine Region. United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/navajo-nation-uranium-cleanup/western-abandoned-uranium-mine-r
egion
-More information on health effects of uranium radiation:
(2022). Radioisotope Brief:Uranium. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/isotopes/uranium.htm
-More information on uranium mining specifically on the Navajo Nation:
 (2014). Once Upon a Mine: The Legacy of Uranium on the Navajo Nation.
https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/pdf/10.1289/ehp.122-A44
References:
-Location/Address/Coordinates:
Yazzie No.1 Mine. Mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/loc-73005.html
-Site Background:
(2011). Yazzie No.1 AUM Site. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-04/documents/149_Yazzie_No_1_AUM_Scr
eening_Report.pdf
-Cameron Socio-Demographics:
Cameron, Arizona. City-Data.com. http://www.city-data.com/city/Cameron-Arizona.html
-Health Effects:
Radiation Health Effects. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radiation-health-effects

Site 4:Huskon No.26 Mine

Location/Address: Cameron, Arizona 86020
Coordinates: 35.758611, -111.330556
Site Background: The Huskin No.26 Mine is one of the many abandoned uranium mine sites
that are located in and around Cameron, Arizona. Just like the Yazzie No.1 Mine, this site is
located very close to the Little Colorado River which eventually feeds into the Colorado River
which is a very important source of water for much of the Southwestern states. Drinking water
contamination is a top concern is areas located near uranium mines due to their radioactive and
chemical states. Also, this mine is located near Cameron which is a residential area so the
abandoned site could pose a risk to this community. The Huskon No.26 mine has been
determined as an area where there are “radiation levels above two times the background level”
(EPA) which was just like the Yazzie No.1 Mine but this site is closer to a residential area. El
Paso Gas is the owner of many of the mines near and around Cameron so they currently
partner with the EPA to “investigate the extent of the contamination for these mines” (EPA).
Once these investigations are completed, there will be plans created to address the problem
and to help the community that was put at risk because of the mining operations.
Socio-Demographics: (Same as Yazzie No.1 Mine)
-Population Density: 885
-Percent of population below the poverty level: 30.5%
-Median household income: 35,656
-Education level:
-75.3% of the population have a high school education or higher, 4.2% have a
Bachelor’s degree or higher, 1.2% have a graduate or professional degree
-Community Ethnicity/Race: 95.9% American Indian, 1.8% Hispanic, 0.6% White, 0.3%
put two or more races
-Age: Median Resident Age is 33.7 years
Health Effects: As I have mentioned for many of the previous sites, uranium mines pose a big
threat to water quality. When uranium gets into the water, it can impact humans through drinking
water but it can also impact human health through agricultural purposes. The water that is used
to irrigate fields in these areas can be contaminated with varying levels of uranium which will
then make its way into the food system and this can be another route for uranium to enter the
human body. This can lead to many of the health effects previously mentioned like the many
different types of cancer, damage to the immune system, damage to the reproductive system,
etc.
Relevant Websites:
-More information about the specifics of the mine:
Charles Huskon No.26 Mine. Mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/loc-311502.html
-Uranium mining on Navajo Lands (New York Times):
Macmillan, L. (2012). Uranium Mines Dot Navajo Land, Neglected and Still Perilous. The
New York TImes.
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/us/uranium-mines-dot-navajo-land-neglected-and-s
till-perilous.html
-More info on uranium health effects:
Depleted Uranium.
https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/depleted-uranium/en/
index.htm
References:
-Location/Address/Coordinates:
Superfund Site Information. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0903741
-Cameron Socio-Demographics:
Cameron, Arizona. City-Data.com. http://www.city-data.com/city/Cameron-Arizona.html
-Site Background:
(2014). Cameron Area Abandoned Uranium Mines. United States Environmental
Protection Agency.
https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-08/documents/wester
n_aum_region_factsheet_august_2014_web.pdf

Proposed Intervention:
-My intervention is going to be focused on reducing exposure and risk associated with
abandoned uranium mines or spots.

Intrapersonal Level: The intrapersonal level of intervention targets an individual’s behaviors,

attitudes, and knowledge so for this level of an intervention, I would propose educational groups

or programs that teach people how they can reduce their daily exposures to metals like uranium

at an individual level. Some people in areas impacted by abandoned mines or radioactive sites

might not even be aware of the dangers associated with exposure to the hazardous materials
around them so the first part of the program would be to inform people of these risks. A

presentation on toxic sites would be given to participants so they would know the proximity of

which they live in relation to these sites and the long term health effects that the materials in

these sites could cause. Now, it is nearly impossible to remove all sources of exposures to

pollutants since we encounter many of them on a daily basis but there are effective ways in

which people can significantly reduce some of these exposures and these methods will be

taught as the second part of the program. These practices could include staying away “from

abandoned mines and mills” (EPA, 2014), using “good water hauling practices” (EPA, 2014),

and only using “regulated water for human needs” (EPA, 2014). Once people are aware of these

somewhat simple ways to reduce exposures, they may feel like they have more control over

their personal health and the health of their environments which is the main goal of an

intervention at the intrapersonal level.

Interpersonal Level: The interpersonal level of intervention targets an individual’s social or

familial relationships and I think that this level of intervention would work hand in hand with the

intrapersonal level of intervention. Because of this, I would recommend creating support groups

for families to share their concerns about pollutants in their environments and for them to learn

about how these pollutants can have different impacts on each of their family members. Having

a space for families or social groups to openly share their concerns about the impacts of things

like abandoned uranium mines could help individuals feel less alone in their worries or can

improve their sense of self-efficacy when it comes to reducing exposure. If many families are

able to talk about the success they have encountered after implementing some of the strategies

from the intrapersonal level of intervention then others may be inspired to follow suit. Also, these

support groups can be a chance to educate families on how varying levels of metals like

uranium have different effects on their family members. Younger children may only need a little

exposure in order for there to be an adverse impact or long term exposure to heavy metals may
impact them more seriously. The creation of support groups would help to strengthen an

individual’s relationships which could help spread information on how to reduce exposure to

harmful pollutants.

Institutional Level: The institutional level of intervention targets change in the workplace or

schools which can then lead to a change in an individual’s behavior or can lead to an

improvement in workplace safety. For this level of an intervention, I would propose testing for

uranium in schools and workplaces so we can determine if community members are being

exposed to uranium while at work or at school. Uranium can be found in building materials so it

is important to test buildings that are frequently inhabited for long periods of time. Many people

go to work or to school multiple days a week so if there was uranium present in these

institutional buildings, these individuals would be getting exposed to low levels of uranium every

day which could have adverse health effects in the long term. If unsafe levels of uranium were to

be detected, then I would propose for these buildings to be fixed so that these exposures would

not be present (which would require funding). Improvement at the institutional level would lower

exposures to metals in one aspect of an individual’s life that is important or crucial for many.

Community Level: The community level of intervention targets community organizations like

churches or other places that reach a large number of people. For this level of intervention, I

would propose creating a plan like the one I linked as additional information for the Tuba City

dump site. In this plan, there was the creation of an “information repository” which was a place

where local residents could get information about the area of concern and the impacts this area

could potentially have on human health or the environment. Interviews were also conducted at a

community level so residents of the area could voice their concerns and the organization in

charge of cleanup could effectively address these concerns in their plan. If this kind of plan was

created to address uranium exposures from abandoned mines or mine tailings, then
communities would have the opportunity to have an active role in creating a plan to improve the

area or improve the current problem.

Public Policy Level: The public policy level of intervention targets government institutions or

government regulations and can be the level that experiences the most amount of change if

successful. For this level of intervention, I would propose creating new policy or expanding on

current policy to improve remediation of abandoned mines that are putting communities at risk.

This would stop the current problem of harmful uranium radiation (especially on indigenous

lands) in the beginning stages or it would stop the problem from happening in the first place. If

abandoned mines are properly assessed and cleaned, then these vulnerable communities won’t

suffer from the risk of exposures to pollutants. If active mines are properly cleaned when they

close, then they won’t become harmful radioactive sites down the line.

References:

(2014). Uranium and Radiation on the Navajo Nation: Reduce Your Contact. United States
Environmental Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-06/documents/atsdr_uranium_and_radiation_contac
t_dec_2014.pdf

(2013). Tuba City Dump Community Involvement Plan. United States Environmental Protection
Agency. https://clu-in.org/conf/tio/cip/CIP_Region9_TubaCityDump.pdf