2021 Me 38

HMT-LAB
Reports
MuneebShahza
d 2021-ME-29
HMT- 2021-ME- Lab
Table of Contents
1 Experiment No 1..............................................................................................................................6
1.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................6
1.2 Apparatus.................................................................................................................................6
1.3 Introduction..............................................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Conduction.......................................................................................................................6
1.3.2 Convection.......................................................................................................................7
1.3.3 Natural Convection..........................................................................................................7
1.3.4 Forced Convection...........................................................................................................7
1.3.5 Radiation..........................................................................................................................7
1.4 Literature review......................................................................................................................7
1.4.1 Analytical Method...........................................................................................................7
1.5 Procedure.................................................................................................................................9
1.6 Observations and Calculation..................................................................................................9
1.6.1 Specimen Calculation......................................................................................................9
1.6.2 Table................................................................................................................................9
1.6.3 Graphs..............................................................................................................................9
1.7 Results & Discussion.............................................................................................................11
1.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................11
1.9 References..............................................................................................................................11
2 Experiment No 2............................................................................................................................12
2.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................12
2.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................12
2.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................13
2.3.1 Conduction.....................................................................................................................13
2.3.2 Convection.....................................................................................................................13
2.3.3 Natural Convection........................................................................................................13
2.3.4 Forced Convection.........................................................................................................14
2.3.5 Radiation........................................................................................................................14
2.3.6 Thermal Conductivity....................................................................................................14
2.3.7 Overall Heat transfer Coefficient...................................................................................14
2.4 Literature review....................................................................................................................15
2.4.1 Analytical Method.........................................................................................................15
2.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................16
2.6 Observations and Calculation................................................................................................17
2.6.1 Specimen Calculation....................................................................................................17
2.6.2 Table..............................................................................................................................17
2.6.3 Graphs............................................................................................................................18
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2.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................19
2.9 References..............................................................................................................................19
3 Experiment No 3............................................................................................................................20
3.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................20
3.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................20
3.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................20
3.3.1 Conduction.....................................................................................................................20
3.3.2 Convection.....................................................................................................................21
3.3.3 Natural Convection........................................................................................................21
3.3.4 Forced Convection.........................................................................................................21
3.3.5 Radiation........................................................................................................................21
3.3.6 Thermal Conductivity....................................................................................................22
3.3.7 Bars of Different Cross-Section Areas..........................................................................22
3.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................24
3.6.2 Table..............................................................................................................................25
3.6.3 Graphs............................................................................................................................25
3.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................26
3.9 References..............................................................................................................................27
4 Experiment No 4............................................................................................................................27
4.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................27
4.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................27
4.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................27
4.3.1 Conduction.....................................................................................................................28
4.3.2 Convection.....................................................................................................................28
4.3.3 Radiation........................................................................................................................28
4.3.4 Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction..........................................................................28
4.4.2 Standard Method............................................................................................................29
4.4.3 Alternative Method........................................................................................................30
4.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................30
4.6.2 Table..............................................................................................................................31
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4.6.3 Graph.............................................................................................................................31
4.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................32
4.9 References..............................................................................................................................32
5 Experiment No 5............................................................................................................................32
5.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................32
5.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................32
5.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................33
5.3.1 Convection.....................................................................................................................33
5.3.2 Advection.......................................................................................................................34
5.3.3 Types of Convection......................................................................................................34
5.3.4 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient...........................................................................34
5.4.1 Analytical method..........................................................................................................35
5.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................35
5.6.2 Table..............................................................................................................................35
5.6.3 Graph.............................................................................................................................36
5.7 Results and Discussion..........................................................................................................36
5.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................36
5.9 References..............................................................................................................................37
6 Experiment No: 06.........................................................................................................................38
6.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................38
6.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................38
6.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................38
6.4 Theory....................................................................................................................................38
6.4.1 Convection.....................................................................................................................38
6.4.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling..............................................................................................39
6.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................39
6.6 Observations and Calculations...............................................................................................40
6.7 Results....................................................................................................................................41
6.8 Discussion and Conclusion....................................................................................................42
7 Experiment No: 07.........................................................................................................................42
7.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................42
7.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................42
7.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................43
7.4 Theory....................................................................................................................................43
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7.4.1 Convection.....................................................................................................................43
7.4.5 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface.........................................................................44
7.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................44
7.7 Results....................................................................................................................................46
8 Experiment No:08..........................................................................................................................48
8.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................48
8.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................48
8.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................48
8.3.1 Theory............................................................................................................................48
8.3.5 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface.........................................................................50
8.4 Procedure...............................................................................................................................50
8.6 Results....................................................................................................................................52
8.7 Comments on Comparison of Flat, Finned, Pinned Plate......................................................55
9 Experiment No:09..........................................................................................................................56
9.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................56
9.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................56
9.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................57
9.3.1 Theory............................................................................................................................57
9.3.2 Classification of Heat Exchangers.................................................................................57
9.3.3 Classification on the Basis of Construction...................................................................58
9.3.4 Plate Type Heat Exchanger............................................................................................58
9.4 Procedure...............................................................................................................................59
9.6 Results....................................................................................................................................63
10 Experiment No:10......................................................................................................................63
10.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................63
10.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................63
10.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................64
10.3.1 Theory............................................................................................................................64
10.3.2 Classification of Heat Exchangers.................................................................................64
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10.3.3 Classification on the Basis of Construction...................................................................65
10.3.4 Plate Type Heat Exchanger............................................................................................66
10.4 Procedure...............................................................................................................................66
10.6 Results....................................................................................................................................69
10.7 From above discussion, following results can be concluded.................................................70
11 Experiment No:11..........................................................................................................................70
11.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................70
11.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................70
11.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................71
11.3.1 Theory............................................................................................................................71
11.3.2 Critical Heat Flux...........................................................................................................71
11.3.3 Pool Boiling Curve........................................................................................................72
11.4 Procedure...............................................................................................................................72
12 Experiment No:12......................................................................................................................72
12.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................72
12.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................72
12.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................73
12.3.1 Theory............................................................................................................................73
12.3.2 Pool Boiling Curve........................................................................................................74
12.4 Procedure...............................................................................................................................74
12.5 Observations & Calculations.................................................................................................74
12.6 Results....................................................................................................................................76
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1 Experiment No 1
To investigate Fourier’s law for heat conduction along a simple bar
and determine its thermal conductivity.
1.1 Objectives
 To understand fundamentals of heat transfer through Fourier’s law of thermal conduction
 To find thermal conductivity of brass by using Fourier’s law
1.2 Apparatus
 Heat Conduction Unit
o Wattmeter
o Cylindrical Brass bars
 Thermocouple
Figure 1: Apparatus
1.3 Introduction
In this experiment our main focus was to learn the fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. There are
three modes we have conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction is the primary mode of heat
transfer in solids and is explained by Fourier’s law.
1.3.1 Conduction
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat through matter (i.e., solids, liquids, or gases) without
bulk motion of the matter. In another ward, conduction is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic to less energetic particles of a substance due to interaction between the particles. Conduction
heat transfer in gases and liquids is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion. On the other hand, heat transfer in solids is due to the combination of lattice
vibrations of the molecules and the energy transport by free electrons.
For example, heat conduction can occur through wall of a vein in human body. The inside surface,
which is exposed to blood, is at a higher temperature than the outside surface.[1]
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Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

1.3.2 Convection
Convection is a mode of heat or mass transfer that occurs in a fluid (liquid or gas) when there is a
temperature difference within the fluid. It involves the movement of fluid particles from one place to
another, transferring heat or mass in the process. Convection can be categorized into two main types:
1.3.3 Natural Convection
This type of convection occurs without any external or mechanical forces. It relies on the buoyancy of
fluid due to temperature variations. When a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while
cooler fluid sinks to replace it. This natural circulation creates a continuous flow pattern, transferring
heat or mass. Natural convection is responsible for phenomena like the rising of warm air or the
circulation of water in a heated pot.[2]
1.3.4 Forced Convection
In forced convection, an external force or mechanical device, such as a pump or fan, is used to move
the fluid. This enhances the rate of heat or mass transfer compared to natural convection. Forced
convection is commonly observed in applications like heat exchangers, cooling systems, and
ventilation systems.[3]
Figure 2: Forced Vs Natural Convection

1.3.5 Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy (heat) in the form of electromagnetic waves or particles,
primarily in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It occurs when a hot object emits
electromagnetic radiation, which travels through space or a medium, and is absorbed by a cooler
object. This energy transfer can occur in the absence of any physical contact between the objects.[4]
Figure 3: Radiation
1.4 Literature review
1.4.1 Analytical Method
Fourier’s law of thermal conduction states that,
The time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area.
𝑞̇ 𝖺 − ∆𝑇
⋅𝐴
∆𝑥
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑇
… … … (1)
∆𝑥
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Figure 3. Heat flow by conduction

Where:
q̇ is the rate of heat
transfer A is cross
sectional area
T is the temperature difference
x is the distance between faces
k is the thermal conductivity of the material
Eq. 1 is known as Fourier’s law. The minus sign accounts for the fact that heat flows from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature. Thus, for example, in heat flows in the positive x-direction. For
this to happen the temperature must decrease as x increases. Thus, ΔT is negative.
Conduction Factors:
 Temperature difference
 Materials
 Area
 Thermal conductivity
We obtain the differential form of Fourier's law by replacing ΔT/Δx in Eq. 1 by the derivative dT/dx.
This replacement produces
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑇
… … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
The derivative dT/dx is called the temperature gradient and measures how temperature changes with
position. Geometrically, dT/dx is the slope of a graph of T versus x. The heat flow shown in is one-
dimensional along the x-direction. For one-dimensional heat flow the temperature gradient is a
constant, provided that the material is uniform (k = constant).
𝑑𝑇 𝑞
=− = constant
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
Consequently, the temperature decreases linearly with distance along the direction of heat flow,
giving a straight-line graph of T versus x, Figure .
Figure 4: The temperature gradient dT/dx is the slope of a graph of temperature versus distance.
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
The units of k are W/m · K. The value of the thermal conductivity depends primarily on the physical
composition of the material. A material with a large value of k would be described as a good thermal
conductor. Metals are among the best conductors. A material with a small value of k would be
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classified
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as a poor thermal conductor, or a good thermal insulator. Gases and various porous plastics such as
Styrofoam are among the best insulators.[5]
1.5 Procedure
i. Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Then take a cylindrical bar of your choice of
material (Brass) and cross section (25 mm) and clamp it in the middle of two fix bars. To the
best of your ability, make sure there is no gap or air between attached surfaces.
ii. Turn on the water supply ensure the water flowing through the free end of the water pipe to
drainpipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
iii. Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital readouts be illuminated.
iv. Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position.
v. Select the amount of heat q, by rotating the knob, to 5 Watts on the Wattmeter and wait for a
sufficient amount of time (at least 10 min) for the system to be in steady state.
vi. There are 9 points marked on the metallic bar, 6 on the static bars (3 each) and 3 on the
attached bar which is in the middle. The distance between these points is 10 mm each. Use a
thermocouple and measure the temperature of every point starting from the point closest to
the heater and enter in the table. Notice the gradual decrease in temperature.
vii. Generate a curve using dT (°C) on y-axis and dx (mm) on the x-axis. Also generate a line that
fits the curve (Theoretical or Expected) and find its slope.
viii. Find the value of k by using the expression given below
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
ix. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20 W and take the average for
the value of k. (After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions.):
1.6 Observations and Calculation
1.6.1 Specimen Calculation
2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜋 ( 𝐷) = 0.0005 𝑚2
2
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥
𝑘 = −𝐴 1̇ ∆𝑥
𝑞 ∆𝑇
𝑘 = −0.0005 × 1̇ 1
×
5.2 101.72
𝑘 = 102.24 𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾
1.6.2 Table
Table 1: Experimental Data
Sr No q T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 Kexp Kth %
(W) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (W/m.K) (W/m.K) difference
1 5.2 40 40 39 34 33 33 102.24 6.2
2 10.2 55 54 53 41 40 39 91 16.5
3 15.1 62 61 60 42 41 40 95.9 109 12
4 20.2 72 71 70 37 34 33 87 20
1.6.3 Graphs
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42
40
38
T(˚c) 36
34 y = -101.72x + 41.586
30
32
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
X(mm)
Graph 1: Temperature vs Distance

60
55
50
45
40
T(˚c)
35
30
y = -224 .14x + 58.207
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(mm)

70
65
60
55
50
45
T(˚c)
40
35
30
y = -317.24x + 66.862
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(mm)
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80
75
70
65
60
55
T(˚c) 50
45
40
35
30
y = -460.34x + 79.351
00.020.040.060.080.1
X(mm)

1.7 Results &
Discussion
Firstly, we observe a consistent increase in heat flow (Q) as we move from observation 1 to observation
4. This suggests that the process being studied is becoming more exothermic over time, meaning it is
releasing more heat energy. This could indicate a reaction or process that is becoming more intense or
accelerating .Secondly, the temperature readings at different time points (T1,T2,T3,T7,T8,T9) show a
decreasing trend as we progress from observation 1 to observation 4. This decrease in temperature
may be related to the increase in heat flow and implies a cooling effect or a reduction in thermal
energy during the process. The decreasing temperatures suggest that the reaction or process is
releasing heat as it progresses.
The experimental rate constants (k_exp) vary across the observations. In observation 1, the value is
104.1423, but it decreases in observations 2 and 3 and then increases slightly in observation 4. These
fluctuations may be due to changes in reaction conditions or other factors affecting the reaction
kinetics.
1.8 Conclusion
i. The heat flow values consistently increased from the first observation to the last, ranging from
5.1 to 25.1. This trend strongly suggests that the process became progressively more
exothermic over time, releasing more heat energy as it advanced.
ii. The temperature measurements exhibited a general decrease as the process unfolded,
indicating either a cooling effect or a reduction in thermal energy. This aligns with the
observed increase in heat flow, which is a typical characteristic of exothermic reactions.
iii. The percent error values, ranging from approximately 6.93% to 18.06%, indicate
discrepancies between the calculated and observed heat flow values. These discrepancies can
likely be attributed to experimental variations or uncertainties in measurement, which are
common in scientific experiments and can affect the accuracy of results.
iv. In light of the increasing heat flow and decreasing temperatures, it is reasonable to conclude
that the process under investigation is exothermic in nature. The observed percent errors,
while present, do not significantly detract from this overarching trend.
1.9 References
[1] “Conduction | Center for Science Education.” https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/earth-
system/conduction (accessed Oct. 22, 2023).
[2] “What Is Convection? - Heat Definition, Types of Convection, Examples, Video and FAQs.”
https://byjus.com/physics/heat-transfer-convection/ (accessed Oct. 22, 2023).
[3] F. P. Incropera, “Introduction to heat transfer.,” p. 901, 2007.
[4] “Radiation Studies: CDC - What is Radiation?”
https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/what_is.html (accessed Oct. 22, 2023).
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[5] “Fourier’s Law - Formula, Derivation, Definition, Equation.”
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https://byjus.com/physics/fouriers-law/ (accessed Oct. 22, 2023).
2 Experiment No 2
To investigate Fourier’s law for the heat conduction along a
composite bar having same x-area and determine overall heat
transfer coefficient.
2.1 Objectives
 To understand concepts of thermal resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient through
Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 To find thermal conductivity of steel by using Fourier’s law in a composite bar.
2.2 Apparatus
o Wattmeter
 Thermocouple
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Figure 4: Apparatus
2.3 Introduction
transfer in solids and is explained by Fourier’s law. In conduction heat is transferred for one particle
to another through direct contact. Other than that thermal resistance and overall heat transfer
coefficient are covered.
2.3.1 Conduction

2.3.2 Convection
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2.3.5 Radiation
2.3.6 Thermal Conductivity Figure 4: Radiation
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
classified as a poor thermal conductor, or a good thermal insulator. Gases and various porous plastics
such as Styrofoam are among the best insulators.
2.3.7 Overall Heat transfer Coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient, or U-value, refers to how well heat is conducted through over a
series of resistant mediums. Its units are the W/(m2°C). The overall heat transfer coefficient is
influenced by the thickness and thermal conductivity of the mediums through which heat is
transferred. The larger the coefficient, the easier heat is transferred from its source to the product
being heated. In a heat exchanger, the relationship between the overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
and the heat transfer rate
(q) can be demonstrated by the following equation:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
Where:
Q is heat transfer rate
A is heat transfer surface area
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U is overall heat transfer coefficient

ΔT is temperature difference
𝑞̇ 𝖺 − ∆𝑇
⋅𝐴
∆𝑥
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑇
… … … (1)
∆𝑥

Where:
transfer A is cross
sectional area
this to happen the temperature must decrease as x increases. Thus, ΔT is negative.
Conduction Factors:
 Materials
 Area
… … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑞
=− = constant
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
Consequently, the temperature decreases linearly with distance along the direction of heat flow, giving
a straight-line graph of T versus x, Figure .[5]
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Eq (2) will become: Figure 7. Showing heat transfer through multiple materials
−𝐾𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝐿
𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇2
= 1
𝐾𝐴 𝑞
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑞
(𝑇1 = 𝑈𝐴
1𝑇)
− 2
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑈𝐴
𝑅 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
𝑡ℎ
𝐾1 𝐾2𝐴 𝐾3𝐴
𝐴 1
𝑈𝐴 = + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
𝐾1𝐿𝐴1 𝐾2𝐴 𝐾3𝐴
1
𝑈= 𝐿2 𝐿 3
𝐿1 + +
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛)
2.5 Procedure
material (Steel) and cross section (25 mm) and clamp it in the middle of two fix bars. Make
sure there is no gap or air between attached surfaces.
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ii. Turn on the water supply and ensure the water flowing through the free end of the water
pipe to drainpipe to drain.
iii. Switch on the power supply and main switch.
iv. Select the amount of heat q, by rotating the knob, to 5 Watts on the Wattmeter and wait for a
v. There are 7 points marked on the metallic bar, 6 on the static bars (3 each) and 1 on the
attached bar which is in the middle. The distance between these points is 10 mm each. Use
a thermocouple and measure the temperature of every point starting from the point closest
to the heater. Notice the gradual decrease in temperature.
vi. Generate a curve using dT (°C) on y-axis and dx (mm) on the x-axis. Also generate a line that
fits the curve (Theoretical or Expected) and find its slope.
vii. Find the value of k by using the expression given below
𝑞̇
a. 𝑘 = −
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
viii. Find thermal resistance Rth of the whole composite bar by using this expression, where k1, k2
and k3 are thermal conductivities in order.
a. 𝑅 = 𝐿 [ 1 + 1 + 1 ]
𝑡ℎ 𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
ix. Then find overall heat transfer coefficient U, by using this formula and then compare both
values.
a. 𝑈 = 𝑞̇𝐴∆𝑇 = 𝑞̇𝐴(𝑇9 − 𝑇1)
x. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20 W and take the average
for the value of k. (After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady
state conditions.)
Slope for steel = 𝑑𝑇 𝑇7−𝑇3
−5
𝑑𝑥 = 70−30 = 0.04𝑚
= -125 ℃⁄𝑚
Slope for brass= 𝑑𝑇 −1
𝑇3−𝑇1 = -50 ℃⁄𝑚
𝑑𝑥 = 30−10 = 0.02𝑚
𝑑𝑇
Using Formula = Q = kA
𝑑𝑥
Ksteel = 𝑄
𝐴𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥
Ksteel = 105 𝑊⁄𝑚℃
K brass 𝑄 𝑊
= 𝐴𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥 =211 ⁄𝑚℃
𝑸
Overall heat coefficient = = U (THS ˗ TCS)
𝑨
𝑸
U=
𝑨 (THS ˗ TCS)
5
U= = 1513 W/m2.℃
490.87X𝟏𝟎−𝟔 (36−29)
2.6.2 Table
No. Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 K1 K2 K3
U Uoverall
of (Watt) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (W/m.K) (W/m.K) (W/m.K) %
Obs Error
1 5.2 36 35 35 33 32 31 30 29 29 211.86 105.93 211.86 1765.55 1513.33 14.28
2 10.2 40 39 39 38 38 32 30 29 29 415.58 69.26 415.58 1731.60 1889.02 -9.09
3 15.1 54 54 53 43 40 38 38 36 35 307.61 123.04 205.07 2050.76 1619.02 21.05
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2.6.3 Graphs
40
35
30 y = -50x + 33.333
y = -50x + 36.333
y = -100x + 37
25
20
T(˚C)
15
10
5
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)
Graph 5: Temperature Vs Distance
45
40
35
30
y = -300x + 51 50x + 40.333
25 y=-
y = -50x + 33.333
T(˚C)
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)
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60
y = -100x + 55
50
y = -250x + 52.833
40
30
T(˚C)
y = -150x + 48.333
20
10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)
2.7 Results &

Discussion
The table presents three sets of observations (1, 2, and 3) with various parameters, including heat flow
(Q), temperature measurements at different time points (T_1 to T_9), rate constants (k_1, k_2, k_3),
internal energy (U), overall energy (U_overall), and the percent error between U_overall and U.The
data reveals a dynamic process with several noteworthy trends. Firstly, the heat flow (Q) consistently
increases as we progress from Observation 1 to Observation 3, suggesting a progressively more
exothermic process. The temperature measurements exhibit fluctuations across the time points, likely
influenced by changes in experimental conditions or the nature of the process.The rate constants (k_1,
k_2, k_3) also vary across observations, contributing to variations in the calculated internal and
overall energy values. The percent error between U_overall and U highlights discrepancies in these
energy calculations, with Observations 1 and 2 showing positive errors and Observation 3 displaying a
negative error. These differences may be related to the variations in rate constants and the effect on
energy calculations.
2.8 Conclusion
 The data indicates a clear trend of increasing heat flow (Q) from Observation 1 to Observation
3. This suggests that the process is becoming progressively more exothermic over time,
releasing more heat energy as it advances.
 Temperature measurements across time points exhibit fluctuations. These fluctuations may be
influenced by changes in experimental conditions or by the dynamic nature of the process
under investigation.
 The rate constants vary across observations, contributing to variations in the calculated
internal and overall energy values. This suggests that the kinetics of the process change as it
progresses.
 The percent error between U Overall and U highlights discrepancies in energy calculations.
Observation 1 and 2 show positive errors, while Observation 3 displays a negative error.
These differences may be linked to the variations in rate constants and their influence on
energy calculations.
2.9 References
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3 Experiment No 3
To investigate Fourier’s law for heat conduction along a same
material bar having same x-area but different length
3.1 Objectives
 To understand the effect of variable cross-sectional area on heat transfer through Fourier’s
law of thermal conduction
 To understand how temperature gradient is affected by the variable cross-sectional area
3.2 Apparatus
o Wattmeter
 Thermocouple
3.3 Introduction Figure 5: Apparatus

to another through direct contact, hence it is also affected by certain factors like material thickness
and cross-sectional area. In this experiment our main focus is on the effect of change in cross-
sectional area on the rate of heat transfer.
3.3.1 Conduction
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3.3.2 Convection

3.3.5 Radiation
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3.3.6 Thermal Conductivity Figure 4: Radiation
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
classified as a poor thermal conductor, or a good thermal insulator. Gases and various porous plastics
such as Styrofoam are among the best insulators.
3.3.7 Bars of Different Cross-Section Areas
Ideally when we apply this law, cross sectional area is assumed to be constant. But in real life
problems, this isn’t always true. So, its effect is even more important. According to Fourier’s law rate
of heat transfer is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area. So, ideally if a conduction
experiment is performed by clamping two metallic bars of same material but different diameters (say
D1>D2) together, then a temperature distribution curve is drawn, it can be noticed that slope (dT/dx) of
D1 will be less as compared to D2. This also implies that temperature gradient is greater in the region
where cross- sectional area is less.
Assuming q and k to be constant, it can be written as
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 𝑞̇
= 𝐴 ( ) = 𝐴 ( ) = − = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐴1 ( )𝐷 2
∆𝑥 𝐷2 1
∆𝑥 𝐷1 𝑘
∆𝑥
1
𝐴1 (∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)𝐷2
⇒ = … … … (3)
𝐴2 (∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)𝐷1
This sums that area and temperature gradient are reciprocal to each other and in case of this
experiment D1 = 25mm and D2 = 13mm, so putting appropriate areas in the expression we get
−4
𝐴1 4.91 × 10
𝐴2 = = 3.6985 ≈ 3.7
1.33 × 10−4
So, if we calculate the ratio of the slopes, ideally it should be close to 3.7 in order to satisfy the
Fourier’s law.
𝑞̇ 𝖺 − ∆𝑇
⋅𝐴
∆𝑥
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑇
… … … (1)
∆𝑥
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Where:
transfer A is cross
sectional area
this to happen the temperature must decrease as x increases. Thus, ΔT is negative. Conduction
Factors:
 Materials
 Area
… … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑞
=− = constant
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
Consequently, the temperature decreases linearly with distance along the direction of heat flow, giving
a straight-line graph of T versus x, Figure .[5]
Eq (2) will become:

𝑞 = −𝐾𝐴
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(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝐿
2
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𝐿 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝐾𝐴 = 𝑞
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑞
(𝑇1 = 𝑈𝐴
1𝑇)
− 2
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑈𝐴
𝑅 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
𝑡ℎ
𝐾1 𝐾2𝐴 𝐾3𝐴
𝐴 1
𝑈𝐴 = + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
𝐾1𝐿𝐴1 𝐾2𝐴 𝐾3𝐴
1
𝑈= 𝐿2 𝐿 3
𝐿1 + +
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛)
3.5 Procedure
material and D2 = 13 mm and clamp it in the middle of two fix bars D1 = 25mm.
ii. Switch on the power supply and main switch.
iii. Select the amount of heat q, by rotating the knob, to 5 Watts on the Wattmeter and wait for a
iv. There are 6 points marked on the metallic bar, 3 on each except the bar in the middle with
less diameter. The distance between these points is 10 mm each. Use a thermocouple and
measure the temperature of every point starting from the point closest to the heater and enter
in the table. Notice the gradual decrease in temperature.
v. Generate a curve using Temperature (°C) on y-axis and distance (mm) on the x-axis.
vi. Find slopes m1, m2 and m3 for every bar. For the middle bar use T3 and T7.
vii. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20 W and take the average for
the value of k. (After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions.)
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝐻𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒) = 25𝑚𝑚
2
𝐴1,3 = 𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜋 (𝐷) = 0.0005 𝑚2
2
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑇
∆𝑥
𝑘 = −𝐴 1̇ ∆𝑥
𝑞 ∆𝑇
1̇ 1
𝐾1 = −0.0005 × ×
5.2 −150
𝐾1 = 70.622 𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾
2
𝐴2 = 𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜋 (𝐷) 2
2 = 0.000132 𝑚
1 1
𝐾2 = −0.000132 × ×
𝑊 5.2 −650
𝐾2 = 70.73 ⁄𝑚. 𝐾
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙) = 13𝑚𝑚
1 1
2
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𝐾3 = −0.0005 × ×
5.2 −50
2
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𝐾3 = 211.8671 𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾
3.6.2 Table
𝐷1 = 0.025𝑚
𝐿 = 0.0.9𝑚
𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = 𝐿3 = 0.03𝑚
22
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = × 0.01252 = 4.91 × 10−4𝑚2
7
No. of Q T1 T2 T3 T5 T7 T8 T9 K1 K2 K3
Obs (Watt) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (W/m.K) (W/m.K) (W/m.K)
1 5.2 59 58 56 33 30 29 29 70.62235 70.73553 211.8671
2 10.2 61 60 60 36 32 30 29 415.5854 128.8397 207.7927
3 15.1 65 64 64 36 30 30 29 615.2293 157.0745 615.2293
4 20 80 80 80 40 30 30 30 814.8733 144.3582 814.8733
3.6.3 Graphs
70
60
50
40
30 y = -150x + 60.667
20
T(˚C)
10
0 y = -650x + 72.167
y = -50x + 33.333
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)
70
60
50
y = -50x + 61.333
40
30
20
T(˚C)
y = -700x + 77.667
y = -100x + 38.667
10
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)
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70
60
50
40 y = -50x + 65.333
30
20
T(˚C) 10
0
y = -850x + 85.833
y = -50x + 33.667
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)

90
80
70
y = -50x + 80.667
60
50
T(˚C)
40
30
20 y = -1225x + 110.92
10
y = -50x + 33.667
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

X(MM)
3.7 Results &
Discussion
The data suggests a clear trend: as we move from Observation 1 to 4, there is a consistent increase in
heat flow, rate constants, and internal energy. This indicates that the process is becoming more
exothermic and efficient over time. The decreasing temperatures align with the exothermic nature of
the process, and the increasing rate constants signify improved reaction efficiency. These findings
suggest that the process intensifies as time progresses, releasing more heat and increasing energy
storage or generation. To gain a deeper understanding and draw more precise conclusions, additional
context about the experiment and the specific process being observed would be valuable. Exploring
the factors driving these changes and their implications for the process would contribute to a more
comprehensive analysis.
3.8 Conclusion
i. The data clearly demonstrates a progression in the studied process from Observation 1 to
Observation 4. One prominent trend is the consistent increase in heat flow (Q) over this
period, indicating that the process becomes increasingly exothermic, releasing more heat
energy as it advances.
ii. Complementing the increase in heat flow, the data shows decreasing temperatures at various
time points. This suggests a cooling effect or a reduction in thermal energy during the
process. The decreasing temperatures align with the exothermic nature of the reaction.
iii. The rate constants exhibit an upward trend across observations. This trend indicates that the
reaction becomes more efficient or faster as time progresses. A more efficient reaction
contributes to the release of additional heat.
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iv. The collective effect of these trends results in increasing internal energy (U) values. This
demonstrates that the process becomes progressively more energy-intensive over time.
v. While the data highlights these trends, understanding the specific factors driving these
changes and their implications requires further analysis. Investigating the mechanisms behind
the increasing rate constants and the nature of the exothermic reactions can provide a more
comprehensive view of this evolving system.
3.9 References
4 Experiment No 4
To examine the temperature profile of a conductor in a Radia disc.
4.1 Objectives
 In this lab session, we are going to examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of
heat transfer resulting from radial steady conduction through the wall of cylinder.
4.2 Apparatus
o Wattmeter
o Brass Cylinder
 Thermocouple
Figure 6. Apparatus
4.3 Introduction
to another through direct contact, hence it is also affected by certain factors like material thickness
and
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cross-sectional area. In this experiment our main focus is on the effect of radial steady conduction on
the rate of heat transfer.
4.3.1 Conduction
bulk motion of the matter. In another words, conduction is the transfer of energy from the more

4.3.2 Convection:
Convection is a mode of heat transfer that occurs in fluids (liquids and gases) when there is a
temperature gradient within the fluid. It involves the movement of the fluid itself, carrying heat from
one place to another. For example, in cooking, convection ovens use a fan to circulate hot air around
the food. These speeds up the cooking process and creates a more even temperature distribution.
4.3.3 Radiation
Radiation is one of the three primary modes of heat transfer, along with conduction and convection.
Unlike conduction and convection, which require a material medium to transfer heat, radiation can
occur through a vacuum because it involves the transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves.[3]
4.3.4 Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction
𝑞̇ 𝖺 − ∆𝑇
⋅𝐴
∆𝑥
∆𝑇
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 … … … (1)
∆𝑥
Where:
q̇ is the rate of heat transfer
A is cross sectional area
this to happen the temperature must decrease as x increases. Thus, ΔT is negative.[4]
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Now consider a heat emitting body in the center of a cylinder i.e., at (0,0,0). It’ll dissipate heat in
every direction including through it’s the walls. Cylinder has an inner radius r1 and outer radius r2,
thermal conductivity k and surface area A which is 2πrl, as shown in the Figure 3.
Figure 3. A cylinder with inner and outer radius r1 and ro, length L having Ti and To temperatures
respectively.
In a cylindrical coordinate system, conduction happens in the very same manner in radial direction as
in cartesian for linear conduction and the general trend of temperature, decreasing with the increase in
distance, is same. However, the temp. profile is very different and unique for both cases, as shown
below,
Figure 4. Temperature profiles for (left) linear and (right) radial direction.
For linear conduction Temp. profile is also linearly decreasing while for radial conduction is decreasing
logarithmically i.e., non-linearly.
In order to find heat transfer rate, two methods are used mostly,[5]
4.4.2 Standard Method
Here,
𝑑 𝑑𝑇
∫ (𝑘𝑟 ) = ∫ 0 … … … (1)
𝑑 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑐
𝑘𝑟 𝑇 = 𝑐 ⇒ =
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘
Put right side equal to c1, 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑇
𝑐1 = 𝑟
Rearranging the equation, 𝑑𝑟
1
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑐1 . 𝑑𝑟
Integrate again on both sides, 𝑟
1
∫ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑐1 ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑇(𝑟) = 𝑐1𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝑐2 … … … (2)
Applying following Boundary Conditions on Eq. 2 yields:
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
At r = r1, T = T1

At r = r2, T = T2
𝑇1 = 𝑐1 ln 𝑟1 + 𝑐2 … … … (𝑎)
𝑇2 = 𝑐1 ln 𝑟2 + 𝑐2 … … … (𝑏)
Solving for c1 and c2,
(𝑇 − (𝑇 −
𝑐1 = 𝑇 )1 and 𝑐2 = 𝑇1 𝑇 )1 𝑙𝑛 𝑟1
2 2
𝑟1 − 𝑟1
Eq. 2 now becomes, ln ( ) ln ( )
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑇=𝑇 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2) ln 𝑟 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2) ln 𝑟1
1 − 𝑟2 + 𝑟2 … … … (3)
ln ( ) ln ( )
𝑟1 𝑟1
Now, Heat transfer through the pipe of Length
L: 𝑑
𝑇 … … … (4)
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
Differentiating Eq (3) with respect to r:
𝑑𝑇 1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
=− 𝑟2 … … … (5)
𝑑𝑟 ln
𝑟 ( )
𝑟1
Put A = 2πrL & Eq. 5 in Eq. 4, we get:
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑞̇ = 1 ⇒ 𝑞̇ = 𝑐𝑐
𝑟2 𝑅
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 × ln (𝑟1 )
4.4.3 Alternative Method
This expression represents the Heat transfer through the pipe of Length L:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝐾𝐴 … … … (1)
𝑑
𝑟
Here A is the surface area of the cylinder and is given as,
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
Now, Eq (1):
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿)
𝑑𝑟
𝑞̇
𝑑𝑟 = −𝑑𝑇
1
( )
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟
𝑟2
𝑞 𝑇2
1 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑇
∫
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑇1
𝑞̇
[ln 𝑟2 − ln 𝑟1] = −[𝑇2 − 𝑇1]
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑞 𝑟2
ln ( 1) = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
⇒ 𝑞̇ =
ln (𝑟1𝑟2) × 2𝜋𝑘𝐿
Re-arranging the above equation,

𝑟2
ln ( )
⇒ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 2𝜋𝑘𝐿𝑟1
4.5 Procedure
i. Make sure that the main switch is initially off.
ii. Then take a cylindrical bar of brass with r1 = 4 mm, r2 = 54mm.
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iii. Switch on the power supply and main switch.
iv. Adjust the knob of power supply and make it 10 W.
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v. Note down the readings of all 6 temperatures by inserting the thermocouple probe into the
holes on the side of bar.
vi. Change the power supplied (10W, 15W,20W,25W) and repeat the procedure.
vii. Plot the graph of temperature variation vs distance for all power values.
viii. Generate a curve using Temperature (°C) on y-axis and distance (mm) on the x-axis.
ix. Find the experimental heat transfer rate qexp by using the expression below and then compare
it with the actual q.
(𝑇1−𝑇2)
x. 𝑞̇ = 𝑟
× 2𝜋𝑘𝐿
2
ln( )
𝑟1
xi. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 10, 15, 20 ,25W and take the average for the
value of k.
𝑘 = 110𝑊/𝑚𝐾
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑞̇ = ×
2𝜋𝑘𝐿�2 ln ( )
� 𝑟1
(35 − 32)
𝑞̇ = × 2𝜋 × 110 × 0.06
ln (0.055
0.004
)
4.6.2 Table 𝑞̇ = 4.74 𝑊

Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Q % error
(W) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (W)
5.1 35 33 32 31 30 29 4.74 6.93
10.2 42 39 35 33 32 30 9.49 6.931
15 48 45 40 36 33 31 13.44 10.34
20.2 54 49 45 40 36 32 17.40 13.8
25.1 59 55 51 45 39 33 20.56 18.05
4.6.3 Graph
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Graph 9: Temperature profile

4.7 Results &
Discussion
The heat flow values increase as the process progresses from the first observation to the last, with
values ranging from 5.1 to 25.1. This suggests that the process is becoming more exothermic or is
releasing more heat energy over time. The temperature measurements show a general decrease as time
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advances. This is indicative of a cooling effect or a reduction in thermal energy during the process.
The decreasing
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temperatures align with the increasing heat flow, which is often observed in exothermic reactions. The
percent error between the calculated and observed heat flow values is presented. The percent error
values range from approximately 6.93% to 18.06%. These errors might be attributed to experimental
variations or uncertainties in measurement, which are common in scientific experiments.
4.8 Conclusion
i. The data indicates a clear trend of the process becoming more exothermic over time. This is
evident from the rising heat flow values and increasing temperatures.
ii. The percent error between the expected and actual heat flow values also increases as the
process intensifies. This suggests that as the exothermicity of the process rises, the disparity
between predicted and observed results becomes more pronounced.
iii. To better comprehend the underlying reasons for these trends, it is imperative to conduct
further investigation and in-depth analysis. This should encompass a thorough examination of
the experimental conditions, methodology, and any variables that might influence the results.
iv. Ensuring accurate measurements and calculations is essential in future observations. This can
help minimize the percent error and provide more reliable data. Precise control over
experimental conditions and calibration of instruments are critical in this regard.
4.9 References
5 Experiment No 5
To investigate the relationship between power input and temperature
difference across a flat plate under free convection and determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient.
5.1 Objectives
 In this lab session, we are going to demonstrate relationship between power input and surface
temperature in free convection.
 To determine convective heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate for free convection.
5.2 Apparatus
 Heat Convection Unit
o Wattmeter
o Flat Plate
 Thermocouple
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5.3 Introduction Figure 7: Apparatus

three modes we have conduction, convection and radiation. We will demonstrate the relation between
heat transfer (power input) and surface temperature for free convection. Convection is a macroscopic
property and bulk movement of molecules takes place. Convection is further classified into free and
forced convection. In this experiment, our concern is free convection. Surface temperature of flat plate
will be measured by using thermocouple at different power inputs and we will also determine the
value of convective heat transfer coefficient.
5.3.1 Convection
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the transfer of heat from one place to another due to the
movement of fluid. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer, convective heat
transfer involves the combined processes of conduction (heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer
by bulk fluid flow). Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.{1]
Figure 2: Convection Heat Transfer

Convection currents transfer heat from one place to another by mass motion of a fluid such as water,
air or molten rock. Convection is different from conduction, which is a transfer of heat between
substances in direct contact with each other. Convection currents form because a heated fluid expands,
becoming less dense. The less-dense heated fluid rises away from the heat source. As it rises, it pulls
cooler fluid down to replace it. This fluid in turn is heated, rises and pulls down more cool fluid. This
cycle establishes a circular current that stops only when heat is evenly distributed throughout the fluid.
For instance, a hot radiator heats the air immediately around it. The air rises toward the ceiling,
pulling cooler air down from the ceiling into the radiator to be heated. This process repeats until the
air in the room is evenly heated.
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5.3.2 Advection
Advection is the transport of a substance or quantity by bulk motion of a fluid. The properties of that
substance are carried with it. Generally, the majority of the advected substance is a fluid. The
properties that are carried with the advected substance are conserved properties such as energy. An
example of advection is the transport of pollutants or silt in a river by bulk water flow downstream.[2]
5.3.3 Types of Convection
 Free Convection
 Forced Convection
Free Convection:
Free or natural convection is when fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that result from the
density variations in the fluid. In the absence of an internal source, when the fluid is in contact with a
hot surface, its molecules separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less dense. As a consequence,
the fluid is displaced while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks. Thus, the hotter volume
transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid. Familiar examples are the upward flow of air
due to a fire or hot object and the circulation of water in a pot that is heated from below.[3]
Figure 3: Natural Convection
Forced Convection
The term forced convection refers to an artificially induced convection current produced by moving a
fluid over the surface using fans, stirring, or pumps. In many real-life applications e.g., heat losses at
solar central receivers or cooling of photovoltaic panels the natural and forced convection occur at the
same time (mixed convection).[4]
Figure 4: Forced Convection

5.3.4 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
The convective heat transfer coefficient, h, can be defined as:
“The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature
difference.” It,s unit is W/(m2K)
𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨∆𝑻
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5.4.1 Analytical method
Newtons law of cooling states that,
The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between
the body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small and the nature of radiating
surface remains same.”
⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄𝑨( 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂) … … … (1)

Where:
ℎ𝑐 =Convection heat transfer coefficient
𝐴 =Area for convection
𝑇𝑤 =Surface temperature
𝑇𝑎 =Ambient temperature
Eq. 1 is known as Newton’s law of cooling.[5]
5.5 Procedure
i. Make sure that the main switch is initially off.
ii. In this experiment, flat plat is considered. So firstly we will insert flat plate into duct.
iii. Power supply is turned on. we are observing free convection case, so fan is turned off.
iv. Wait for nearly about ten minutes so that flat plate is properly heated and to achieve steady
state condition.
v. Now, by using the thermocouple measure the temperature by inserting the wire inside hole
properly.
vi. Same phenomenon is repeated for other power inputs.
vii. Write down the values of temperature at different power inputs.
viii. Plot the graph between change in temperature and power supplied
ix. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 10, 15, 20 ,25W.
Formula for Convective heat transfer coefficient is given as
𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨(𝑻 𝒔 − 𝑻∞)
Where,
𝑇∞ = 32℃
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇∞ = 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑛𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Formula for Convective heat transfer coefficient is given as
𝒉𝒄 = 𝒒
𝑨(𝑻 − 𝑻
𝒔 ∞)
5.2
ℎ𝑐 =
0.011 × 3
ℎ𝑐 = 157.57 𝑊⁄𝑚.
5.6.2 Table
𝐾
𝑇∞ = 31℃
𝑇∞ = 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 31℃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 11𝑐𝑚 × 10𝑐𝑚 = 110𝑐𝑚2 = 0.011𝑚2
Table 5: Experimental data
Q Temperature of Ambient Change in Convection heat Mean Value
Plate Temperature Temperature Transfer Coefficient
(W) 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑎 ∆𝑇 h
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(ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾)

5.2 34 3 157.5758
10.3 38 7 133.7662
15.2 41 31 10 138.1818 137.5209
20.3 45 14 131.8182
25 49 18 126.2626
5.6.3 Graph
50
48 y = 0.7458x + 30.065
46
44
42
TEMPERATURE(˚C)
40
38
36
34
32
30
5 10 15 20 25
POWER SUPPLIED(W)
Graph 10: Change in temperature Vs Power supplied

5.7 Results and Discussion
The heat flow (Q) represents the amount of heat energy transferred in the system, and it varies across
observations, ranging from 5.2 to 25. These differences could be attributed to changes in the
temperature differential between the plate and the ambient temperature, which is denoted as ∆T. The
temperature of the plate and the ambient temperature are critical factors in heat transfer. As ∆T
increases, the driving force for heat transfer also increases. The data indicates that the temperature of
the plate is higher than the ambient temperature, which is expected for heat transfer to occur. The
convection heat transfer coefficient, a measure of the efficiency of heat transfer between the plate and
its surroundings, also varies across observations. The values range from approximately 126.26 to
157.58, indicating different rates of heat transfer. These variations in the coefficient could be
influenced by factors such as the plate's material, surface area, and the properties of the surrounding
medium. Regarding the "mean value" column, it lacks a clear definition in the table. Without
additional context or a description, it's challenging to interpret the significance of this column.
5.8 Conclusion
i. The data reveals a range of heat flow values from 5.2 to 25. These variations likely stem from
changes in the temperature differential (∆T) between the plate and the surrounding
environment, as heat transfer is directly influenced by this difference.
ii. A higher ∆T acts as the driving force for heat transfer. In this case, the fact that the plate's
temperature is consistently higher than the ambient temperature aligns with expectations for
heat transfer to occur.
iii. The plate's material and surface characteristics play a significant role in determining the
efficiency of heat transfer. Different materials can conduct heat differently, and surface
properties can affect convective heat transfer.
iv. The "mean value" column in the table lacks clear definition or context. Without additional
information or a description, it is challenging to interpret the significance or purpose of this
column. Clarification is needed to understand its relevance.
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5.9 References
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6 Experiment No: 06
To Demonstrate the Relationship Between Heat Transfer and Surface Temperature and
Determine Heat Transfer Convective Coefficient for a Flat Plate for Forced Convection.
6.1 Objectives
 In this lab session, we are going to demonstrate the relationship between power input and
surface temperature in forced convection.
 To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate for forced convection.
6.2 Apparatus
 Free and Forced Heat Convection Unit
 Wattmeter
 Flat Plate
 Thermocouple
Figure 1. Apparatus
6.3 Introduction
In this experiment, our main focus was to learn the fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. There are
three modes we have conduction, convection, and radiation. We will demonstrate the relation between
heat transfer (power input) and surface temperature for forced convection. Convection is a
macroscopic property and bulk movement of molecules takes place. Convection is further classified
into free and forced convection. In this experiment, our concern is free convection. The surface
temperature of the flat plate will be measured by using a thermocouple at different power inputs and
we will also determine the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient.
6.4 Theory
6.4.1 Convection
by bulk fluid flow). Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.
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Figure 2 Convection Heat Transfer

 Free Convection
 Forced Convection
Free Convection
transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid.
Figure 3 Natural Convection
6.4.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling

𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂)
Where:
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
“The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit
temperature difference.” It,s unit is W/(m2K)
𝑞
𝒉𝒄 =
𝐴∆T
6.5 Procedure
• Make sure that the main switch is initially off.
• In this experiment, a flat plat is considered. So firstly, we will insert the flat plate into
the duct.
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• The power supply is turned on. we are observing a forced convection case, so the fan is
turned on.
• Wait for nearly ten minutes so that the flat plate is properly heated and to achieve a
steady state condition.
• Now, by using the thermocouple measure the temperature by inserting the wire inside
the hole properly.
• Now, fan speed is adjusted at 0.5 m/s,1m/s, and at 1.3 m/s and we will measure the
surface temperature at different power inputs.
• Write down the values of temperature at different power inputs.
• Plot the graph between the change in temperature and power supplied.
• Find out the values of the convective heat transfer coefficient at different power inputs
by varying the fan speed.
6.6 Observations and Calculations

Formula for the Convective heat transfer coefficient is given as
𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨(Ts −T∞)
Where,
𝑇∞ = 30℃
𝐴 = 100𝑚𝑚 × 110𝑚𝑚 = 11000𝑚𝑚2 = 0.011𝑚2
Table 1. Data collected from the apparatus.

q(W) T1(℃) T2(℃) T3(℃) T4(℃) 𝑻𝟏−𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒
(℃) −𝑻∞ −𝑻∞ −𝑻∞
(℃) (℃) (℃)
(0 ms-1) (.5ms-1) (1 ms1) (1.3 ms1) (0 ms-1) (0.5 ms-1) (1 ms-1) (1.3 ms-1)
30 50 48 47 45 20 18 17 15
35 66 63 57 56 36 33 27 26
40 76 71 65 64 46 41 35 34
Graph
MATLAB is used for graphs.
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Figure 5. Plot b/w Power Input and Temperature Difference.
6.7 Results
In this experiment we have found the value of convective heat transfer coefficient for flat plate the
variable velocities. We measured the temperature of plate and ambient temperature and then calculate
the convective heat transfer coefficient with the temperature difference and cross-sectional area of
plate. One of the major causes of free convection is density difference. The part of the fluid that is in
contact with heat source has relatively high temperature, and due to high temperature, its density
increases, hence, it tends to rise up and denser fluid settles down and resulting in free convection.
According to Newton’s Law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to
temperature difference and convective heat transfer coefficient at constant cross-sectional area.
The equation is given by:
Q=hA
T
𝑄
h 𝑇
We can see the temperature difference variation w.r.t power supplied from |Figure 5. There is direct
relation between both parameters. Obviously, greater the energy supplied to the plate, greater will be
temperature of plate. Since surrounding temperature is essentially constant, an increase in temperature
of plate will results in the increase of temperature difference.
Table 2. Data collected from the Results
Heat Transfer Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient (𝒉𝒄)
Rate (𝒒̇ )
(W/m2K)
(W)
V = 0 m/s V = 0.5 m/s V = 1 m/s V = 1.3 m/s
30 136.36 151.51 160.43 181.82
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35 88.38 96.42 117.85 122.38
40 79.05 88.69 103.90 106.95
70.53 77.19 92.98 104.90

45
Figure 6. Plot b/w Convective Coefficient and Temperature Difference.

6.8 Discussion and Conclusion
Convective heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to heat supplied and temperature
difference. we can conclude that there is little deviation from direct linear trend. This deviation is may
be due to:
 Faulty Apparatus
 Unsteady conditions mean we are not giving sufficient time to achieve the steady state.
 Error in measuring the temperature due to digital multimeter.
7 Experiment No: 07
To Demonstrate the Relationship Between Heat Transfer and Surface Temperature for Free
and forced Convection and Determine the Heat Transfer Convective Coefficient of Finned Plate
7.1 Objectives
surface temperature in free and forced convection.
 To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a finned plate.
7.2 Apparatus
 Wattmeter
 Finned Plate
 Thermocouple
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Figure 2. apparatus
7.3 Introduction
into free and forced convection. In this experiment, our concern is free and forced convection. Surface
temperature of finned plate will be measured by using thermocouple at different power inputs and we
will also determine the value of convective heat transfer coefficient.
7.4 Theory
7.4.1 Convection

 Free Convection
Free Convection
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⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄𝑨( 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂) … … … (1)
Where:
“The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature
difference.” It,s unit is W/(m2K)
𝒉𝒄 = 𝑞
𝐴∆T
7.4.5 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface

When the temperatures 𝑻𝒔 and 𝑻∞ are fixed by design considerations, as is often the case, there are two
ways to increase the rate of heat transfer: to increase the convection heat transfer coefficient 𝒉 or to
increase the surface area 𝑨𝒔. Increasing h may require the installation of a pump or fan, or replacing
the existing one with a larger one, but this approach may or may not be practical. Besides, it may not
be adequate. The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to the surface extended
surfaces called fins made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum. Finned surfaces are
commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer, and they often increase the rate of heat transfer
from a surface several fold.
7.5 Procedure
• In this experiment, finned plat is considered. Firstly, we will insert finned plate into duct.
• Power supply is turned on. Since, we are observing firstly free convection case, so fan is
turned off.
• Power input is given and then wait for nearly about five minutes so that finned plate is
properly heated and to achieve steady state condition.
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• Now, by using the thermocouple measure the temperature by inserting the wire inside hole
properly.
• Same phenomenon is repeated for other power inputs.
• Now for forced convection fan is turned on and fan speed is adjusted at 0.5 m/s,1m/s and at
1.3 m/s and we will measure the surface temperature at different power inputs.
• Plot the graph between change in temperature and power supplied.
• Find out the values of convective heat transfer coefficient at different power inputs o for
finned plate.

Calculation of Area
Area of Fin = Af
Area of Base Plate = Abp
Area of 1 fin = 100 × 65 = 6500 𝑚𝑚2
Area of 18 fins = 117000 𝑚𝑚2
There are also 12 circular holes in fin, so
𝐴𝑓 = 117000 − 12(𝜋(5)2) = 116058 𝑚𝑚2
Now,
2+5
Area of 1 edge = × 65 = 227.5 𝑚𝑚2
2
Area of 18 edge = 𝐴𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 18(227.5) = 4095 𝑚𝑚2
For the base plate just subtract the fins base area,
𝐴𝑏𝑝 = (110 − 45) × (100) = 6500 𝑚𝑚2
And,
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐴𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 + 𝐴𝑏𝑝
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 116058 + 4095 + 6500 = 126653
𝑚𝑚2
Collected 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝟐
Data
𝑇∞ = 30℃
𝑙 = 110
𝑚𝑚
𝑤 = 100
𝑚𝑚
q(W) T1(℃) T2(℃) T3(℃) T4(℃) 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻∞
(Free (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)
Conv.)
(0 ms-1) (0.5 ms-1) (1 ms-1) (1.3 ms1) (0 ms-1) (0.5 ms-1) (1 ms-1) (1.3 ms-1)
30 43 41 40 39 13 11 10 9
35 48 45 43 42 18 15 13 12
40 53 50 47 46 23 20 17 16
45 56 53 50 49 26 23 20 19
Graph
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7.7 Results
In this experiment we have found the value of convective heat transfer coefficient for finned plate at
the variable velocities. We measured the temperature of plate and ambient temperature and then
calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient with the temperature difference and cross-sectional
area of plate. One of the major causes of free convection is density difference. The part of the fluid
that is in contact with heat source has relatively high temperature, and due to high temperature, its
density increases, hence, it tends to rise up and denser fluid settles down and resulting in free
convection.
Q=hA
T
Heat Transfer Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

(𝒉𝒄) Rate (𝒒̇ )
(W) V = 0 m/s (W/m2K) V = V = 1.3 m/s
0.5 m/s V = 1 m/s
30 18.17 21.47 26.25 29.53
35 13.78 16.21 19.68 21.20
40 12.60 15.75 19.68 20.99
45 11.81 13.62 16.11 16.87
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Hence, the convective heat transfer coefficient decreases. In case of the finned plate, the surface area
has increased. Now, a large area has to be covered in order to transfer heat so the transfer of heat will
be slow.
difference. we can conclude that there is little deviation from the direct linear trend. This deviation
may be due to:
 Unsteady conditions mean we are not given sufficient time to achieve the steady state.
 Error in measuring the temperature due to digital multimeter.
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8 Experiment No:08
To Demonstrate the Relationship Between Heat Transfer and Surface Temperature for Free
and forced Convection and Determine the Heat Transfer Convective Coefficient of Pinned Plate
8.1 Objectives
surface temperature in free and forced convection.
 To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a pinned plate.
8.2 Apparatus
 Wattmeter
 Finned Plate
 Thermocouple
Figure 3. apparatus
8.3 Introduction
into free and forced convection. In this experiment, our concern is free and forced convection. Surface
temperature of pinned plate will be measured by using thermocouple at different power inputs and we
will also determine the value of convective heat transfer coefficient.
8.3.1 Theory
Convection
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 Free Convection
Free Convection
Forced Convection
The term forced convection refers to an artificially induced convection current produced by moving a
fluid over the surface using fans, stirring, or pumps. In many real-life applications e.g., heat losses at
solar central receivers or cooling of photovoltaic panels the natural and forced convection occur at the
same time (mixed convection).
Figure 4 Forced Convection

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𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄𝑨( 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂)
Where:
Eq. 1 is known as Newton’s law of cooling.
“The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit
temperature difference.” It,s unit is W/(m2K)
𝒉𝒄 = 𝑞
𝐴∆T
8.3.5 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface
When the temperatures 𝑻𝒔 and 𝑻∞ are fixed by design considerations, as is often the case, there are two
ways to increase the rate of heat transfer: to increase the convection heat transfer coefficient 𝒉 or to
increase the surface area 𝑨𝒔. Increasing h may require the installation of a pump or fan, or replacing
the existing one with a larger one, but this approach may or may not be practical. Besides, it may not
be adequate. The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to the surface extended
surfaces called fins made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum. Finned surfaces are
commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer, and they often increase the rate of heat transfer
from a surface several fold.
Figure 5 General representation of a Pinned surface
One of most crucial parameters in designing heat sinks is the fin spacing, S. Closely packed fins will
have greater surface area for heat transfer, but a smaller heat transfer coefficient (due to extra
resistance of additional fins). A heat sink with widely spaced fins will have a higher heat transfer
coefficient but smaller surface area. Thus, an optimum spacing exists that maximizes the natural
convection from the heat sink.
8.4 Procedure
• In this experiment, pinned plat is considered. Firstly, we will insert pinned plate into duct.
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• Power supply is turned on. Since, we are observing firstly free convection case, so fan is
turned off.
• Power input is given and then wait for nearly about five minutes so that pinned plate is
properly heated and to achieve steady state condition.
• Now, by using the thermocouple measure the temperature by inserting the wire inside hole
properly.
• Same phenomenon is repeated for other power inputs.
• Now for forced convection fan is turned on and fan speed is adjusted at 0.5 m/s,1m/s and at 1.3
m/s and we will measure the surface temperature at different power inputs.
• Plot the graph between change in temperature and power supplied.
• Find out the values of convective heat transfer coefficient at different power inputs.

Formula for Convective heat transfer coefficient is given as,
𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨(Ts −T∞)
where
𝑇∞ = 28℃
Area Calculations for Pinned Plate,
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 12.5𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 65𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 = 2552𝑚𝑚2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (110 × 100) + (17 × 2552)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 54384𝑚𝑚2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.054384𝑚2
Collected Data
𝑇∞ = 28℃
𝑙 = 110 𝑚𝑚
𝑤 = 100 𝑚𝑚
q(W) T1(℃) T2(℃) T3(℃) T4(℃) 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻∞
(Free Conv.) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)
(0 ms-1) (.5m/s) (1 ms-1) (1.3 ms-1) (0 ms-1) (0.5 ms-1) (1 ms-1) (1.3 ms-1)
30 39 36 33 31 11 8 5 3
35 48 47 44 43 20 19 16 15
40 55 53 50 49 27 25 22 21
45 62 61 57 56 34 33 29 28
Graph:
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8.6 Results
In this experiment we have found the value of convective heat transfer coefficient for pinned plate at
the variable velocities. We measured the temperature of plate, ambient temperature and then calculate
the convective heat transfer coefficient with the temperature difference and cross-sectional area of
plate. One of the major causes of free convection is density difference. The part of the fluid that is in
contact with heat source has relatively high temperature, and due to high temperature, its density
increases, hence, it tends to rise up and denser fluid settles down and resulting in free convection.
Q=hA∆T
We can see the temperature difference variation w.r.t power supplied from |Figure 6. There is direct
relation between both parameters. Obviously, greater the energy supplied to the plate, greater will be
temperature of plate. Since surrounding temperature is essentially constant, an increase in temperature
of plate will results in the increase of temperature difference.
Heat Transfer Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

(𝒉𝒄) Rate (𝒒̇ )
(W) V = 0 m/s (W/m2K) V = V = 1.3 m/s
0.5 m/s V = 1 m/s
30 50.15 68.95 110.33 183.88
35 32.18 33.87 40.22 42.90
40 27.24 29.42 33.43 35.02
45 24.34 25.07 28.53 29.55
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From the table and Figure 7, it is clear that with the increase in temperature, value of convective
heat transfer coefficient decreases. Increasing the value of convective heat transfer coefficients
causes decrease in the value of temperature.
As there is an inverse relation between h conv, area and temperature difference. Hence, convective heat
transfer coefficient decreases. In case of finned plate, surface area has increased. Now, large area has
to be covered in order to transfer heat so the transfer of heat will be slow.
difference. we can conclude that there is little deviation from direct linear trend. This deviation is may
be due to:
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 Unsteady conditions mean we are not giving sufficient time to achieve the steady state. 
Error in the measuring the temperature due to digital multimeter.
Comparison Between Flat, Finned and Pinned Plate:
When Fan speed = 0 m/s
When Fan speed = 0.5 m/s
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Figure 8. Plot b/w Power Input and Temperature Difference at different fan speeds
8.7 Comments on Comparison of Flat, Finned, Pinned Plate

From these graphs, it is clear that temperature difference increases with the increase in heat input.
 Because the air has greater contact time with the heated source, the temperature of the air rises
as the temperature of the heated source rises. From the table and graphs, it is clear that with the
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increase in fan speed, surface temperature of plate decreases and as a result temperature
difference also deceases.
 Because the air is now moving faster, the contact between air molecules is reduced, and there
is less of a chance for the maximum number of air molecules to acquire heat from the source.
Because of the higher passage cycles, forced convection quickly reduces the source
temperature.
 The value of convective heat transfer coefficient is maximum in case of flat plate. The higher
the convective coefficient, the higher is the transfer of heat due to convection. Because hc
depends on surface smoothness, area and some other factors. Area in case of flat plate is 0.011
m2, in case of finned plate 0.127 m 2 and pinned plate has an area of 0.05484 m 2. Area and hc
has an inverse relation as it is clear from formula.
1
𝒉𝒄 𝖺
𝐴
That’s why hc in case of flat plate is higher and in case of finned plate is lowest.
 If we have to consider the effect of temperature difference only by keeping all other
parameters constant (Area remains same in each case). Then in case of finned plate,
temperature difference has smaller value as compared to other plates and hc will be highest
(considering the effect of temperature difference only).
𝒉𝒄 𝖺 1
𝑇s −T∞
9 Experiment No:09
To Perform an Energy Balance and Calculate the Overall Efficiency of Concentric Tube Heat
Exchanger in Parallel Flow Conditions at Different Flow Rates
9.1 Objectives
 To understand the working and concept of a concentric tube heat exchanger and understand
the heat transfer mechanism.
 To perform an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat
exchanger in parallel flow conditions.
9.2 Apparatus
 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Unit
 Thermocouple
Figure 4. apparatus
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9.3 Introduction
In this experiment, we will perform energy balance and will calculate the overall efficiency of
concentric tube heat exchanger in parallel flow conditions at different flow rates. The concentric heat
exchanger unit consists of two tubes, one inside the other. One of the tubes contains the hot water
while the other one contains the cold water. An intermediate pipe is used which means the value of
temperature at an intermediate point. Thermometers are installed at different points in order to
measure the temperature. This temperature helps in experimental analysis of temperature distribution.
9.3.1 Theory
Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger is an adiabatic steady flow device in which two flowing fluids exchange or transfer
heat between themselves due to a temperature difference without losing or gaining any heat from the
ambient atmosphere. Condenser, economizer, superheater, cooling tower, air preheater are different
examples of heat exchangers.
Working Principle
Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one medium to another. These media may be a gas,
liquid, or a combination of both. The media may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or
may be in direct contact.
Classification of Heat Exchangers
 Parallel flow heat exchanger
 Counter flow heat exchanger
 Cross flow heat exchanger
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
In parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at the same end, move in the same direction
and leave at the same end.
Figure3. Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Counter Flow Heat

Exchanger
In counter flow, the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at opposite ends, flow in opposite directions and
leave at opposite ends.
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Figure 4.Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
Cross Flow Heat

Exchanger
In this type of heat exchanger, both the fluids flow in perpendicular direction with respect to each other.
Example: Automobile radiator
Figure 5. Cross Flow Heat Exchanger
9.3.2 Classification on the Basis of Construction

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers consist of a large number of small tubes which are located within a
cylindrical shell. The tubes are positioned into the cylinder using a tube bundle or "tube stack" which
can either have fixed tube plates (permanently fixed to the body) or, in the case of Thermax Heat
Exchangers a floating tube stack which allows the tube bundle to expand and contract with varying
heat conditions as well as allowing the tube bundle to be easily removed for servicing and
maintenance.
Figure 6. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
9.3.3 Plate Type Heat Exchanger

Plate Heat Exchangers operate in very much the same way as a shell and tube heat exchanger, using a
series of stacked plates rather than tubes. Plate heat exchangers are usually brazed or gasketed
depending on the application and fluids being used. Their compact stainless-steel construction makes
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them an ideal choice for use with refrigerants or in food and beverage processing.
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Figure 7. Plate Type Heat Exchanger
9.4 Procedure
 Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Switch on the power supply and main switch,
the digital readouts be illuminated.
 First both of the fluids i.e., hot and cold water are directed in the same direction with the help
of valves so that it be a parallel flow heat exchanger.
 Then both fluids are allowed to flow and it is made sure that there are not any bubbles and
flow is smooth.
 Flow rates of both fluids are measured and kept uniform during the measurements.
 Measure the temperatures at inlet, mean and outlet by inserting thermocouples in the passage
of both hot and cold fluid’s flow. Note them as T1, T5, T2, T3, T6 and T4.
 Generate a curve using temperature variation T (°C) on y-axis and length L (m) of the pipe on
the x-axis.
 Find the values of convective heat transfer rate Qabsorbed and Qemitted for each Q and ΔT
combination by using the expression below
𝑄𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄̇ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄̇ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇3)
Qa
 Find the efficiency of the heat exchanger from the given expression: • 𝜂= ×100.
Qe

Sr. No. Flow rate of Flow rate of 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟓 𝑻𝟔

Hot water Cold water
(m3/s) (m3/s) ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃
1 2.5 × 10−5 1.6667 × 10−5 47 43 26 35 45 30
2 2.5 × 10−5 2.5 × 10−5 50 44 27 35 45 30
3 2.5 × 10−5 3.333 × 10−5 51 44 28 34.5 45 30
4 2.5 × 10−5 5.0 × 10−5 53 44 29 34.5 46 31
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Densities and Specific heat (cp) at mean temperatures for different flow rates
Table 2. Data at different mean temperatures.
Mean Density Specific Heat Mean Density Specific Heat
Temperature Temperature
(Hot Fluid) (Cold Fluid)
𝑻𝟓(℃) kg/m3 KJ/kg. K 𝑻𝟔(℃) kg/m3 KJ/kg. K
45 990.22 4.180 30 995.67 4.178
45 990.22 4.180 30 995.67 4.178
45 990.22 4.180 30 995.67 4.178
46 989.80 4.180 31 995.41 4.178
Efficiency Is Given By The
Formula Qa
𝜼𝑻𝑯 =
Qe
𝑸𝒂̇ = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑) = 𝝆𝑉̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑)
𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐) = 𝝆𝑉̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐)
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1 L/min
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (995.67)(1.6667 × 10−5)(4.178)(35 − 26) = 0.624𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (990.22)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.180)(47 − 43) = 0.4139𝐾𝐽/𝑠
Qa
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = 0.4139 = 1.50 = 150%
Qe
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1.5 L/min
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (995.67)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.178)(35 − 27) = 0.832𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (990.22)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.180)(50 − 44) = 0.6209𝐾𝐽/𝑠
Qa
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = 0.6209 = 1.34 = 134%
Qe
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (995.67)(3.333 × 10−5)(4.178)(34.5 − 28) = 0.901𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (990.22)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.180)(51 − 44) = 0.7243𝐾𝐽/𝑠
Qa
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = 0.7243 = 1.24 = 124%
Qe
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (995.41)(5.0 × 10−5)(4.178)(34.5 − 29) = 1.1437𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (990.22)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.180)(53 − 44) = 0.9313𝐾𝐽/𝑠
Qa
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = =0.9313 = 1.23 = 123%
Qe
Graphs:
MATLAB is used for
graphs.
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid =1 L/min
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Figure 8. Plot b/w Distance (m) and Temperature (C).
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid =1.5 L/min
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When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid = 2 L/min
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9.6 Results
Here, are the calculated efficiencies and their corresponding rates of heat transfer i.e., Qa and Qe. this
foe the same experimental data used for graphs shown previously.
Table 3. Showing Qa , Qb and their Efficiency η
Volume flow rate Qabsorbed Qemitted

(L/min) (W) (W) Efficiency (η)
Hot Cold Cold Hot (%)
1.5 1 0.624 0.4139 150
1.5 1.5 0.832 0.6209 134
1.5 2 0.901 0.7243 124
1.5 3 1.1437 0.9313 123
From above discussion, following results can be concluded

 From the graphs, it is clear that temperature profile at different flow rates under parallel flow
conditions is in accordance with the standard temperature profile. The temperature of hot
water falls with time, whereas the temperature of cold water rises. This occurs because in
parallel flow, hot and cold-water flow at the same time in the same direction, and the heat from
the hot water is transferred to the cold water as soon as both taps are opened at the same time.
 From the graphs, it can be noted that as the flow continues along the length, the difference
between temperature of two fluids is decreasing which will result in decrease in heat flow
rate.
 We can see from the efficiency table that efficiency is above 100%, which is because cold
water also absorbs thermal energy from the environment. The heat energy obtained by cold
water is higher than the heat energy lost by hot water because of this:
𝑸𝒂̇ >𝑸̇𝒆
 But practically, it is not possible for a Heat exchanger to have efficiency more than 100%. So,
these unexpected amounts of errors are due to several factors including,
o Human error
o Faulty apparatus
o Readings may be not properly taken from thermometers or may be due to some effect
of surrounding environment.
 But in our case it is possible for heat exchanger to have efficiency more than 100% as shown
in our results because of surrounding environment having more temperature as compared to
cold water, so it effects the flowrate of water and due to this, efficiency can be greater than
100%.
10 Experiment No:10
To Perform an Energy Balance and Calculate the Overall Efficiency of
Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger in Counter Flow Conditions at Different Flow Rates
10.1 Objectives
 To understand the working and concept of a concentric tube heat exchanger and understand
the heat transfer mechanism.
 To perform an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat
exchanger in counter flow conditions.
10.2 Apparatus
 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Unit
 Thermocouple
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Figure 5. apparatus
10.3 Introduction
In this experiment, we will perform energy balance and will calculate the overall efficiency of
concentric tube heat exchanger in parallel flow conditions at different flow rates. The concentric heat
exchanger unit consists of two tubes, one inside the other. One of the tubes contains the hot water
while the other one contains the cold water. An intermediate pipe is used which means the value of
temperature at an intermediate point. Thermometers are installed at different points in order to
measure the temperature. This temperature helps in experimental analysis of temperature distribution.
10.3.1 Theory
Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger is an adiabatic steady flow device in which two flowing fluids exchange or transfer
heat between themselves due to a temperature difference without losing or gaining any heat from the
ambient atmosphere. Condenser, economizer, superheater, cooling tower, air preheater are different
examples of heat exchangers.
Working Principle
Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one medium to another. These media may be a gas,
liquid, or a combination of both. The media may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or
may be in direct contact.
Classification of Heat Exchangers
 Parallel flow heat exchanger
 Counter flow heat exchanger
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 Cross flow heat exchanger

Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
In parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at the same end, move in the same direction
and leave at the same end.
Figure3. Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Counter Flow Heat

Exchanger
In counter flow, the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at opposite ends, flow in opposite directions and
leave at opposite ends.
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Figure 5. Cross Flow Heat Exchanger
10.3.2 Classification on the Basis of Construction

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers consist of a large number of small tubes which are located within a
cylindrical shell. The tubes are positioned into the cylinder using a tube bundle or "tube stack" which
can either have fixed tube plates (permanently fixed to the body) or, in the case of Thermax Heat
Exchangers a floating tube stack which allows the tube bundle to expand and contract with varying
heat conditions as well as allowing the tube bundle to be easily removed for servicing and
maintenance.
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Figure 6. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
10.3.3 Plate Type Heat Exchanger

Plate Heat Exchangers operate in very much the same way as a shell and tube heat exchanger, using a
series of stacked plates rather than tubes. Plate heat exchangers are usually brazed or gasketed
depending on the application and fluids being used. Their compact stainless-steel construction makes
them an ideal choice for use with refrigerants or in food and beverage processing.
Figure 7. Plate Type Heat Exchanger
10.4 Procedure
 Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Switch on the power supply and main switch,
the digital readouts be illuminated.
 First both of the fluids i.e., hot and cold water are directed in the same direction with the help
of valves so that it be a counter flow heat exchanger.
 Then both fluids are allowed to flow and it is made sure that there are not any bubbles and
flow is smooth.
 Flow rates of both fluids are measured and kept uniform during the measurements.
 Measure the temperatures at inlet, mean and outlet by inserting thermocouples in the passage
of both hot and cold fluid’s flow. Note them as T1, T5, T2, T3, T6 and T4.
 Generate a curve using temperature variation T (°C) on y-axis and length L (m) of the pipe on
the x-axis.
 Find the values of convective heat transfer rate Qabsorbed and Qemitted for each Q and ΔT
combination by using the expression below
o 𝑄𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄̇ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
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o 𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄̇ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇3)

 Find the efficiency of the heat exchanger from the given expression:
𝑄𝑎
𝜂= ×100.
𝑄𝑒
10.5 Observations and

Calculation
Sr. No. Flow rate of Flow rate of 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟓 𝑻𝟔

Hot water Cold water
(m3/s) (m3/s) ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃
1 2.5 × 10−5 1.6667 × 10−5 44 41 26 30 42 28
2 2.5 × 10−5 2.5 × 10−5 50 42 25 32 44 27
3 2.5 × 10−5 3.333 × 10−5 52 43 26 31 46 28
4 2.5 × 10−5 4.1667 × 10−5 54 45 27 31 48.5 28
Densities and Specific heat (cp) at mean temperatures for different flow rates:
Table 2. Data at different mean temperatures.
Mean Density Specific Heat Mean Density Specific Heat
Temperature Temperature
(Hot Fluid) (Cold Fluid)
𝑻𝟓(℃) kg/m3 KJ/kg. K 𝑻𝟔(℃) kg/m3 KJ/kg. K
42 991.47 4.18 28 996.25 4.179
44 990.66 4.18 27 996.53 4.179
46 989.82 4.181 28 996.25 4.179
48.5 988.73 4.181 28 996.25 4.179
Efficiency Is Given By The Formula:
𝑄𝑎
𝜼𝑻𝑯 =
𝑄𝑒
𝑸𝒂̇ = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑) = 𝝆𝑉̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑)
𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐) = 𝝆𝑉̇ 𝒄𝒑(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐)
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (996.25)(1.6667 × 10−5)(4.179)(30 − 26) = 0.2776𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (991.47)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.180)(44 − 41) = 0.3108𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = 𝑸𝒂 = 0.3108 = 0.8931 = 89%
𝑸𝒆
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1.5 L/min
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (996.53)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.179)(32 − 25) = 0.7287𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (990.66)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.180)(50 − 42) = 0.8281𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝜂𝑇𝐻 =𝑄𝑎= 0.8281 = 0.87 = 87%
𝑄𝑒
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (996.25)(3.333 × 10−5)(4.179)(31 − 26) = 0.6938𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (989.82)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.181)(52 − 43) = 0.9311𝐾𝐽/s
𝑄𝑎 𝜂𝑇𝐻 = 0.9311 = 0.7451 = 74.51%
= 𝑄𝑒
𝑄 𝑎̇ = (996.25)(4.1667 × 10−5)(4.179)(31 − 27) = 0.6942𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒 ̇ = (988.73)(2.5 × 10−5)(4.181)(54 − 45) = 0.9301𝐾𝐽/s
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𝑸𝒂
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = 0.9301 = 0.7443 = 74.43%
𝑸𝒆
Graphs
MATLAB is used for
graphs.
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid =1 L/min
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid =1.5 L/min
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When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid = 2.5 L/min
10.6 Results
Here, are the calculated efficiencies and their corresponding rates of heat transfer i.e., Qa and Qe. this
foe the same experimental data used for graphs shown previously.
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Table 3. Showing Qa , Qb and their Efficiency η
Volume flow rate Qabsorbed Qemitted

(L/min) (W) (W) Efficiency (η)
(%)
Hot Cold Cold Hot
1.5 1 0.2776 0.3108 89
1.5 1.5 0.7287 0.8281 87
1.5 2 0.6938 0.9311 74.51
1.5 2.5 0.6942 0.9301 74.43
10.7 From above discussion, following results can be concluded

 From the graphs, it is clear that temperature profile at different flow rates under cross flow
conditions is in accordance with the standard temperature profile. The temperature of hot
water falls with time, whereas the temperature of cold water rises. This occurs because in
cross flow, hot and cold-water flow at the same time in the same direction, and the heat from
the hot water is transferred to the cold water as soon as both taps are opened at the same time.
 From the graphs, it can be noted that as the flow continues along the length, the difference
between temperature of two fluids is decreasing which will result in decrease in heat flow
rate.
 We can see from the efficiency table that efficiency is less than 100% which is good results.
The heat energy obtained by cold water is lesser than the heat energy lost by hot water
because of this:
𝑸𝒂̇ <𝑸̇𝒆
 In general, counter low heat exchangers are more efficient as compared to parallel flow heat
exchangers because uniform temperature difference occurs between two fluids along the
entire length. As two fluids flow in opposite direction, cold water absorbs more heat, reducing
the temperature much lower that could be achieved with parallel flow.
11 Experiment No:11
Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate, and Film Boiling.
11.1 Objectives
 To investigate the difference between different types of boiling i.e. convective, nucleate and
film boiling.
 To visually observe convective, nucleate and film boiling.
11.2 Apparatus
 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit
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Figure 6. apparatus
11.3 Introduction
In this experiment, we'll see what occurs when heat is transferred to a fluid that's going through a
phase shift. Thermodynamics predicts that the phase transition will result in a heat exchange of latent
heat. Second, there will be a density differential between the two phases, and third, the liquid vapor
interfaces will have surface tension. During a phase transition, these variables will have a major
impact on heat transfer rates and coefficients. Boiling can be categorized as convective, nucleate and
film boiling. Pool boiling curve will also be drawn to show different types of boing We will visualize
the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling with the help of boiling heat transfer unit
11.3.1 Theory
Boiling
Boiling is the process by which a liquid turn into a vapor when it is heated to its boiling point. The
change from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure exerted on the liquid. Boiling is a physical change. When atoms or
molecules of a liquid are able to spread out enough to change from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase,
bubbles form and boiling occurs.
Figure 2 Boiling
Boiling Point
The boiling point is the temperature at which boiling occurs for a specific liquid. For example, for
water, the boiling point is 100ºC at a pressure of 1 atm. The boiling point of a liquid depends on
temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the vapor pressure of the liquid. When the atmospheric
pressure is equal to the vapor pressure of the liquid, boiling will begin.
11.3.2 Critical Heat Flux
The boiling crisis, also known as the burnout point on the boiling curve, is the point of greatest heat
flow at which the transition from nucleate to film boiling occurs. The maximal heat flow is referred to
as the critical heat flux, and the temperature excess is referred to as the critical temperature
differential.
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11.3.3 Pool Boiling Curve
Figure 6. Pool Boiling Curve
11.4 Procedure
The following steps can be following for performing this experiment,
 First, we switched on the power source and applied a low amount of power through the knob.
 We then waited a few minutes before increasing the power amount significantly.
 We increased the power and observed the fluid's physical reaction to witness nucleate,
convective, and film boiling.
 We then used the water flow meter to ensure that water was flowing through the coil.
 We can check from the physical response; we can distinguish the different regions of the
boiling curve.
 At first, there are no bubbles formation but the convection currents are rising in liquid then we
can conclude that the boiling is convection boiling.
 When the bubbles start appearing around the heating surface and moving towards the free
surface but do not completely cover the surface, we can say that the boiling is nucleate
boiling.
 In the film boiling, a complete layer of vapors is formed around the heating surface which
also results in the decrease of heat flux. Heat flux is maximum at the end of the nucleate
boiling region and is minimum in the film boiling region.
12 Experiment No:12
Determination of Heat Flux and Heat Transfer Coefficient at Constant Pressure.
12.1 Objectives
 To investigate the difference between different types of boiling i.e. convective, nucleate and
film boiling.
 To visually observe convective, nucleate and film boiling.
12.2 Apparatus
 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit
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HMT- 2021-ME- Lab
Figure 7. apparatus
12.3 Introduction
In this experiment, we'll see what occurs when heat is transferred to a fluid that's going through a
phase shift. Thermodynamics predicts that the phase transition will result in a heat exchange of latent
heat. Second, there will be a density differential between the two phases, and third, the liquid vapor
interfaces will have surface tension. During a phase transition, these variables will have a major
impact on heat transfer rates and coefficients. Boiling can be categorized as convective, nucleate and
film boiling. Pool boiling curve will also be drawn to show different types of boing We will visualize
the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling with the help of boiling heat transfer unit
12.3.1 Theory
Boiling
Boiling is the process by which a liquid turn into a vapor when it is heated to its boiling point. The
change from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure exerted on the liquid. Boiling is a physical change. When atoms or
molecules of a liquid are able to spread out enough to change from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase,
bubbles form and boiling occurs.
Figure
2
Boiling
Boiling Point
The boiling point is the temperature at which boiling occurs for a specific liquid. For example, for
water, the boiling point is 100ºC at a pressure of 1 atm. The boiling point of a liquid depends on
8
HMT- 2021-ME- Lab
temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the vapor pressure of the liquid. When the atmospheric
pressure is equal to the vapor pressure of the liquid, boiling will begin.
12.3.2 Pool Boiling Curve
Figure 6. Pool Boiling Curve
12.4 Procedure
The following steps can be following for performing this experiment
 At first, we set the value of heat input and adjusted the condense flow rate until the required
condensed pressure is reached.
 We then noted the vapor pressure, the metal and liquid temperatures.
 We then increased the heat input and adjusted the flow rate again to get the required pressure.
 Repeat the similar increment from nucleate to film boiling.
 When the film boiling is established, the heat input must be reduced.
 Temperature will be measured and T excess will be calculated. Heat flux and heat transfer
coefficient will be determined at constant pressure by putting the respective values.
12.5 Observations & Calculations
Area of heating element = 0.0019 m2
̇ 𝑸
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑄′′ =
𝑨
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ℎ
= ∆𝑇
Table 1. Temperatures at constant pressure of 20 pa
𝑺𝒓. 𝑵𝒐. 𝑸 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 (𝑸′′) h
For Graph 1
𝑾 ℃ ℃ ℃ kW/m2 kW/m2.K
1 5 32 25 7 2.6316 0.3759
2 10 43 25 18 5.2632 0.2924
3 15 57 27 30 7.8947 0.2632
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HMT- 2021-ME- Lab
4 20 72 26 46 10.5263 0.2288
For Graph 2
5 100 64 50 14 52.6316 3.7594
6 150 70 55 15 78.9474 5.2632
7 200 73 57 16 105.2632 6.5790
8 250 76 59 17 131.5789 7.7399
Figure 8.Graph between heat flux and Texcess
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HMT- 2021-ME- Lab
12.6 Results
 The graph is plotted between heat flux and Texcess which is the difference in temperature
(source temperature and liquid temperature).
 From both the graphs it is clear that with the increase in temperature heat flux also increases.
 From the newton law of cooling,
𝑄 = ℎ𝐴(∆𝑇)
𝑸
= 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝐴(∆𝑇) = 𝐴𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑨
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝛼 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
 From the formula, it is clear that with the increase in difference in temperature, heat flux also
increases ad depicted in these two graphs.
 Heat transfer coefficient depends in heat flux and difference in temperature
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
ℎ= ∆𝑇
 Heat transfer coefficient depends on heat flux as well as difference in temperature which is
Texcess. From the table, it is clear that heat transfer coefficient decreases for the first four
values because in this case temperature is dominant factor and it inversely proportional to
heat transfer coefficient. However, in second case for the next four values, heat flux is
dominant factor and it is directly proportional to heat transfer coefficient, as a result it
increases.

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HMT-LAB

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

Figure 2: Forced Vs Natural Convection

Figure 3. Heat flow by conduction

Graph 1: Temperature vs Distance

y = -224 .14x + 58.207

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Graph 2: Temperature vs Distance

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Graph 3: Temperature vs Distance

Graph 4: Temperature vs Distance

https://byjus.com/physics/fouriers-law/ (accessed Oct. 22, 2023).

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

2.3.4 Forced Convection

Figure 3: Forced Vs Natural Convection

2.3.6 Thermal Conductivity Figure 4: Radiation

U is overall heat transfer coefficient

Figure 5. Heat flow by conduction

1 5.2 36 35 35 33 32 31 30 29 29 211.86 105.93 211.86 1765.55 1513.33 14.28

2 10.2 40 39 39 38 38 32 30 29 29 415.58 69.26 415.58 1731.60 1889.02 -9.09

3 15.1 54 54 53 43 40 38 38 36 35 307.61 123.04 205.07 2050.76 1619.02 21.05

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Graph 5: Temperature Vs Distance

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

2.7 Results &

[5] “Fourier’s Law - Formula, Derivation, Definition, Equation.”

3.3 Introduction Figure 5: Apparatus

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

Figure 3: Forced Vs Natural Convection

3.3.6 Thermal Conductivity Figure 4: Radiation

Figure 5. Heat flow by conduction

Eq (2) will become:

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Graph 2: Temperature Vs Distance

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Graph 3: Temperature Vs Distance

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

4.4 Literature review

Re-arranging the above equation,

4.6.2 Table 𝑞̇ = 4.74 𝑊

10.2 42 39 35 33 32 30 9.49 6.931

20.2 54 49 45 40 36 32 17.40 13.8

25.1 59 55 51 45 39 33 20.56 18.05

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Graph 9: Temperature profile

5.3 Introduction Figure 7: Apparatus

Figure 2: Convection Heat Transfer

Figure 3: Natural Convection

Figure 4: Forced Convection

5.4 Literature review

⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄𝑨( 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂) … … … (1)

(ͦC) (ͦC) (ͦC) (𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾)

Graph 10: Change in temperature Vs Power supplied

Figure 2 Convection Heat Transfer

6.4.2 Types of Convection

Figure 3 Natural Convection