Thevenin’s Theorem in DC Circuit Analysis

A French engineer, M.L Thevenin, made one of these quantum leaps in 1893. Thevenin’s
Theorem (also known as Helmholtz–Thévenin Theorem) is not by itself an analysis tool, but
the basis for a very useful method of simplifying circuits and complex networks. This theorem is
useful to quickly and easily solve complex linear circuits and networks, especially electric
circuits and electronic networks.
Thevenin’s Theorem may be stated below:
Any linear electric network or a complex circuit with current and voltage sources can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit containing a single independent voltage source VTH and a Series
Resistance RTH.
 VTH = Thevenin’s Voltage
 RTH = Thevenin’s Resistance

Steps to Analyze an Electric Circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem

1. Open the load resistor.
2. Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
3. Open current sources and short voltage sources.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
5. Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as voltage
source and measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series resistance and
connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This is the equivalent Thevenin
circuit of that linear electric network or complex circuit which had to be simplified and
analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You have done it.
6. Now find the Total current flowing through the load resistor by using the Ohm‟s Law: IT =
VTH / (RTH + RL).

Solved Example by Thevenin’s Theorem:

Example:
Find VTH, RTH and the load current IL flowing through and load voltage across the load resistor
in fig (1) by using Thevenin’s Theorem.
Solution:-
STEP 1.
Open the 5kΩ load resistor (Fig 2).

STEP 2.
Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). Fig (3).
We have already removed the load resistor in figure 1, so the circuit became an open circuit as
shown in fig 2. Now we have to calculate the Thevenin‟s Voltage. Since 3mA current flows in
both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit and current will not flow in
the 8kΩ resistor as it is open.
This way, 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is
not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is an open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is
in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltagei.e. 12V will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as
well as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. i.e,
VTH = 12V
STEP 3.
Open current sources and short voltage sources as shown below. Fig (4)

STEP 4.

Calculate / measure the open circuit resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH)
We have removed the 48V DC source to zero as equivalent i.e. 48V DC source has been
replaced with a short in step 3 (as shown in figure 3). We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series
with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ
STEP 5.
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor. This is
shown in fig (6) i.e. Thevenin circuit with load resistor. The Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit.

STEP 6.
Now apply the last step i.e Ohm‟s law. Calculate the total load current and load voltage as
shown in fig 6.
IL = VTH / (RTH + RL)
IL = 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) → = 12/16kΩ
IL = 0.75mA
And
VL = IL x RL
VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL= 3.75V
Now compare this simple circuit with the original circuit shown in figure 1. Do you see how
much easier it will be to measure and calculate the load current in complex circuit and network
for different load resistors by Thevenin’s Theorem? Yes and only yes.

Norton’s Theorem in DC Circuit Analysis

Norton‟s theorem is another useful technique to analyze electric circuits like using
the Thevenin‟s Theorem, which reduces linear, active circuits and complex networks into a
simple equivalent circuit. The main difference between Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s
theorem is that, Thevenin‟s theorem provides an equivalent voltage source and an equivalent
series resistance, while Norton‟s theorem provides an equivalent Current source and an
equivalent parallel resistance.
Norton’s Theorem states that:

Any linear electric network or complex circuit with current and voltage sources can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit containing a single independent current source IN and a parallel
resistance RN.

In other but simple words, Any linear circuit is equivalent to a real and independent current
source in specific terminals.

Steps to Analyze an Electric Circuit using Norton’s Theorem

1. Short the load resistor.
2. Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current (IN).
3. Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN).
5. Now, Redraw the circuit with measured short circuit Current (IN) in Step (2) as Current
Source and measured open circuit resistance (RN) in step (4) as a parallel resistance and
connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (3). This is the Equivalent Norton
Circuit of that Linear Electric Network or Complex circuit which had to be simplified and
analyzed. You have done it.
6. Now find the Load current flowing through and Load Voltage across Load Resistor by using
the Current divider rule. IL = IN / (RN / (RN+ RL)) ((For clear explanation … check the solved
example given below).

Solved Example by Norton’s Theorem:

Example:
Find RN, IN, the current flowing through and Load Voltage across the load resistor in fig (1) by
using Norton‟s Theorem.
Solution:-
STEP 1.
Short the 1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 2).

STEP 2.
Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current (IN).
We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, IN. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then
in parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.
So the total resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with).
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)] → IT = 2Ω + 2Ω = 4Ω.
RT = 4Ω
IT = V ÷ RT
IT = 12V ÷ 4Ω
IT = 3A..
Now we have to find ISC = IN … Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…
ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω ÷ (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.
ISC = IN = 2A.
STEP 3.
Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor. Fig (4)

STEP 4.
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN)
We have Reduced the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short in step (3),
as shown in figure (4) We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω
resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) ÷ (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω
STEP 5.
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and reconnect the load resistor. This is shown
in fig (6) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.

Norton Equivalent Circuit

STEP 6.
Now apply the last step i.e. calculate the load current through and Load voltage across the load
resistor by Ohm‟s Law as shown in fig 7.
Load Current through Load Resistor…
IL = IN x [RN ÷ (RN+ RL)]
= 2A x (4.5Ω ÷ 4.5Ω + 1.5Ω) → = 1.5A
IL = 1. 5A
And
Load Voltage across Load Resistor…
VL = IL x RL
VL = 1.5A x 1.5Ω
VL= 2.25V

Finding the Load Current and Load Voltage through Norton‟s Theorem
Now compare this simple circuit with the original circuit given in figure 1. Can you see how
much easier it will be to measure/calculate the load current and load Voltage for different load
resistors through Norton‟s Theorem even in much more complex circuits? Only and only yes.

Note that, both Norton‟s & Thevenin‟s theorems can be applied to both AC and DC circuits
containing difference components such as resistors, inductors and capacitors etc. Keep in mind
that the Norton‟s current “IN” in AC circuit is expressed in complex number (polar form)
whereas, the Norton‟s resistance “RN” is stated in rectangular form.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for DC Circuits

This theorem describes the condition for maximum power transfer from an active network to an
external load resistance. It states that in a linear, active, bilateral DC network, the maximum
power will be transferred from source to the load when the external load resistance equals to
the internal resistance of the source.

This theorem can be developed with reference to practical current or voltage source.

If the source is a practical or independent voltage source, its internal series resistance must match
with load resistance to deliver maximum power. In case of practical or independent current
source, parallel internal resistance should match with load resistance.
In the above circuit internal source series resistance alters the power delivered to the load and
hence the maximum current delivered from the source to the load is limited.

Explanation of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Let us consider the electrical system with load as shown below, to which we are going to
determine the value of load resistance so as to deliver the maximum power to the load.
Basically, the condition at which maximum power transfer can be obtained by deriving an
expression of power absorbed by the load using mesh or nodal current techniques and then
finding its derivative with respect to the load resistance.
In below figure, electrical system may be a complex circuit consisting of several elements and
sources. In such case finding of maximum power transfer condition can be tedious.

Alternatively we can find the maximum power transfer with the use of Thevenin‟s equivalent.
Now we will replace the electrical system which we are considered as complex part with its
Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit as shown in below.

From the above circuit, the current flowing through the load, „I‟ is given as
In the above equation RL is a variable, therefore the condition for maximum power delivered to
the load is determined by differentiating load power with respect to the load resistance and
equating it to zero.

This is the condition for maximum power transfer, which states that power delivered to the load
is maximum, when the load resistance RL matches with Thevenin‟s resistance RTH of the
network. Under this condition, power transfer to the load is

The above equation shows that the efficiency is 50% under maximum power transfer condition.
Due to this 50 percent efficiency, maximum power transfer is not always desirable. For a given
values the Thevenin‟s voltage and Thevenin‟s resistance, the variation of power delivered to the
load with varying load resistance is shown in below figure.
Solved Example on Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in DC Circuits
Consider the below circuit for which we are going to determine the value of load resistance,
RL for which maximum power will transfer from source to load.

Now, the given circuit can be further simplified by converting the current source into equivalent
voltage source as follows.
We need to find the Thevenin‟s equivalent voltage Vth and Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance Rth
across the load terminals in order to get the condition for maximum power transfer. By
disconnecting the load resistance, the open-circuit voltage across the load terminals can be
calculated as;

By applying Kirchhoff‟s voltage law, we get

12 – 6I – 2I – 16 = 0
– 8I = 4
I = –0.5 A
The open-circuit voltage across the terminals A and B, VAB = 16 – 2 ×0.5
= 15 V
Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B is obtained by short-circuiting the
voltage sources as shown in the figure.

Req = (6 × 2) / (6 + 2)
= 1.5 Ω
So the maximum power will transferred to the load when RL = 1.5 ohm.
Current through the circuit, I = 15 / (1.5 + 1.5)
=5A
Therefore, the maximum power = 52 × 1.5 = 37.5 W
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC circuits

This theorem gives the impedance conditions in AC circuit for maximum power transfer to a
load. It states that in an active AC network consisting of source with internal impedance
ZS which is connected to a load ZL, the maximum power transfer occurs from source to load
when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of source impedance ZS.

Proof of the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Consider the below circuit consisting of Thevenin‟s voltage source with series Thevenin‟s
equivalent resistance (which are actually replacing the complex part of the circuit) connected
across the complex load.

From the above figure, Let ZL = RL + jXL and ZTH = RTH + jXTH then the current through the
circuit is given as,

For power to be maximized, the above equation must be differentiated with respect to XL and
equates it to zero. Then we get
Again taking derivative of the above equation and equating it to zero, we get
RL+ RTH = 2 RL
RL = RTH
Therefore, in AC circuits, if XL = – XTH and RL = RTH, maximum power transfer takes place from
source to load. This implies that maximum power transfer occurs when the impedance of the
load is complex conjugate of the source impedance, i.e., ZL = Z*TH

Solved Example on Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in AC Circuits

Consider the below AC network to which we are going to determine the condition for maximum
power transfer and the value of maximum power.
For finding out the maximum power transfer, first we have to determine Thevenin‟s voltage and
equivalent resistance. By disconnecting the load impedance and making the voltage source short-
circuit, the network becomes as shown below.

Then, ZAB = ((4 × 4j)/ (4 + 4j)) – 2j

= (4j – 2j (1+ j)) / (1+ j)
=2Ω
Therefore, the condition for maximum power transfer is ZL = ZTH = 2 Ω
The Thevenin‟s voltage of the circuit can be determined by applying the voltage divider rule to
the below circuit.

VTH = VAB = (40 / 4 (1+j)) × 4

= 28.29∠-450
Then maximum power, Pmax = VTH2/ 4RTH
= 800/ 4 = 100 W
 Applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
1. In electronic circuits, especially in communication system the signal present at the receiving
antenna is of low strength. In order to receive the maximum signal from the antenna,
impedance of (TV) receiver and (TV) antenna should be matched.

2. In an audio amplifier with audio speaker arrangement in public addressing systems, speaker
resistance must be equal to the amplifier resistance in order to transfer maximum power from
amplifier to the speaker.

3. In case of a car engine starting system, starter motor resistance must be matched with internal
resistance of the battery. If the battery if full and these resistances are matched, maximum
power will be transferred to the motor to turn ON the engine.