PLATE #1 INTRODUCTION

Read about Structural Analysis of Theory of Structures.

1. Historical Background. Summarize, includes names of persons,

paces, and dates contributing to the development of structural
analysis.

In the history, structural engineering has been an essential and has a

big part of human endeavor. Engineering structures were designed by trial
and error which they used the rules of thumb based on the past experience.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1692) has been part of this by his book entitled “Two
New Sciences” which was published in 1638 and he was generally considered
to be the originator of the theory of structures.

Among the notable investigators of the period were: Robert Hooke

(1635-1703), who developed the law of linear relationships between the
force and deformation of Materials (Hooke’s Law), Sir Isaac Newton *(1642-
1727), who formulated the laws of motion and developed calculus; John
Bernoulli (1667-1748), who formulated the principle of virtual work;
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), who developed the theory of buckling of
columns; and C.A de Coulomb (1736-1806), who presented the analysis of
bending of elastic beams.

In 1826 L.M Navier (1785-1836) published a treatise on elastic

behavior of structures, which is considered to be the first textbook on the
modern theory of strength of materials. B.P Clapeyron (1799-1864), who
formulated the three-moment equation for the analysis of continuous
beams; J.C Maxwell (1831-1879), who presented the method of consistent
deformations and the law of reciprocal deflections; Otto Mohr (1835-1918),
who developed the conjugate-beam method for calculation of deflections and
Mohr’s circles of stress and strain; Alberto Castigliano (1847-1884), who
formulated the theorem of least work, C.E Greene (1842-1903), who
developed the moment-area method; H Mϋller-Breslau (1851-1925), who
presented a principle for constructing influence lined; G.A Maney (1888-
1947), who developed the sloped-deflection method, which is considered to
be the precursor of the matrix stiffness method; and Hardy Cross (1885-
1959), who developed the moment-distribution method in 1924.

2. Role of Structural analysis in Structural Engineering Projects.

The role of structural analysis in engineering projects are the Planning

Phase, Preliminary Structural Design, Estimation of Loads, Structural
analysis, Safety and Serviceability Checks and Revised Structural Design.

Planning Phase

- The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the

functional requirements of the proposed structure, the general
layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the
possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame Phases of a Typical
Structural Engineering Project or truss) that may be feasible and
the types of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced
concrete). This phase may also involve consideration of
nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics, environmental impact of
the structure, and so on. The outcome of this phase is usually a
structural system that meets the functional requirements and is
expected to be the most economical. This phase is perhaps the
most crucial one of the entire project and requires experience and
knowledge of construction practices in addition to a thorough
understanding of the behavior of structures.

Preliminary Structural Design

- In the preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of the various

members of the structural system selected in the planning phase
are estimated based on approximate analysis, past experience, and
code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are used in the
next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.
Estimation of Loads

- Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can

be expected to act on the structure

Structural Analysis

- In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out
an analysis of the structure in order to determine the stresses or
stress resultants in the members and the deflections at various
points of the structure.

Safety and Serviceability

- The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not

the structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of
the design codes. If these requirements are satisfied, then the
design drawings and the construction specifications are prepared,
and the construction phase begins.

Revised Structural Design

- If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes
are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated until all the
safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied.

3. Classifications of structures. Cut pictures or draw as example

of each structure.

Tension Structures

- The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension

under the action of external loads. Because the tensile stress is
 distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional areas of members,
the material of such a structure is utilized in the most e‰cient
manner. Tension structures composed of flexible steel cables are
frequently employed to support bridges and long span roofs.
Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness
and can develop only tension. Thus, under external loads, a cable
adopts a shape that enables it to support the load by tensile forces
alone. In other words, the shape of a cable changes as the loads
acting on it change.

Compression Structures

- Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under

the action of external loads. Two common examples of such
structures are columns and arches. Columns are straight member
subjected to axially compressive loads. When a straight member is
subjected to lateral loads and/or moments in addition to axial loads,
it is called a beam-column.
Trusses

- Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends

by hinged connections to form a stable configuration (Fig. 1.10).
When the loads are applied to a truss only at the joints, its
members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal
truss are always either in uniform tension or in uniform
compression. Real trusses are usually constructed by connecting
members to gusset plates by bolted or welded connections.
Although the rigid joints thus formed cause some bending in the
members of a truss when it is loaded, in most cases such secondary
bending stresses are small, and the assumption of hinged joints
yields satisfactory designs.
Shear Structures

- Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls (Fig.

1.11), are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements
due to wind loads and earthquake excitations (Fig. 1.12). Shear
structures develop mainly in-plane shear, with relatively small
bending stresses under the action of external loads.

Bending Structures
 - Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the
action of external loads. In some structures, the shear stresses
associated with the changes in bending moments may also be
significant and should be considered in their designs. Some of the
most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid frames,
slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures.

4. Analytical Models. Plane vs space structures, and Line

diagram.

A plane structure is where all the members of a structure as well as

the applied loads lie in a single plane. The analysis of plane, or two-
dimensional, structures is considerably simpler than the analysis of space, or
three-dimensional structures while space structures are analyzed as three-
dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional force system.

An analytical model is a simplified representation, or an ideal, of a real

structure for the purpose of analysis of a complicated structure.
Establishment of the analytical model is one of the most important steps of
analysis process, it requires experience and knowledge of design.

The analytical model of the two-or-three-dimensional body selected for

analysis is represented by a line diagram. On this diagram, each member of
the structure is represented by a line coinciding with its centroidal axis.
5. Supports and connections. Draw model and actual.

Supports

- Supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either

fixed supports, which do not allow any movement; hinged supports,
which can prevent translation but permit rotation; or roller, or link,
supports, which can prevent translation in only one direction.

Connections

- Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of

structures: (1) rigid connections and (2) flexible, or hinged,
connections. (A third type of connection, termed a semirigid
connection, although recognized by structural steel design codes, is
not commonly used in practice and, therefore, is not considered in
this text.)A rigid connection or joint prevents relative translations
and rotations of the member ends connected to it; that is, all
member ends connected to a rigid joint have the same translation
and rotation. In other words, the original angles between the
members intersecting at a rigid joint are maintained after the
structure has deformed under the action of loads. Such joints are,
therefore, capable of transmitting forces as well as moments
between the connected members. Rigid joints are usually
represented by points at the intersections of members on the line
diagram of the structure.
- A hinged connection or joint prevents only relative translations of
member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected
to a hinged joint have the same translation but may have different
rotations. Such joints are thus capable of transmitting forces but
not moments between the connected members. Hinged joints are
usually depicted by small circles at the intersections of members on
the line diagram of the structure.
- The perfectly rigid connections and the perfectly flexible frictionless
hinges used in the analysis are merely idealizations of the actual
connections, which are seldom perfectly rigid or perfectly flexible.
However, actual bolted or welded connections are purposely
designed to behave like the idealized cases. For example, the
connections of trusses are designed with the centroidal axes of the
members concurrent at a point, to avoid eccentricities that may
cause bending of members. For such cases, the analysis based on
the idealized connections and supports (described in the following
paragraph) generally yields satisfactory results.
6. Loads on structures. Dead, Live, Wind, etc.

Dead Loads

- Are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that

act permanently on the structures. For example, the dead loads for
a building structure include the weight of frame, framing and
bracing systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating
and air-conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, etc.

Live Loads
 - Are loads of varying magnitudes and / or positions caused by the
use of then structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to
refer to all loads on the structure that are not dead loads, including
environmental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads.

Wind Loads

- Are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The

magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on
the geographical location of the structure, obstruction in its
surrounding terrain such as hearby buildings, and the geometry and
the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

Earthquake Loads

- Earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s

surface. During an earthquake the foundation of the structure,
moves with the ground, the above-ground portion of the structure,
because of the inertia of its mass, resists the motion, thereby
causing the structure to vibrate in the horizontal direction.

Snow Loads

- Must be considered in designing structures where the design is

based on the ground snow load for its geographical location, which
can be obtained from building codes or meteorological data for that
region. It is also determined by such factors as the structures
exposure to wind, and its thermal, geometric and functional
characteristics.

Hydrostatic and soil pressure

- Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the submerged surface of the

structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with height while
underground structures, basement walls and floors, and retaining
 walls must be designed to resist soil pressure. The lateral soil
pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually considerably
smaller than vertical pressure.

Thermal and other effects may be subjected to stresses due to temperature

changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors, and differential
settlements of supports.

7. Load Combinations.

Load combination or strength design (ASCE 7-10, sec,2.32)

1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5 (Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2 D+1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5 W)
4. 1.2 D+1.0W + L+ 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2 D+1.0 E+ L +0.25
6. 0.9 D + 1.0 W
7. 0.90+ 1.0 E

Load Combination for allowable stress design (ASCE 7-10,sec, 2.4)

1. D
2. D+L
3. D+(Lr or S or R)
4. D + 0.75L + 0.75 (Lr or S or R)
5. D + (0.6 W or 0.7E)
6. A. D +0.75L+0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
B. D+ 0.75L+0.75(0.6E) + 0.75 S

7. 0.6 D+ 0.6 W

8. 0.6D + 0.7 E

Where D is Dead load; L is Live load; Lr is roof live load; W is strength

design wind load; E is strength design seismic load; R is rain load; and S is
snow load.

Textbook: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS BY KASSIMALI

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