Technology - : Structures

Technology | Topic Notes
Structures
There are both naturally made and manmade structures. Many manmade structures are based off
the design of structures found in nature.
Manmade examples: bridges, umbrella, pillars
Natural examples: spider web, tree, sea arch, cave
Types of structures:
• Frame
• Arch
• Shell
• Beam
• Box
Frame Structure
Frame structures are skeleton-like structures. They may be covered or

left open. Closed frame structures are covered and open frame
structures are frames with no cladding. Most modern buildings are
closed frame structures consisting or steel frames surrounded by
outside walls and interior cladding.
E.g. spiders web, human body, most modern buildings
Arch Structure
Arch structures stretch all back to around 2,500BC. They are a curved
structure in design that cross a gap and are capable of supporting weight.
Arch structures can be seen in doorways, bridges. Arch structures usually
consist of a keystone which is a central stone at the apex of the design
that locks the rest of the stones into place.
E.g. bridges, doorways, sole of foot, roofs
Technology | Topic Notes 1

Shell Structure
Shell structures draw their strength and rigidity from their

shape. They are usually lighter than frame structures and not
as strong. Ridges and curves can be included in the design to
strengthen the overall structure. Cars are an example of shell
structures as they consist of exterior sheet metal panels
welded together to form the shape of the car.
E.g. cars, egg carton, snail shell, helmets, boats.
Beam Structure
A beam is a long rigid structure generally made out of wood, metal

or concrete. Beams are often used to support a load across a gap.
Beams can also be used in construction to be incorporated into
larger, more complex structures. There are different profiles for
beams, different shapes have different attributes such as strength
or weight. Hollow beam structures can often be seen in scaffolding
as solid structures would be too heavy to use.
E.g. scaffolding, bridges, pillars, columns, cantilevers
Box Structure
A box structure is based off the geometric shape of a box or

rectangle. They often gain additional strength by having diagonal
or transversal components added to them. Box structures are often
used in radio pylons, motor way signs, speaker mounts at concerts
and bridge structures.
E.g. motorway signs, concert stage supports, radio pylons

Force
A force is anything that causes something to change its speed or direction. Engines, motors and
sails generate a force which results in motion in many everyday vehicles. Gravity (9.81N) is the
force which holds us down on planet earth. The mass of an object is constant, however the weight
of any object is its weight multiplied by the force acting on it. You will weigh more on Earth than
you would on Mars even though you will have the same mass (more or less) because gravity is
stronger on Mars.
Force is measured in Newtons (N)
Tension
Tension is a pulling force. If an object is in tension it is being stretched out in opposite directions.
E.g. A suspension bridge
Compression
Compression is a force that results from an object being pressed and flattened into a smaller shape
than it naturally is.
E.g. a soft drinks can being crushed, a pillar of a building
Torsion
Bending is a force that twists opposite ends of an object in opposite directions.
E.g. twisting a wrench, wringing out a wet cloth

Bending
Bending of a structure results when one side of the structure is compressed, resulting in the other
side being under tension.
Eg: a gymnast swinging on a bar
Shear
Shearing force is a cutting, tearing or ripping force that results from one part of an object being
forced in one direction and then an opposite force being applied to the same object just slightly
separated.
Eg: scissors cutting through paper, clippers cutting grass
Ties & Struts
A strut is a component of a structure that is under compression. Stuts help keep two separate
components of a structure from getting closer together or collapsing.
A tie is a component of a structure that is under tension. Ties keep structural members from
separating.
Structures can be reinforced by the addition of struts and ties
Redundant Members
A redundant member is any part of a structure that holds no structural force and can be removed
without compromising the existing structure in any way. Well-designed structures will have no
redundant members.

Loads
Static loads exert a constant force on whatever structure is supporting them.
E.g. the weight exerted on the supports of a bridge by the bridge structure itself
Dynamic loads vary in the amount of force they exert on a structure at any given time.
E.g. the weight a car exerts on a bridge as it drives across it
Equilibrium
A lever is said to be in equilibrium when it is not turning and remains balanced and still, when
clockwise moments equal anticlockwise moments.
A lever is a rigid structure that can pivot or rotate around a fixed point called a fulcrum.
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity is where the weight of any body is most

concentrated. The lower the centre of gravity the more stable
the object. If the centre of gravity lies near to, or outside of the
body then it is more likely to eventually topple over.
• The Tesla Model 3 electric car has a very low centre of

gravity due to the placement of the battery low in the
chassis of the car. This resulted in the car getting a 5 star crash test safety rating.
Triangulation
The triangle is one of the strongest structures that can be created. When a force is applied to a
triangulated structure, two of its members stretch out the third member placing it under tension
which pulls the other two members towards it and as a result makes the overall structure more
rigid as the force is spread out between all three members.

Triangulation is used in structures such as house roofs, bicycle frames, motorway signs, gates and
pylons
Factor of Safety [FoS]
The factor of safety of a structure refers to the ratio of its actual load capacity over its required
loading expressed as a percentage. It tells us the actual maximum load the structure can support
along with the load it is required to carry
FoS = Capability / Requirement
Over engineering a structure refers to adding components which increase the overall strength
and take into account imperfections, flaws, degradation and uncertainty so as to ensure the
structure will be able to hold whatever load is presented to it.
A factor of safety of 5 means that the structure is capable of supporting 5 times the load that is
usually expected from use.
Structural Testing
Two approaches:
• Non - Destructive Testing

• Destructive Testing
Non-Destructive Testing
This involved testing an object without breaking, damaging or compromising it any way. It can
save time and money and is regularly used throughout the design and manufacturing process.
Visual inspection can be used to detect external flaws and ultrasonic testing can detect internal
flaws.

Destructive Testing
This involves testing a structure until it fails and is destroyed. These tests are generally easier to
carry out and will provide a lot more information. They can also be easier to interpret than non-
destructive testing.
Destructive testing can be expensive however and as a result is only usually used with objects
that will go into mass production, like cars, helmets, electrical equipment.
Simulation software can also be used to test structures by writing computer programmes to
digitally test a variety of different scenarios or forces on the object being tested.

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Technology | Topic Notes

Manmade examples: bridges, umbrella, pillars

Natural examples: spider web, tree, sea arch, cave

Frame structures are skeleton-like structures. They may be covered or

E.g. spiders web, human body, most modern buildings

E.g. bridges, doorways, sole of foot, roofs

Technology | Topic Notes 1

Shell structures draw their strength and rigidity from their

E.g. cars, egg carton, snail shell, helmets, boats.

A beam is a long rigid structure generally made out of wood, metal

E.g. scaffolding, bridges, pillars, columns, cantilevers

A box structure is based off the geometric shape of a box or

E.g. motorway signs, concert stage supports, radio pylons

Technology | Topic Notes 2

Force is measured in Newtons (N)

E.g. A suspension bridge

E.g. a soft drinks can being crushed, a pillar of a building

Bending is a force that twists opposite ends of an object in opposite directions.

E.g. twisting a wrench, wringing out a wet cloth

Technology | Topic Notes 3

Eg: a gymnast swinging on a bar

Eg: scissors cutting through paper, clippers cutting grass

Ties & Struts

Structures can be reinforced by the addition of struts and ties

Technology | Topic Notes 4

Static loads exert a constant force on whatever structure is supporting them.

E.g. the weight a car exerts on a bridge as it drives across it

The centre of gravity is where the weight of any body is most

• The Tesla Model 3 electric car has a very low centre of

Technology | Topic Notes 5

Factor of Safety [FoS]

FoS = Capability / Requirement

• Non - Destructive Testing

Technology | Topic Notes 6

Technology | Topic Notes 7

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