WLC Laboratory Manual

Laboratory Manual for
Wireless Communication
(3171004)
B.E. Semester 7 (E&C Engineering)
Government Engineering College, Patan
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda
Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar, Gujarat

Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________ Enrollment
No. _______________ of B.E. Semester 7 E&C Engineering of this Institute (GTU
Code: _____ ) has satisfactorily completed the Practical / Tutorial work for the subject
Wireless Communication (3171004) for the academic year 2023-24.
Place: __________
Date: __________
Name and Sign of Faculty member
Head of the Department

Wireless Communication (3171004)
Preface
Main motto of any laboratory/practical/field work is for enhancing required skills as well as
creating ability amongst students to solve real time problem by developing relevant competencies
in psychomotor domain. By keeping in view, GTU has designed competency focused outcome-
based curriculum for engineering degree programs where sufficient weightage is given to
practical work. It shows importance of enhancement of skills amongst the students and it pays
attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst students, instructors and
faculty members to achieve relevant outcomes by performing the experiments rather than having
merely study type experiments. It is must for effective implementation of competency focused
outcome-based curriculum that every practical is keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop
and enhance relevant competency required by the various industry among every student. These
psychomotor skills are very difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board content
delivery method in the classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual is designed to focus on the
industry defined relevant outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove
concept and theory.
By using this lab manual students can go through the relevant theory and procedure in advance
before the actual performance which creates an interest and students can have basic idea prior to
performance. This in turn enhances pre-determined outcomes amongst students. Each experiment
in this manual begins with competency, industry relevant skills, course outcomes as well as
practical outcomes (objectives). The students will also achieve safety and necessary precautions
to be taken while performing practical.
This manual also provides guidelines to faculty members to facilitate student centric lab activities
through each experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that the
students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve the
outcomes. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing rubrics.
Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without the
help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors. The evolution of wireless
technology has brought many advancements with its effective features. Building on the prior
knowledge on digital communications, students develop further understanding on the challenges
and opportunities brought by the wireless medium in designing current and future wireless
communication systems and networks.
Utmost care has been taken while preparing this lab manual however always there is chances of
improvement. Therefore, we welcome constructive suggestions for improvement and removal of
errors if any.
Practical – Course Outcome matrix
Course Outcomes (COs):

CO-1: Understand the basic concepts of radio propagation and various aspects of cellular system
design.
CO-2: Understand the emerging trends in Wireless communication like Wi-Fi, WiMAX,
Software Defined Radio (SDR) and related issues and challenges.
CO-3: Compare the mobile radio standards i.e. GSM, CDMA, GPRS etc. for wireless systems.
CO-4: Explore and select the mobile radio propagation model for system design
CO-5: Analyze various multiple access techniques i.e. TDMA, FDMA, CDMA towards effective
radio resource management.
Sr. CO CO CO CO CO
Objective(s) of Experiment
No. 1 2 3 4 5
Path Loss and Free Space Propagation Model
1. √ √
Received Power and Path Loss of Two Ray Model

2. √ √
Diffraction (Knife-Edge) Model

3. √ √
Path Loss based on the Value of Fresnel Diffraction

4. √ √
Outdoor Propagation Model - Okumura Model

5. √
Outdoor Propagation Model - Hata Model

6. √
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

7. √
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

8. √
Co-channel Interferences.
9. √ √
Multiple Access Techniques

10. √ √
GSM System
11. √ √ √
OFDM
12. √
Wi-MAX
13. √
PN-Sequence
14. √ √
Rubrics for Wireless Communication (3171004)

LEVEL Excellent Good Satisfactory Need improvement
Score
CRITERIA 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
Clearly describes the Objectives Adequately describes the Objectives of Describes the Objectives of the Lab Does not adequately describe
of the Lab as well as the skill the Lab and the skill information and information learned, but some the Objectives of the Lab, what
1. Objectives information learned. Discusses learned. But does not discuss possible details are lacking. Does not describe was learned, or any possible
possible sources of experimental sources of experimental errors, their any experimental errors or describes experimental errors.
errors, their likely effects and likely effects. their likely effects.
ways to minimize them.
Conclusions illustrate a through Conclusions illustrate a through and Conclusions illustrate a limited Conclusions illustrate an
and accurate understanding of accurate understanding of most understanding of concepts inaccurate understanding of
technical concepts underlying the concepts underlying the lab. But does underlying the lab. Does not concepts underlying the lab.
2. Conclusions lab. Describes numerous future not describes skill and information’s describes skill and information’s No meaningful applications to
applications to real life situations learned or make it clear how they learned, any possible applications to real life situations are
and make it clear how they would would be useful. real life situations, or explain how describe.
be useful. they could be useful.
Clearly describe the problems Adequately describe the problems Describe the problems encountered Does not adequately describe
encountered and how they were encountered and how they were but does not describe how they the problems encountered or
solved. Problems cited are highly solved. But may leave some were solved. Problems cited are only describe how they were
3. Problem relevant to the purpose of the unanswered questions. Problems cited somewhat relevant to the purpose solved. Problems cited are not
Analysis
lab. Appears to use an efficient are relevant to the purpose of the lab. of the lab. Appears to use an relevant to the purpose of the
and effective strategy to solve the Appears to use an effective strategy to effective strategy to solve the lab. Really uses an effective
problems. solve the problems. problems, but does not do it strategy to solve the problems.
consistently.
Adequately detailed results are Adequately detailed results are shown Results are shown for each Results and/or details are
shown for each procedure step. for each procedure step. Almost (80-89 procedure step, but some details are lacking for some procedure
4. Observation 90-100 % of the steps have no %) of the steps have no errors. Used lacking. Most (70-79 %) of the steps step. More than 30 % of the
/
Measurements/ errors. Used time well in lab and time pretty well. Stayed focused have no errors. Did the lab but did steps have errors. Participation
focused attention on the experiment most of time. not appear very interested. Focus was minimal or student was
Results
experiment. was lost on several occasions. hostile about participation.
90-100 % of the solution steps Almost all (80-89 %) of the solution Most (70-79 %) of the solution steps More than 30 % of the solution
5. Questions and explanations have no errors. steps and explanations have no errors. and explanations have no errors. steps and explanations have
errors.
Write score in the table given at the end of each experiment for rubric wise marks. Total Points:
Industry Relevant Skills
The following industry relevant competency are expected to be developed in the student by undertaking the practical work of this laboratory.
1. Apply cellular concepts to evaluate the signal reception performance in a cellular network with given quality of service constraints.
2. Design wireless communication systems with key 2G, 3G and 4G (OFDM) technologies.
Guidelines for Faculty members

1. Teacher should provide the guideline with demonstration of practical to the students with all features.
2. Teacher shall explain basic concepts/theory related to the experiment to the students before starting of each practical
3. Involve all the students in performance of each experiment.
4. Teacher is expected to share the skills and competencies to be developed in the students and ensure that the respective skills and
competencies are developed in the students after the completion of the experimentation.
5. Teachers should give opportunity to students for hands-on experience after the demonstration.
6. Teacher may provide additional knowledge and skills to the students even though not covered in the manual but are expected from the
students by concerned industry.
7. Give practical assignment and assess the performance of students based on task assigned to check whether it is as per the instructions or
not.
8. Teacher is expected to refer complete curriculum of the course and follow the guidelines for implementation.
Instructions for Students

1. Students are expected to carefully listen to all the theory classes delivered by the faculty members and understand the COs, content of the course,
teaching and examination scheme, skill set to be developed etc.
2. Students shall organize the work in the group and make record of all observations.
3. Students shall develop maintenance skill as expected by industries.
4. Student shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
5. Student shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. apart from those included in scope of manual.
6. Student shall refer technical magazines and data books.
7. Student should develop a habit of submitting the experimentation work as per the schedule and s/he should be well prepared for the same.
Index
(Progressive Assessment Sheet)
Sr. Objective(s) of Experiment Page Date of Date of Assessme Sign. of Remar

No. No. perform submiss nt Teacher ks
ance ion Marks with date
1 Path Loss and Free Space Propagation
Model
2 Received Power and Path Loss of Two
Ray Model
3 Diffraction (Knife-Edge) Model
4 Path Loss based on the Value of Fresnel

Diffraction
5 Outdoor Propagation Model - Okumura Model
6 Outdoor Propagation Model - Hata Model
7 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
8 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
9 Co-channel Interferences.
10 Multiple Access Techniques
11 GSM System
12 OFDM
13 Wi-MAX
14 PN-Sequence
Total
Experiment No:1
Path Loss and Free Space Propagation Model
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills:
 Understanding the propagation path loss model for any wireless communication
system.
 To know the free space propagation model.
Relevant CO:
design.
Objectives:
To predict the received signal strength when the transmitter and receiver has a clear unobstructed
line of sight signal path between them.
Equipment/Instruments: MATLAB software
Theory:
The free space propagation model is used to predict the received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver has a clear unobstructed line of sight signal path between them. It is
extensively used for deployment of cellular communication networks. The signal strength decays
with distance, the radio coverage can be estimated using the transmitter power, the path loss model
and receiver sensitivity. The Friis’ free Space equation expresses the power received 𝑃 by the
receiver antenna that is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance 𝑑, given as
𝑃𝐺𝐺 𝜆
𝑃 =
(4𝜋𝑑)
𝑃 =Free space received power
𝑃 =Transmitted power
𝐺 =Transmitter antenna gain

𝐺 =Receiver antenna gain
𝑑=Distance between the transmitter and receiver antenna in meter
𝜆=Wavelength in meters
Free space propagation path loss 𝐿 is defined as
( )
𝐿 = = when 𝐺 =𝐺 = 1(unity gain)
Matlab Code Path Loss, dBW:

clc;
close all;
%Matlab Code Friis space equation
fc = 900*10^6; % Carrier frequency [Hz]
c= 3*10^8; % velocity of light
Pt = 50; % Transmitter power [W]
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Gt = 1; % Transmitter gain (unity gain)
Gr = 1; % Receiver gain (unity gain)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
d = 1:10^3; % Operation distance up to 1 kilometer [m]
%Pr = Pt*Gt*Gr*lambda^2./[d.^2*16*pi^2]; % Friis space equation
%fspl=Pt/Pr %Path loss
%fspl=((4*pi*d)/lambda).^2
fspl=((4*pi*d*fc)/c).^2;
PL=10*log10(fspl);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
plot(d,PL,'r','LineWidth',2);
grid on;
title('Path Loss Vs Distance');
xlabel('T-R distance d[m]');
ylabel('Path Loss(dB)');
Result/Output:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. The received signal power 𝑃 is proportional to the distance between transmitter and
receiver 𝑟 , raised to an exponent γ, referred to as path loss exponent or distance power
gradient, as per the following expression
A. 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑟
B. 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑟
C. 𝑃 = 𝑃 (1⁄𝑟 )
D. 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑟
Ans-
2. The free space propagation path loss is

A. Inversely proportional to frequency of transmission
B. Directly proportional to frequency of transmission
C. Independent of frequency of transmission
D. Directly proportional to square of the frequency of transmission
Ans-
3. When an electromagnetic wave travels in free space it suffers from

A. Absorption
B. Attenuation
C. Refraction
D. Super-refraction
Ans-
Experiment No:2
Received Power and Path Loss of Two Ray Model
Date:
 To understand a direct path and a ground reflected path.
 Analysis and study of predicting the large scale received signal strength over
distances of several kilometers for mobile radio communication systems that use
tall cell site towers.
Relevant CO:
design.
Objectives:
To estimate the propagation path loss and the received signal strength at the mobile, which also
takes in to consideration the effect of cell site transmitter and mobile receiver antenna heights.
Theory:
Two ray ground reflection model is based on geometric optics and considers both direct and ground
reflected path. Reasonably accurate for predicting large scale signal strength over several kms that
use tall tower height. 𝐸 is the electric field that results from a combination of a direct line-of- sight
path and a ground reflected path.
Figure 1: Two ray ground reflection model
ℎ is the height of the transmitter and ℎ is the height of the receiver. If 𝐸 is the free space 𝐸 field
at a reference distance 𝑑 from the transmitter then for 𝑑 > 𝑑 the free space propagating 𝐸 field
is given by
𝐸(𝑑, 𝑡) = cos 𝑤 𝑡− (𝑑 > 𝑑 )
𝐸𝑑
Where |𝐸(𝑑, 𝑡)| = 𝑑 represents the envelope of the 𝐸 field at 𝑑 meters from the transmitter.
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance 𝑑 and the
reflected wave that travels a distance 𝑑 . The 𝐸 filed due to the line of sight component at the
receiver can be expressed as
𝐸𝑑 𝑑
𝐸 (𝑑 , 𝑡) = cos 𝑤 𝑡−
𝑑 𝑐
The 𝐸 filed due to the ground reflected wave which has a propagation distance of 𝑑 component
can be expressed as
𝐸 𝑑 𝑑
𝐸 (𝑑 , 𝑡) = 𝛤 cos 𝑤 𝑡−
𝑑 𝑐
According to Laws of reflection in dielectrics given

𝜃 =𝜃
and 𝐸 = 𝛤𝐸
𝐸 = (1 + 𝛤)𝐸
Where Γ is the reflection coefficient for ground. For small values of 𝜃 the reflected wave is equal
in magnitude and 180 out of phase with the incident wave.
The resultant 𝐸 field assuming perfect ground reflection (i.e. 𝛤 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 0) is the vector
sum of 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 and the resultant total E field envelope is given by
|𝐸 |= 𝐸 +𝐸
The Electric filed can be expresses as
𝐸𝑑 𝑑 𝐸𝑑 𝑑
𝐸 (𝑑, 𝑡) = cos 𝑤 𝑡− + (−1) cos 𝑤 𝑡−
𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐
Using the method of images which is demonstrated by the geometry of Fig., the path difference
𝛥 = 𝑑 −𝑑 = (ℎ + ℎ ) + 𝑑 - (ℎ − ℎ ) + 𝑑
Figure 2: The method of images is used to find the path difference

When 𝑇 − 𝑅 separation distance 𝑑 is very large compared to ℎ + ℎ can be simplified using a
Taylor series approximation
2ℎ ℎ
𝛥=𝑑 −𝑑 =
𝑑
Once the path difference is known the phase difference
𝜃 = = =
𝑤𝛥 𝑤 2ℎ ℎ
𝜃 = = ×
𝑐 𝑐 𝑑
The time delay between arrival of waves
𝛥 𝜃
𝜏 = =
𝑐 𝑤
To find total at a particular time interval t for which 𝑡 =
𝐸 𝑑 𝑑 −𝑑 𝐸𝑑
𝐸 (𝑑, 𝑡) = cos 𝑤 − cos 0∘
𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −
𝑑 𝑑
𝐸𝑑
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
𝑑
[ ≃ ≃ ]
Figure 3: Phasor diagram showing the electric field components

To find 𝐸 using vector algebra
𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑
𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦
𝑑 𝑑
𝐸𝑑
𝐸 =− 𝑥
𝑑
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸
𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑
𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦 − 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝐸𝑑 𝑥 𝐸𝑑
𝐸 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦
𝑑 𝑑
𝐸𝑑
|𝐸 |= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )
𝑑
𝐸 𝑑
|𝐸 |= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑑
𝐸𝑑
|𝐸 |= 2 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑
𝐸𝑑
|𝐸 |= 2(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
𝑑
𝐸 𝑑 𝜃
|𝐸 |= 2 × 2𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑑 2
2𝐸 𝑑 𝜃
|𝐸 |= 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑑 2
Whenever 𝑑 is very large 𝜃 is very small hence,
𝜃 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛
≃
2 2
2𝐸 𝑑 𝜃
|𝐸 | =
𝑑 2
2𝐸 𝑑 2𝜋𝛥
|𝐸 | =
𝑑 2𝜆
2𝐸 𝑑 2𝜋ℎ ℎ
|𝐸 | =
𝑑 𝜆𝑑
From this expression
4𝜋𝐸 𝑑 ℎ ℎ
𝜆=
|𝐸 | 𝑑
𝑃𝐺 𝐺 𝜆
𝑃 (𝑑) =
(4𝜋𝑑) 𝐿
( ) ( )
= | |
×
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= | |
×
( ) ( )
𝐸 𝑑
|𝐸 | =
𝑑
𝑃 𝐺 𝐺 (ℎ ℎ )
𝑃 (𝑑) =
(𝑑)
Thus, we conclude that, whenever there are reflective components present, the power received is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of the distance between Tx and Rx.
MATLAB Code
clc;
close all;
clear all;
%Program for Ray Ground Reflection Model
%Input for the desired values
pt=input('Enter the value of Power transmitted :: ');
gt=input('Enter the value of Gain of Transmitter :: ');
gr=input('Enter the value of Gain of Receiver :: ');
hr=input('Enter the height of receiver antenna :: ');

ht=input('Enter the height of transmitter antenna :: ');
d=1:10000;
% d=10000;
pr=(pt*gt*gr*((ht*ht*hr*hr)./(d.^4))); %Calculation of the Received Power disp(pr);
pr=10*log10(pr);
disp('The Received Power disp(pr)');
disp(pr); %Calculation of the Received Power disp(pr)
pl=(40*log10(d)-((10*log10(gt)) + (10*log10(gr)) + (20*log10(ht)) +
(20*log10(hr))));%Calculation of path loss;
disp('Path loss using two ray propagation model');
disp(pl); %Calculation of Path loss
%Plot of Distance vs Received Power
subplot(1,2,1);
plot(d,pr,'r','LineWidth',2);
grid on ;
title('Plot of Distance vs Received Power');
xlabel('Distance in meters');
ylabel('Power Received ');
%Plot of Distance vs Path loss
subplot(1,2,2);
plot(d,pl,'r','LineWidth',2);
grid on ;
title('Plot of Distance vs Path loss in db');
xlabel('Distance in meters');
ylabel('Path loss in db ');
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. When microwave signals follow the curvature of the earth, this phenomenon is known as
A. Troposcatter
B. Ducting
C. Ionospheric reflection
D. Faraday effect
Ans-
2. Using the point to point propagation prediction model the path loss slope will have a
standard deviation of less than _______only.
A. 1 dB
B. 2-3 dB
C. 6-8 dB
D. 10-12 dB
Ans-
3. Electromagnetic waves are refracted when they

A. Encounter a perfectly conducting surface
B. Pass through a small slot in a conducting plane
C. Pass in to a medium of different dielectric constant
D. Are polarised at right angles to the direction of propagation
Ans-
Suggested Reference:
1. Wireless Communication, Theodore S. Rappaport, Prentice hall
2. Wireless Communications and Networking, Vijay Garg, Elsevier
3. Wireless digital communication, Kamilo Feher, PHI
4. Mobile Communications Engineering, William C. Y. Lee, Mc Graw Hill Publications
5. Mobile and personal Communication system and services by Rajpandya, IEEE press
(PHI).
6. Wireless Communications-T.L. Singh-TMH
7. Adhoc Mobile Wireless network, C.K. Toh Pearson.
References used by the students:
Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks
Experiment No:3
Diffraction (Knife-Edge) Model
Date:
 Understanding and derivation of Fresnel diffraction Parameter.
 Classify the Fresnel diffraction parameter 𝑣 for different cases of the Knife Edge Height
Relevant CO:
design.
Objectives:
To find the Fresnel diffraction Parameter which measures how deep the receiver is within the
shadowed region.
Theory:
Diffraction, which allows radio signals to travel around obstructions. It can be explained by
Huygens’s principle, which says that all points on a wave front can be considered as points for the
production of secondary wavelets, which subsequently combined to produce new waves in new
directions. Hence, even if a region is shadowed by an obstruction, diffraction around the object’s
edges produces waves that propagate into the shadowed region. Knife-edge diffraction is used to
conservatively estimate more realistic diffraction effects. The obstruction is considered to be a
“knife-like” edge protruding into the path between the transmitter and receiver. The geometry is
shown in the illustration in Figure 1. The “screen” is assumed to have infinite width No signals
can penetrate the obstruction, therefore, some of the rays emanating from the transmitter will not
reach the receiver.
Figure 1 Illustration knife-edge diffraction geometry. The receiver 𝑅 is located in the shadow region
However, in an imaginary plane located in line with the obstruction, points above the obstruction
can be considered secondary sources of wavelets, which combine to form waves propagating
toward the receiver to the right of the screen.
We will consider the contribution from one of these such waves. Then, by superposition, we can
add up rays produced by all the sources above the obstruction and the total field produced at the
receiver. It is assumed that the polarization of these waves is unchanged in the process. The screen
has a height ℎ , and the transmitter and receiver are at heights ℎ and ℎ , respectively. We
consider two propagation paths from the transmitter to the receiver: a line-of-sight path and a
directed path.
If we draw the line-of- sight (LOS) path from the transmitter to the receiver, the transmitter is a
distance 𝑑 from the obstruction and the receiver is a distance 𝑑 from the obstruction, along this
ray. The diffracted path makes an angle β with the horizontal on the transmitter side and an angle
ϒ with the horizontal on the receiving side. As the transmitter and receiver are at different distances
away from the obstruction, these angles are not necessarily equal.
Figure 2 The point 𝑇 denotes the transmitter and 𝑅 denoted the receiver with an infinite knife edge
obstruction blocking the line of sight path ℎ = ℎ
Figure 3 Geometry to account for different transmitter and receiver heights
For large 𝑑 , 𝑑 we can use the previous geometry of Fig.2 where it is assumed ℎ = ℎ . To
simplify the analysis and it will remain true for ℎ ≠ ℎ provided the separation distance is larger
compared to heights. Simplified illustration is shown in Fig.below.
Figure 4: Knife Edge Diffraction Model Using Huygens Principle
Excess path length 𝛥 = 𝑑 + ℎ + 𝑑 + ℎ − (𝑑 + 𝑑 )
ℎ ℎ
=𝑑 1+ +𝑑 1+ −𝑑 −𝑑
𝑑 𝑑
ℎ ℎ
≃ 𝑑 (1 + ) + 𝑑 (1 + )−𝑑 −𝑑
2𝑑 2𝑑
ℎ 1 1
= +
2 𝑑 𝑑
ℎ 𝑑 +𝑑
=
2 𝑑 𝑑
The angle 𝛼 = 𝛽 + 𝛾 since 𝑑 , 𝑑 ≥ ℎ

ℎ ℎ
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≃
𝑑 𝑑
ℎ ℎ
𝛾 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≃
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑑 + 𝑑 )
𝛼 =𝛽+𝛾 ≃ℎ
𝑑 𝑑
The corresponding phase difference is given by
2𝜋 ℎ 𝑑 + 𝑑 𝜋 2 (𝑑 + 𝑑 ) 𝜋
Ø = 𝑘𝛥 = = ℎ = 𝑣
𝜆 2 𝑑 𝑑 2 𝜆 𝑑 𝑑 2
( )
Fresnel diffraction parameter 𝑣 = ℎ =𝛼
( )
MATLAB Code
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%Program for Knife Edge Diffraction Model
h=input('Enter the Knife Edge Height :: ');
d1=input('Enter the value of distacnce 1 :: ');
d2=input('Enter the value of distance 2 :: ');
f=input('Enter the value of frequency :: ');
lam=(3*(10^8))/f; %Wavelength
%Calculation for alpha
b=atan((h)/d1);
g=atan((h)/d2);
alpha=b+g
%Calculation for Diffraction Parameter
v=alpha*(((2*d1*d2)/(lam*(d1+d2)))^(1/2))
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. Knife edge diffraction
A. Is the bending of UHF frequency radio waves around a building, mountain or
obstruction
B. Causes the velocity of wave propagation to be different than the original wave
C. Both A and B above
D. Attenuate UHF signal
Ans-
2. The bending of radio waves passing over the top of a mountain range disperse a weak
portion of the signal behind the mountain is
A. Eddy-current phase effect
B. Knife-edge diffraction
C. Shadowing
D. Mirror refraction effect
Ans-
3. What is a wave front?

A. A voltage pulse in a conductor
B. A current pulse in a conductor
C. A voltage pulse across a resistor
D. A fixed point in an electromagnetic wave
Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:4
Path Loss based on the Value of Fresnel Diffraction
Date:
 To develop skills of integration of method of exact calculation to find the Diffraction Loss.
 Understanding and evaluation of expressions for the approximate method to find the
diffraction loss.
Relevant CO:
design.
Objectives:
To find the path loss in the knife edge model which is controlled by the Fresnel diffraction
parameter using exact calculation and approximate method.
Theory:
The path loss due to diffraction in the knife edge model is controlled by the Fresnel Diffraction
Parameter which measures how deep the receiver is within the shadowed region. A negative value
for the parameter shows that the obstruction is below the line of sight and if the value is below -1
there is hardly any loss. A value of 0 (zero) means that the transmitter, receiver and tip of the
obstruction are all in line and the Electric Field Strength is reduced by half or the power is reduced
to one fourth of the value without the obstruction i.e. a loss of 6dB. As the value of the Fresnel
Diffraction Parameter increases on the positive side the path loss rapidly increases reaching a value
of 27 dB for a parameter value of 5. Sometimes the exact calculation is not needed and only an
approximate calculation, as proposed by Lee in 1985, is sufficient. Fresnel Diffraction
Parameter (v) is defined as:
2(𝑑 + 𝑑 )
𝑣=ℎ
𝜆𝑑 𝑑
where
𝑑 is the distance between the transmitter and the obstruction along the line of sight
𝑑 is the distance between the receiver and the obstruction along the line of sight
h is the height of the obstruction above the line of sight
and λ is the wavelength
Following expressions are used for the approximate method.
𝐺 (𝑑𝐵) = 0 𝑣 ≤ −1
𝐺 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log(0.5 − 0.62𝑣) −1≤ 𝑣 ≤0
𝐺 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log(0.5exp (−0.95𝑣)) 0≤ 𝑣≤1
𝐺 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log 0.4 − 0.1184 − (0.38 − .01𝑣) 1 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 2.4
0.225
𝐺 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log 𝑣 > 2.4
𝑣
Following equations used in the exact calculation of the Diffraction Loss
𝐸 1+𝑗 𝜋
= 𝐹(𝑣) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐸 2 2
1+𝑗 𝜋 𝜋
𝐹(𝑣) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 2 2
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% Approximate Calculation of the path loss based on the value of
% Fresnel Diffraction Parameter as proposed by Lee

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
clear all;
close all;
v=-5:0.01:5;
for n=1:length(v)
if v(n) <= -1
G(n)=0;
elseif v(n) <= 0
G(n)=20*log10(0.5-0.62*v(n));
elseif v(n) <= 1
G(n)=20*log10(0.5*exp(-0.95*v(n)));
elseif v(n) <= 2.4
G(n)=20*log10(0.4-sqrt(0.1184-(0.38-0.1*v(n))^2));
else
G(n)=20*log10(0.225/v(n));
end
end
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Exact calculation of the path loss (in dB)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
v=-5:0.01:5;
for n=1:length(v)
v_vector=v(n):0.01:v(n)+100;
F(n)=((1+1i)/2)*sum(exp((-1i*pi*(v_vector).^2)/2));
end
F=abs(F)/(abs(F(1)));
plot(v, G, 'b',v, 20*log10(F),'r','LineWidth',2);
legend('Approximate calculation','Exact Calculation','Location','NorthEast')
xlabel('Fresnel Diffraction Parameter')
ylabel('Diffraction Loss (dB)')

Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
𝟏
Compute Fresnel diffraction parameter 𝒗 for three cases. Assume 𝝀 = , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟏 𝒌𝒎, 𝒅𝟐 =
𝟑
𝟏 𝒌𝒎
(1) ℎ = 25 𝑚
(2) ℎ = 0
(3) ℎ = −25 𝑚
Compare diffraction loss obtained using figure plotted with MATLAB and also compute loss using
numerical approximation method.
(PHI).
7. Adhoc Mobile Wireless network, C.K. Toh Pearson
8. www.raymaps.com

Marks
Experiment No:5
Outdoor Propagation Model - Okumura Model
Date:
 To understand the urban, suburban and open areas propagation path loss models.
Relevant CO:
Objectives:
To predict the path loss for propagation in an urban mobile environment using model proposed by
Okumura.
Theory:
The Okumura model is a Radio propagation model that was built using the data collected in the
city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but not
many tall blocking structures. The model serves as a base for the Hata Model. This model has been
proven to be accurate and is used by computer simulation tools. The okumura model is based on
measured data in different terrains with specified system parameters. A simplified version of a
path loss model, proposed by Okumura for propagation in an urban mobile environment is
expresses as
Coverage
Frequency = 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
Mobile Station Antenna Height: between 1 m and 10 m
Base station Antenna Height: between 30 m and 1000 m
Link distance: between 1 km and 100 km
The Okumura model is formally expressed as:
L = LFSL + AMU – HMG – HBG – Σ KCORRECTION
where,
L = The median path loss. Unit: Decibel (dB)
LFSL = The Free Space Loss. Unit: Decibel(dB)
AMU = Median attenuation Unit: Decibel(dB)
HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor.

HBG = Base station antenna height gain factor.
Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of environment, water surfaces, isolated
obstacle etc.)
MATLAB Code:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
Lfsl=input('enter the free space loss:');
Amu=input('enter the median attenuation value:');
Hmg=input('enter the Mobile station antenna height gain factor:');
Hbg=input('enter the Base station antenna height gain factor:');
Kc=input('enter the Correction factor gain:');
L=Lfsl+Amu-Hmg-Hbg-Kc; %calculating median path loss
fprintf('%s %f %s\n','the median path loss:',L,'dB');
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. Which of the most widely used model for signal prediction in urban areas?
A. Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
B. Log distance path loss model
C. Okumura model
D. Attenuation factor model
Ans-
2. Okumura model is applicable for distances of _________

A. 1 m to 10 m
B. 1 km to 100 km
C. 100 km to 1000 km
D. 10 km to 10000 km
Ans-
3. Which of the following is the major disadvantage of the Okumura model?

A. Complex
B. Inaccurate
C. Not practical
D. Slow response to rapid change in terrain
Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:6
Outdoor Propagation Model - Hata Model
Date:
 Derivation of empirical Hata propagation path loss model based on Okumura’s
model.
 Understanding the median path loss for a large city, small to medium city.
Relevant CO:
Objectives:
To find the median path loss in urban area using Hata propagation path loss model.
Theory:
The Hata propagation path loss model is an empirical model based on okumura’s model and is
extensively used in macrocellular wireless mobile communication systems for large cells
exceeding 1km radio coverage. The general expression for median path loss in urban area is given
by
LU = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc – 13.82 log hte – a(hre) + [ 44.9 – 6.55 log hte] log d.
For small or medium sized city,
a(hre) = 0.8 + (1.1 log fc – 0.7 ) hre – 1.56 log fc.
and for large cities,
a(hre) = 8.29 (log (1.54 hre))2 – 1.1 , for fc ≤ 300 MHz
a(hre) = 3.2 (log (11.75 hre))2 – 4.97, for fc >300 MHz
Where,
LU = Median value of the propagation path loss in dB
hte= Height of base station Antenna (m)
hre = Height of mobile station Antenna. (m)
fc= Frequency of Transmission (MHz).
a(hre) = Antenna height correction factor
d= Distance between the base and mobile stations (km).

Coverage
Frequency: 150 MHz to 1000 MHz
Mobile Station Antenna Height: between 1 m and 10 m
Base station Antenna Height: between 30 m to 200 m
Link distance: between 1 km and 20 km.
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
f=input('Enter the frequency of transmission in mhz:');
Hte=input('Enter the height of base station Antenna in meter:');
Hre=input('Enter the height of mobile station Antenna in meter:');
d=input('Enter the distance between the base and mobile stations:');
n=input('Enter 0 for small city and 1 for large city:');
if n==0
ch=0.8+(1.1*log10(f)-0.7)*Hre-1.56*log10(f);
else
if f>=150 && f<=300
ch=8.29*(log10(1.54*Hre)).^2-1.1;
else
if f>=300 && f<=1500
ch=3.2*(log10(11.75*Hre)).^2-4.97;
end
end
end
Lu=69.55+26.26*log10(f)-13.82*log10(Hte)-ch+(44.9-6.55*log10(Hte))*log10(d);
fprintf('%s %f %s\n','Path loss in Urban Areas=',Lu,'dB');
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. The Hata model is empirical formulation of which model?
A. Okumura model
B. Longley- Rice model
C. Durkin’s model
D. Walfisch and Bertoni model
Ans-
2. Determine the propagation path loss for a radio signal at 900 MHz cellular system
operating in a large urban city with a base station Tx antenna height of 100 m and mobile
Rx antenna height of 2 m. The mobile unit is located at a distance of 4 km. Use the Hata
propagation path loss model.
Hint: LU = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc – 13.82 log hte – a(hre) + [ 44.9 – 6.55 log hte] log d.
=137.3 dB
a(hre) = 3.2 (log (11.75 hre))2 – 4.97, for fc >300 MHz
=1.045≃1 dB
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:7
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Date:
 Understanding the transmitter and receiver in communication system.
 Derivation and implementation of the QPSK modulation and demodulation in digital
communication.
Relevant CO:
CO-3: Compare the mobile radio standards i.e. GSM, CDMA, GPRS etc. for wireless systems
Objectives:
To modulate a signal using the quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) method at transmitter and
correctly demodulate the signal at the receiver.
Theory:
Digital phase modulation is very similar to frequency modulation. It involves changing the phase of
the transmitted waveform instead of the frequency, these finite phase changes representing digital
data. In its simplest form, a phase-modulated waveform can be generated by using the digital data to
switch between two signals of equal frequency but opposing phase. Taking the above concept of PSK
one stage further, it can be supposed that the number of phase shifts is not limited to only two states.
The transmitted "carrier" can undergo any number of phase changes and by multiplying the received
signal by a sine wave of equal frequency will demodulate the phase shifts into frequency independent
voltage levels. With QPSK, the carrier undergoes four changes in 4 phases and can thus represent two
bits of binary data. While this may seem insignificant at first glance, a modulation scheme has now
been supposed that enables a carrier to transmit two bits of information. QPSK has four phases and
for a given bit-rate, the QPSK requires half the bandwidth of PSK and is widely used for this reason.
Generation of Quadrature phase shift keyed (QPSK) signal
QPSK is a phase modulation technique that transmits two bits in four modulation states. Phase of the
carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values such as 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4,5 𝜋⁄4, 7𝜋⁄4
2𝐸 𝜋
𝑠 (𝑡) = cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + (2𝑖 − 1) ), 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇 4
=0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Where
𝑖 = 1,2,3,4
𝐸 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙
𝑇 = 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Each of the possible value of phase corresponds to a pair of bits called dibits. Thus, the gray encoded
set of dibits: 10,00,01,11
2𝐸 𝜋 2𝐸 𝜋
𝑠 (𝑡) = cos (2𝑖 − 1) cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) − sin (2𝑖 − 1) sin(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇 4 𝑇 4
There are two orthonormal basis functions
2
𝑐 (𝑡) = cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇
2
𝑐 (𝑡) = sin(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇
Input debits Phase of QPSK Signal Coordinates of message signals

𝑠 𝑠
10 𝜋⁄4 + 𝐸 ⁄2 − 𝐸 ⁄2
00 3 𝜋⁄4 − 𝐸 ⁄2 - 𝐸 ⁄2
01 5𝜋⁄4 − 𝐸 ⁄2 + 𝐸 ⁄2
11 7𝜋⁄4 + 𝐸 ⁄2 + 𝐸 ⁄2
Block diagram of QPSK Transmitter
𝑏 (𝑡)
×
𝑐 (𝑡)
Σ
Demux QPSK Signal

Binary bits
𝑏 (𝑡)
×
𝑐 (𝑡)
The I/p binary sequence b(t) is represented in polar form with symbols 1 & 0 represented as 𝐸 ⁄2
and − 𝐸 ⁄2. This binary wave is demultiplexed into two separate binary waves consisting of odd &
even numbered I/P bits denoted by 𝑏 (𝑡) &𝑏 (𝑡). 𝑏 (𝑡) & 𝑏 (𝑡) are used to modulate a pair of
quadrature carrier. The result is two PSK waves. These two binary PSK waves are added to produce
the desired QPSK signal.
QPSK Receiver:
QPSK receiver consists of a pair of correlators with common I/P & supplied with locally
generated signal 𝑐 (𝑡) & 𝑐 (𝑡). The correlator output, x1 & x2 are each compared with a
threshold of zero volts. If x1 > 0, decision is made in favour of symbol 1 for upper channel
and if x1 < 0, decision is made in favor of symbol 0. Parallelly if x2 >0, decision is made in
favor of symbol 1 for lower channel & if x2 < 0, decision is made in favor of symbol 0.
These two channels are combined in a multiplexer to get the original binary output.
MATLAB Code
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE QUADRATURE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1;t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;fc=1;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:2:(N-1)
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%odd bits modulated signal
odd_sig(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
if m(i+1)>0.5
m(i+1)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i+1)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%even bits modulated signal
even_sig(i,:)=c2.*m_s;
%qpsk signal
qpsk=odd_sig+even_sig;
%Plot the QPSK modulated signal
subplot(3,2,4);plot(t,qpsk(i,:));
title('QPSK signal');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('s(t)');grid on; hold on;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
hold off
%Plot the binary data bits and carrier signal
subplot(3,2,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n---->');ylabel('b(n)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,2);plot(t,c1);
title('carrier signal-1');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('c1(t)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);plot(t,c2);
title('carrier signal-2');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('c2(t)');grid on;
% QPSK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N-1
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
%correlator
x1=sum(c1.*qpsk(i,:));
x2=sum(c2.*qpsk(i,:));
%decision device
if (x1>0&&x2>0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=1;
elseif (x1>0&&x2<0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0&&x2<0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0&&x2>0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=1;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
subplot(3,2,5);stem(demod);
title('qpsk demodulated bits');xlabel('n---->');ylabel('b(n)');grid on;
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. What is the advantage of offset QPSK (OQPSK) compared to conventional QPSK?
A. Bandwidth efficiency
B. Constant envelope
C. Simple demodulator
D. All of above
Ans-
2. The information rate to be transmitted is 1200 bits/sec, the symbol rate for QPSK
modulation scheme is
2400 symbol/sec
600 symbol/sec
675 symbol/sec
225 symbol/sec
Hint: Baud rate=
Ans-
3. The constellation diagram of QPSK has ______ points

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Ans-
4. QPSK sends ______ bits of digital information at a time.

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Ans-
5. How many carrier frequencies are used in QPSK?

A. 1
B. 0
C. 2
D. 3
Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:8
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Date:
 Comparison of different M-ary modulation and demodulation techniques.
 Implementation of the QAM modulation on hardware kit.
Relevant CO:
CO-3: Compare the mobile radio standards i.e. GSM, CDMA, GPRS etc. for wireless systems
Objectives:
To modulate a signal using QAM modulation using the Communication Trainer Kit.
Modulate a sequence of bits using 16 QAM with help of MATLAB commands.
Equipment/Instruments: DSO, Connecting wires, Scientech 2112 Trainer
Theory:
The QAM is a form of amplitude modulation where signals from two separate information sources
modulate the same carrier frequency at the same time without interfering with each other. The
information sources modulate the same carrier after it has been separated into two carrier signals
that are 90° out of phase with each other.
It consists of a single carrier oscillator that produces an in-phase carrier to I modulator and then
shifts the carrier 90° and supplies a second Quadrature carrier to the Q modulator. The outputs
from the two modulators are linearly summed before undergoing additional stages of frequency
up-conversion and power amplification. The QAM is a digital modulation where the information
is contained into the phase as well as the amplitude of the transmitted carrier.
The 8-QAM signal can be seen as 4-PSK signal whose amplitude can take 2 different values. In
this way, each "modulation interval" depends on the state of 3 data bits ("I","Q", "C"): the first 2
("I" and "Q") determine the phase of the output signal, the third ("C") the amplitude.
MATLAB Code:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
%Modulate a sequence of bits using 16-QAM.
M = 16;
k = log2(M);
%%Create a binary data sequence.
data = randi([0 1],1000*k,1);
%%Modulate the signal using bit inputs, and set it to have unit average power.
txSig = qammod(data,M,'InputType','bit','UnitAveragePower',true);
%Pass the signal through a noisy channel.
rxSig = awgn(txSig,25);
%Plot the constellation diagram.
cd = comm.ConstellationDiagram('ShowReferenceConstellation',false);
cd(rxSig)
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. In QAM, there are two carrier signals. One is represented by _______wave and other
is represented by______wave.
A. Sine and cosine

B. Sine and tan
C. Cosine and tan
D. Sine and cosec
Ans-
2. The bit rate of the digital communication system is 64 Kbps. The modulation used is 16
QAM. The minimum bandwidth required for ideal transmission is
A. 32 KHz
B. 64 KHz
C. 128 KHz
D. 256 KHz
𝟐𝑹𝒃
Hint:𝑩𝑾𝒎𝒊𝒏 = Hz
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝑵
Ans-
3. QAM uses _____ as the dimensions.

A. In phase
B. Quadrature
C. In Phase & Quadrature
D. None of the above
Ans-
(PHI).
7. Adhoc Mobile Wireless network, C.K. Toh Pearson

Marks
Experiment No:9
Co-channel Interferences
Date:
 Understanding and derivation of co-channel interference for omni directional cellular
system.
 Know the difference between directional antenna and omni directional cellular
systems.
Relevant CO:
design.
Objectives:
Determine the signal to co-channel interference ratio at the mobile receiver located at the boundary
of its omnidirectional operating cell, under the influence of interfering signals from six cochannel
interfering cells in the first tier in a cellular system design.
Theory:
A cellular system, in general, reuses the same set of frequencies to cover large geographical area.
A group of cells that collectively use complete set of frequencies is called a cluster. Cluster size N
is expressed as
𝑁 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑖𝑗
Where 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2,3 … … …
Interference limits the capacity of the system. The cells that use same set of frequencies are called
co-channel cells and the interference caused between these two cells is called co-channel
interference. It is expressed by
𝑆 1
=
𝐼 2𝑄 + 2(𝑄 − 1) + 2(𝑄 + 1)
𝑄 is called co-channel reuse ratio and it is related with N as 𝑄 = √3𝑁
MATLAB Code:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
i=input('enter an integer i between 1 and 3: ');
j=input('enter another integer j number between 1 and 3: ');
n = input ('enter an integer path loss exponent between 2 and 6: ');
N = i.*i + j.*j +i.*j;
Q = sqrt(3*N);
x = 2./(Q.^4);
y = 2./((Q+1).^4);
z = 2./((Q-1).^4);
CCI = 10 *log10(1/(x+y+z));
fprintf('%s %f %s\n','Co-Channel Interference=',CCI,'dB');
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. A__________can be repeated any number of types in a systematic manner in order to
cover the designated large geographical service area.
A. Channel
B. Cell
C. cell-site
D. cluster
Ans-
2. Cells using the same set of frequencies are called

A. neighboring cells
B. adjacent channel cells
C. cochannel cells
D. clusters
Ans-
3. In a regular hexagonal geometry pattern the number of cells in a cluster formed by i=2
and j=2 are
A. 12
B. 4
C. 9
D. 7
Ans-
4. for a cluster size of 7 the frequency reuse ratio is approximately equal to

A. 3
B. 21
C. 7
D. √21
Ans-
5. What is the value of signal to co-channel interference ratio C/I at the mobile receiver
located at the boundary of its operating cell under the influence of interfering signals
from one co-channel interfering cell in the first tier in a cellular system designed with 6
sector directional antenna cellular system designed for N=7.
A. 29 dB
B. 18 dB
C. 20 dB
D. 24.5 dB
Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:10
Multiple Access Techniques
Date:
 To study different multiple access techniques.
 Comparison of different multiple access techniques used in 1G,2G, 3G.
Relevant CO:
Objectives:
To study different multiple access techniques i.e. FDMA, TDMA and CDMA
Theory:
The use of radio waves to transmit information from one point to another was discovered over a
century ago. While commercial and military radio communication systems have been deployed
for many decades, the last decade has seen an unprecedented surge in demand for personal wireless
devices. Extensive penetration of the end user market is a direct result of advances in circuit design
and chip manufacturing technologies that have enabled a complete wireless transmitter and
receiver to be packaged in a pocket-sized device. With the recent advent of low power circuit
design and miniaturization technologies, more versatile wireless devices that run data hungry
applications such as browsing the Internet are appearing on the market.
The popularity of handheld personal wireless devices has created a need for wireless
communication systems that can accommodate many users simultaneously. It is also required that
such systems provide high data rates and on-demand data transfers. An efficient multi-access
scheme can satisfy both of these requirements.
Transmitting information through a wireless channel is more challenging than through a wire line
channel. This is principally because the wireless environment has problems not encountered in
wire line systems including multipath propagation and near-far interference.
Multiple Accesses in the Mobile Environment
In the mobile environment, multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum. The sharing of spectrum is necessary to achieve
high capacity. Improvements in capacity can be achieved by simultaneously allocating the
available bandwidth, or the available number of channels, to multiple users.
Multiple access techniques can be also classified as narrowband or wideband systems,
depending upon how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users. The term narrowband
is used to relate the bandwidth of a single channel to the expected coherence bandwidth of the
channel. The available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of channels, usually using
FDD. In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than
the coherence bandwidth of the channel. A large number of transmitters are allowed to transmit
in the same channel and the users are allowed to use a large part of the spectrum.
The available spectrum can be shared among a number of users applying three basic techniques
or combinations of them. These techniques are:
(1) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
(2) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
(3) Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA).
(1) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into a number of frequency non-overlapping
subchannels, one channel per carrier at a time. The available channels are assigned on demand, on
first come first serve basis. As shown in figure 1 each frequency subchannel carries one single call
at any one time in continuous form. The bandwidth for each channel is usually small about 25-30
kHz or less (i.e. narrowband). A few overhead bits need to be inserted in the bit stream to allow
synchronization, framing and other control functions. The number of channels available is simply
obtained by dividing the available bandwidth between the bandwidth needed for each channel.
Frequency
l1
Ch el 2
ln
l3
ne
ne
ne
n
an
an
an
an
Ch
Ch
Ch
Time
Figure 1. FDMA scheme

Advantages provided by this multiple access technique are:
(1) No equalization is needed because the delay spread of the symbol is smaller than the
long symbol duration. This results in a reduced system cost.
(2) The system is flexible and can be easily adapted to handle both large rural cells and small
urban cells.
(3) Very low overhead bits are needed.
On the other hand, some disadvantages emerge:
(1) The real limitation is the need to use band pass filters, both, in the transmitter and the
receiver.
(2) The maximum bit rate per channel is fixed at a low value.
(3) More equipment is required for the same amount of trunks than with other methods.
(2) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In TDMA, each frequency carrier is divided into several individual channels where the division
and the assignment of the circuits are done according to time. Figure 2 shows how a frame or
period of time is divided into a number, N, of non-overlapping subintervals, called time slots.
If the frame duration is T, each slot will have a period of T/N in each frame. Each radio channel
carries a number of trunk circuits (slots), which are time division multiplexed (multiple circuits
per carrier). The channel assignment is established through the control or signaling channels
by the base stations, which assign the frequency and time slot to be used by the mobiles.
Frequency
Channel N
ts
lo
eS
Channel 3
m
Ti
Channel 2
Time Channel 1
Figure2. TDMA scheme

The bandwidth usage can be narrowband, about 20-30 kHz, or wideband (approximately ten
times greater), and is determined by the system designer based on the modulation scheme used.
The channel transmission rate is no longer equal to the coding rate or even the coding plus the
overhead rate. The channel rate is faster by a factor equal to the number of slots in a frame
which is the period of time between two slots from the same channel. The transmission is
bursty (not continuous). This has implications for circuit design and system control.
Synchronization must be acquired on every burst and guard bands used to separate one slot
from another. This implies an increase in overhead bits (up to 20-30 % of the total bits
transmitted). The overhead bits can be seen in figure 3. The time division approach is much
more effective at separating users than anything that can be done with band pass filters at
higher frequencies. A highly significant property of TDMA is that users can operate together
in a TDMA mode with no near-far problem at all.
Some advantages provided by this multiple access technique are:
(1) Flexible bit rates are possible. Multiples and submultiples of the standard bit rate per
channel can be made available to users. Bandwidth can be supplied on demand.
(2) It offers the opportunity of frame by frame monitoring of the signal strength and bit error
rate to enable either base stations or mobiles to initiate handoffs. The handoffs or other
signaling procedures can be carried out during idle slots, when there is no transmission.
(3) It is very adaptable to technological change.
(4) It provides more trunks compared to FDMA for the same equipment. A shared system leads
to a reduction in cost.
One TDMA Frame
Preamble Information Message Trail Bits
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot N
Trail Bits Sync. bits Information Data Guard Bits
Figure3. TDMA frame structure.

On the other hand, there are some disadvantages:
(1) On the uplink (mobile to base station), TDMA requires high peak power in the transmit
mode. This is a particular problem for hand held portables with limited battery life.
(2) Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates
are generally very high when compared to FDMA channels and Intersymbol interference
appears.
TDMA requires a significant amount of signal processing to realize the full potential of digital
transmission. This increases power consumption and introduces Delay.
(3) Spread Spectrum multiple access technique

These techniques allow more than one user to share a channel or subchannel through the use
of a unique code sequence or signature sequence that permits the user to spread the information
signal across the assigned frequency band. Instead of looking for narrower and narrower
channels, spread spectrum techniques utilize very wide channels, transmitting each circuit over
the same wide bandwidth, which is much greater than the information rate. Coding is an
important element in the design of spread spectrum signals since it can provide the large
amount of redundancy required to overcome the severe levels of interference that are
encountered in the transmission of digital information. Another important element employed
in the design of spread spectrum signals is pseudo-randomness, which makes the signals appear
similar to random noise and difficult to demodulate by receivers other than the intended ones.
Spread spectrum techniques are used in communications to
(1) Provide resistance to intentional jamming, interference arising from other users of the
channel and self-interference due to multipath propagation.
(2) Provide a means for masking the transmitted signal in the background noise and prevent
another party from eavesdropping. Only the receivers that know the pseudo-random pattern
or key can demodulate the transmitted signal.
(3) Provides a means for more than one user to use the same transmission channel.
(4) Provides accurate range-measuring capabilities (e.g. radar and navigation).
Communications.
Information Output
Sequence Data
Channel Modulator Channel Demodulator Channel
Encoder Decoder
Pseudo-random Pseudo-random
pattern generator pattern generator
Figure 4. SS digital communication general model
Both pseudo-random pattern generators are identical and interface with the modulator for the
transmitting end and with the demodulator in the case of the receiving end. The generators
originate a pseudo-random or pseudo-noise (PN) binary valued sequence, which is impressed
on the transmitted signal before modulation and removed from the received signal after
demodulation. Depending on which modulation technique the PN sequence is applied, the
following spread spectrum techniques are obtained.
When the PN sequence generated at the modulator is used in conjunction with Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) modulation to shift the phase of the PSK signal pseudo-randomly, the resulting
modulated signal is called Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). This technique is also
called Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). The complete bandwidth is utilized by all the
users in a random manner and their signals are recovered at the receiver by cross correlation
of the received signal with each of the possible user sequences.
When it is used in conjunction with binary or M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), the
pseudo-random sequence selects the frequency of the transmitted signal pseudo-randomly. The
signature sequence is used to change from one frequency to another after a period of time. The
complete bandwidth seems to be occupied by all users at the same time. The resulting signal
is called a Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS) signal. The occupancy of a specific
channel at any given time is randomized by the pseudo-random change of the carrier
frequencies of the user. At any given point in time, a frequency-hopped signal only occupies a
single, relatively narrow channel since narrowband FM or FSK is used.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access is a Spread Spectrum technique that permits its transmitters to
use the complete available bandwidth or frequency all the time as shown in figure 5. All the
users share the same channel at once and their signals appear as additive interference to others.
It is called a spread spectrum system because a user occupies a much wider frequency band
than is actually needed.
Code
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Frequency
Channel N
Time
figure 5 CDMA scheme

Basically, in a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or Code Division Multiple Access system,
the code is used to generate a randomised noise like high-chip rate signal that is mixed with
the information signal to spread the spectrum. The narrowband message signal is multiplied
by a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal. The spreading signal is a pseudo-
noise code sequence that has a chip rate, which is much greater than the data rate of the
message. All users in a CDMA system use the same carrier frequency and may transmit
simultaneously. Each code sequence has the property of being approximately orthogonal to all
other sequences. Coding is used in order to distinguish a signal transmitted from one user to
that of another user. The transmitted signal is obtained according
s t   d  t   g  t   2 Pc cos w 0 t 
First the incoming data sequence d(t) is modulated by a wideband code g(t) (spreading code),
transforming the narrowband data signal into a wideband noise-like signal. This wideband
signal undergoes a second modulation process, which is generated by a PSK carrier such as
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) or Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK).
The signature sequences allow the receiver to demodulate the message transmitted to multiple
users of the channel, who transmit simultaneously and, generally, asynchronously. In the
demodulation process, the signals from other simultaneous users of the channel appear as
additive interference. The level of interference varies depending on the number of users at any
given time. The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific
desired spread signal, all other unwanted spread signals appear as noise due to decorrelation.
Both the receiver and transmitter must use the same code.
CDMA offers a number of features and advantages including.
(1) The same frequency bandwidth is use in every cell, which means that capacity can be easily
increased by making cells smaller.
(2) Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit. There is no absolute limit on
the number of users in CDMA. Rather, the system performance gradually degrades for all
users as the number of users is increased, and improves as it is decreased.
(3) Multipath fading may be reduced because the signal is spread over a large spectrum.
Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems. Consequently, the chip duration is
very short and much less than the delay spread. Since PN sequences have low
autocorrelation, multipath which is delayed by more than a chip will appear as noise.
(4) Provides strong resistance to jamming and eavesdropping.
(5) CDMA provides a unique handoff capability called soft handoff. Soft handoff allows two
or more base stations to attend to the same mobile during periods of time when the mobile
is in areas where a specific base station signal is not clearly identified, such as handoff
areas or areas affected by attenuation.
(6) Provides accurate range-measuring capabilities.
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. ___________ of TDMA system is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that
contains information as opposed to providing overhead for the access scheme.
A. Efficiency
B. Figure of merit
C. Signal to noise ratio
D. Mean
Ans-
2. A TDMA system uses 25 MHz for the forward link, which is broken into radio channels
of 200 kHz. If 8 speech channels are supported on a single radio channel, how many
simultaneous users can be accommodated?
A. 25
B. 200
C. 1600
D. 1000
Ans-
3. During the period of call, other users can share the same channel in FDMA.
A. True
B. False
Ans-
4. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) assigns ______ channels to _______ users.
A. Individual, individual
B. Many, individual
C. Individual, many
D. Many, many
Ans-
5. CDMA is a multiple access strategy for wireless communications based on

_______technique.
A. DSSS
B. Fast FHSS
C. slow FHSS
D. THSS
Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:11
GSM System
Date:
 Able to understand the difference between GSM and CDMA system.
 Study GSM and GPRS architecture model in details.
Relevant CO:
design.
Objectives:
To understand the GSM system in details.
Theory:
The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with
themselves and with users through certain network interface. The subsystems are Base Station
Subsystem (BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support Subsystem
(OSS). The GSM network can be broadly divided into
The Mobile Station (MS)
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
1. Mobile Station (MS):
The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital signal
processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM networks. As such,
other services are also provided, which include
Voice teleservices
Data bearer services
The features' supplementary services
Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks
PSTN
MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR
BTS
ME
SIM
PLMN
EIR HLR AUC

Internet
+
SD
Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.
Figure 1 GSM system Architecture
The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle
between the voice and data use. Moreover, the mobile facilitates access to voice
messaging systems. The MS also provides access to the various data services available
in a GSM network. These data services include
 X.25 packet switching through a synchronous or asynchronous dial-up
connection at speeds typically at 9.6 Kbps.
 General Packet Radio Services (GPRSs) using either an X.25 or IP based
data transfer method at the speed up to 115 Kbps.
 High speed, circuit switched data at speeds up to 64 Kbps.
Mobile Equipment
 Fixed
 Portable
Subscriber Identity module (SIM):
It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number. It
allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. It is protected by
password or PIN. It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to
activate the phone. It can be moved from one mobile to another.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and manages radio transmission paths between
the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). BSS also manages interface
between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. The BSS is composed of two
parts
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS may
consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. A separate
high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.
Figure 2: GSM BTS

BTS (Base Transceiver Station): The BTS comprises the radio transmission and reception
devices, and also manages the signal processing related to the air interface.
• Usually referred to as the Base Station
• Provides the interface to the network for the MS
• Handles all communications with the MS

BSC (Base Station Controller): The BSC manages the radio interface, mainly through the
allocation, release and handover of radio channels.
• Controls Base Stations
- Up to several hundred depending on manufacturer
• Manages radio channels
- Allocation and release
• Coordinates Handover
• Physical location may vary
• Abis interface
- Between BSC and BTS
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

MSC (Mobile Switching Centre): The MSC is basically an ISDN-switch, coordinating and
setting up calls to and from MSs. An Inter-Working Function (IWF) may be required to adapt
GSM specific rates to that used in a particular PSTN/ PLMN.
• Performs all switching/exchange functions
• Handles
• Registration
• Authentication
• Location updating
• A GSM network must have at least one MSC
• May connect to other networks
- Gateway MSC (GMSC)
VLR (Visitor Location Register): The VLR contains all the subscriber data, both permanent
and temporary, which are necessary to control a MS in the MSCs coverage area. The VLR is
commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity.
AUC (Authentication Centre): The AUC database contains the subscriber authentication
keys and the algorithm required to calculate the authentication parameters to be transferred to
the HLR.
HLR (Home Location Register): The HLR database is used to store permanent and semi-
permanent subscriber data; as such, the HLR will always know in which location area the MS
is (assuming the MS is in a coverage area), and this data is used to locate an MS in the event
of a MS terminating call set-up.
• Administrative information for all subscribers
- IMSI number
- Actual phone number
- Permitted supplementary services
- Current location i.e. which VLR subscriber is currently registered with
- Parameters for authentication and ciphering
• One HLR per GSM PLMN
Figure 3: Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not
type approved.
4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS):
It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system engineers to
monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system. It supports one or more
Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to monitor the performance of
each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three main functions:
 To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with
a particular market.
 To manage all charging and billing procedures
 To manage all mobile equipment in the system.
The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the
switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation
and support system (OSS).
Here are some of the OMC functions
 Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals,

charging, and statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.
The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the Telecommunication
Management Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T.
The GPRS is an enhancement over the GSM and adds some nodes in the network to provide the
packet switched services. These network nodes are called GSNs (GPRS Support Nodes) and are
responsible for the routing and delivery of the data packets to and form the MS and external packet
data networks (PDN)
The most important network nodes added to the existing GSM networks are
1. SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node).
2. GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node).
Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks
MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR PSTN
BTS
ME
SIM
PLMN
EIR HLR AUC
GGSN Internet
SGSN
+
SD
Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.
Figure 4: Integrating GPRS

1. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The serving GPRS support node (SGSN) is responsible for routing the packet switched data to and
from the mobile stations (MS) within its area of responsibility. The main functions of SGSN are
packet routing and transfer, mobile attach and detach procedure (Mobility Management (MM)),
location management, assigning channels and time slots (Logical Link Management (LLM),
authentication and charging for calls. It stores the location information of the user (like the current
location, current VLR) and user profile (like IMSI addresses used in packet data networks) of
registered users in its location register.
2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) acts as interface between the GPRS backbone and the
external packet data network (PDN). It converts the GPRS packet coming from the SGSN into
proper packet data protocol (PDP) format (i.e. X.25 or IP) before sending to the outside data
network. Similarly, it converts the external PDP addresses to the GSM address of the destination
user. It sends these packets to proper SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN
address of the user and his profile in its location register.
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. GPRS is a
A. circuit switched cum packet-oriented service for mobile users
B. packet oriented service for mobile users
C. asynchronous packet-oriented service for mobile users
D. synchronous packet-oriented service for mobile users
Ans-
2. A regular__________shaped cell is the closest approximation to a circle which has been

used for cellular system design
A. Circular
B. Triangular
C. Square
D. Hexagonal
Ans-
3. _____is a second-generation digital cellular system used in Europe.

A. GSM
B. AMPS
C. ETACS
Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:12
OFDM
Date:
 Comparison of single carrier and multicarrier transmission techniques.
 Understanding of IFFT and FFT operation used in OFDM.
Relevant CO:
Objectives:
The main objective of OFDM system is to divide maximum rate of data into small data rates, after
that transfer of these data in parallel employing numerous orthogonal SCs which is also known as
Parallel Transmission.
Theory:
In OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing), the sub-carrier frequencies are chosen
so that the sub-carriers are orthogonal to each other, meaning that cross-talk between the sub-
channels is eliminated and inter-carrier guard bands are not required. This greatly simplifies the
design of both the transmitter and the receiver; unlike conventional FDM, a separate filter for each
sub-channel is not required. The orthogonality requires that the sub-carrier spacing is 𝛥𝑓 = 𝑘 ⁄𝑇
Hertz, where 𝑇 seconds is the useful symbol duration (the receiver side window size), and 𝑘 is a
positive integer, typically equal to 1. Therefore, with 𝑁 sub-carriers, the total passband bandwidth
will be 𝐵 = 𝑁𝛥𝑓. The orthogonality also allows high spectral efficiency, with a total symbol rate
near the Nyquist rate. Almost the whole available frequency band can be utilized.
Figure 1: OFDM signal

Transmitter
An OFDM carrier signal is the sum of a number of orthogonal sub-carriers, with baseband data on
each sub-carrier being independently modulated commonly using some type of quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). This composite baseband signal is
typically used to modulate a main RF carrier. 𝑠[𝑛] is a serial stream of binary digits. By inverse
multiplexing, these are first demultiplexed into 𝑁 parallel streams, and each one mapped to a
(possibly complex) symbol stream using some modulation constellation (QAM, PSK, etc.). Note
that the constellations may be different, so some streams may carry a higher bit-rate than others.
An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex time-domain samples.
These samples are then quadrature-mixed to passband in the standard way. The real and imaginary
components are first converted to the analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters
(DACs); the analogue signals are then used to modulate cosine and sine waves at the carrier
frequency 𝑓 respectively. These signals are then summed to give the transmission signal 𝑠(𝑡).
Figure 2: OFDM transmitter
Receiver
The receiver picks up the signal 𝑟(𝑡), which is then quadrature-mixed down to baseband using
cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. This also creates signals centered on 2𝑓 , so low-
pass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are then sampled and digitised using
analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the frequency
domain. This returns 𝑁 parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary stream using an
appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re-combined into a serial stream, which is an
estimate of the original binary stream at the transmitter.
If one sends a million symbols per second using conventional single-carrier modulation over a
wireless channel, then the duration of each symbol would be one microsecond or less. This imposes
severe constraints on synchronization and necessitates the removal of multipath interference. If the
same million symbols per second are spread among one thousand sub-channels, the duration of
each symbol can be longer by a factor of a thousand, i.e. one millisecond, for orthogonality with
approximately the same bandwidth.
Figure 3: OFDM receiver

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier transmission technique
which converts frequency-selective channel into parallel flat fading channels. OFDM is a parallel
data transmission scheme that reduces the influence of multipath fading. In OFDM based system,
the subcarrier is pulse shaped with a rectangular pulse in the time domain. The first side lobe of
the corresponding frequency-domain pulse will decay relatively slow that will introduce a higher
power spectrum outside the signal bandwidth. The rectangular Pulse shaping filter used in OFDM
is characterized by
𝑔 (𝑛) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … … 𝑁 − 1
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁
High out of band (OOB) emissions and high peak to average power ratio (PAPR) in OFDM, limits
its use in 5G due to high data rate and low power applications requirements. OFDM uses a cyclic
prefix (CP) which makes it spectrally less efficient. Hence, there is a demand for new waveforms
that would successfully overcome the drawbacks of OFDM.
Channel
Remove Cyclic Prefix
Output
Input Stream
Stream
IFFT
P/S
S/P
FFT
S/P
P/S
Cyclic Prefix
Addition
FIGURE 4: OFDM
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. OFDMA stands for ____

A. omnidirectional frequency division multiple access
B. orthogonal frequency duplex multiple access
C. orthogonal frequency divider multiple access
D. orthogonal frequency division multiple access
Ans-
2. In OFDMA, what is the relationship between the subcarrier spacing f and symbol time t?
A. f=t
B. f=1/2t
C. f=1/t
Ans-
3. Why is a cyclic prefix required in an OFDMA?

A. To ensure symbol time is an integer number
B. To help overcome multipath and ISI
C. To maintain orthogonality
D. To make OFDMA scalable

Ans-
(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:13
Wi-MAX
Date:
 Comparison of Wireless communication i.e. Wi-Fi and WiMAX
Relevant CO:
CO-2: Understand the emerging trends in Wireless communication like Wi-Fi, WiMAX, Software
Defined Radio (SDR) and related issues and challenges
Objectives:
To study and understand emerging WiMAX telecommunication technology.
Theory:
The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to
promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. WiMAX, meaning Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications technology that provides wireless
transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes, from point-to-multipoint links to portable
and fully mobile internet access. The technology provides broadband speed without the need for
cables. The technology is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard (also called Broadband Wireless
Access). Wi-Fi is based on IEEE 802.11 standard whereas WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16.
WiMAX is similar to the wireless standard known as Wi-Fi, but on a much larger scale and at
faster speeds. A nomadic version would keep WiMAX-enabled devices connected over large
areas, much like today’s cell phones.
Range:
Wi-Fi typically provides local network access for around a few hundred feet; a single WiMAX
antenna is expected to have a range of up to 40 miles with speeds of 70 Mbps or more. As such,
WiMAX can bring the underlying Internet connection needed to service local Wi-Fi networks.
Figure 1 WiMax Architecture

WiMax can provide 2 forms of wireless service:
Non-LOS, Wi-Fi sort of service, where a small antenna on a computer connects to the tower. Uses
lower frequency range (2 to 11 GHz).
LOS, where a fixed antenna points straight at the WiMax tower from a rooftop or pole. The LOS
connection is stronger and more stable, so it is able to send a lot of data with fewer errors. Uses
higher frequencies, with ranges reaching a possible 66 GHz. Through stronger LOS antennas,
WiMax transmitting stations would send data to WiMax enabled computers or routers set up within
30 (3,600 square miles of coverage) mile radius.
Standard of WiMAX
802.16-2004 is often called 802.16d, since that was the working party that developed the standard.
It is also frequently referred to as "fixed WiMAX" since it has no support for mobility.
Fixed Wi-MAX
The IEEE 802.16 Working Group originally developed the broadband point to multipoint (PMP)
standard as a wireless extension from a wired network infrastructure. The first approved air
interface was based on a time division multiple access (TDMA) protocol. The interface supported
time division duplexing (TDD) and frequency division duplexing (FDD). Originally, the
architecture was configured for fixed antenna terminals with line-of-sight (LOS) propagation
across the 10GHz to 66GHz frequency range.
The standard was later expanded to include operation in the 2GHz to 11GHz range with non-line-
of-sight (NLOS) capability using a robust orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
technique.
802.16e-2005 is an amendment to 802.16-2004 and is often referred to in shortened form as

802.16e. It introduced support for mobility, among other things and is therefore also known as
"mobile WiMAX".
Mobile Wi-MAX
Mobile WiMAX is the next evolution for broadband wireless access (BWA) based on the IEEE
802-16e standard. Where the original WiMAX profile defined a set of parameters to meet the needs
for fixed and nomadic access, the Mobile WiMAX profile supports mobile broadband services at
speeds greater than 120 km/hour.
Several important features in Mobile WiMAX include orthogonal frequency division multiple
access (OFDMA) and sub channelization which provide a large amount of flexibility when
assigning the time and frequency resources within the wireless channel.
Mobile WiMAX systems are being deployed in the 2.3- 2.7GHz and 3.3-3.8GHz bands. Some
systems will operate in the license-exempt 5.8 GHz ISM band, the lower 5.3 GHz U-NII band, and
the upper 5.47 GHz UNII band.
Table1: comparison of Wi-Fi and WiMAX
WiMAX Wi-Fi Wi-Fi

Freature
(802.16a) (802.11b) (802.11a/g)
Primary Broadband Wireless Wireless LAN Wireless LAN

Application Access
Frequency Band Licensed/Unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM 2.4 GHz ISM (g)
2 G to 11 GHz 5 GHz U-NII (a)
Channel Adjustable 25 MHz 20 MHz

Bandwidth 1.25 M to 20 MHz
Half/Full Duplex Full Half Half
Radio Technology OFDM Direct Sequence OFDM

(256-channels) Spread Spectrum (64-channels)
Bandwidth <=5 bps/Hz <=0.44 bps/Hz <=2.7 bps/Hz

Efficiency
Modulation BPSK, QPSK, QPSK BPSK, QPSK,

16-, 64-, 256-QAM 16-, 64-QAM
FEC Convolutional Code None Convolutional Code

Reed-Solomon
Encryption Mandatory- 3DES Optional- RC4 Optional- RC4

Optional- AES (AES in 802.11i) (AES in 802.11i)
Mobility Mobile WiMax In development In development

(802.16e)
Mesh Yes Vendor Vendor Proprietary

Proprietary
Access Protocol Request/Grant CSMA/CA CSMA/CA
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. WiMAX stands for ___________
A. wireless maximum communication
B. worldwide interoperability for microwave access
C. worldwide international standard for microwave access
D. wireless internet maximum communication
Ans-
2. WiMAX uses the _________

A. orthogonal frequency division multiplexing

B. time division multiplexing
C. space division multiplexing
D. channel division multiplexing
Ans-
3. WiMAX provides ________

A. simplex communication
B. half duplex communication
C. full duplex communication
D. no communication
Ans-
4. What is the standard form of WI-FI?

A. Wired Fidelity
B. Wired Function
C. Wireless Fidelity
Ans-
5. The frequency range of WI-FI is around __________

A. 2.4 GHz and 5GHz
B. 2.9 GHz and 5GHz
C. 3.4 GHz and 5GHz
D. 4 GHz and 5GHz
Ans-

(PHI).

Marks
Experiment No:14
PN-Sequence
Date:
 Understand FHSS and DSSS operation
Relevant CO:
Objectives:
To generate PN sequence for CDMA system.
MATLAB Code:
clc ;
clear all ;
close all;
N=input('enter the number of flip flops=');
L=(2^N)‐1;
seq1=zeros(1,L);
for i=1:N
seq1(1,i)=1;
end
for i=N+1:L
seq1(i)=~seq1(i‐1).*seq1(i‐1)+seq1(i‐2).*~seq1(i‐1);
end
subplot(4,1,1);
stem(seq1);
seq2=zeros(1,L);
for i=1:N
seq2(1,i)=1;1
end
for i=N+1:L
seq2(i)=~seq2(i).*seq2(i‐1)+seq2(i‐2).*~seq2(i‐1);
end
subplot(4,1,2);
stem(seq2);
seq3=zeros(1,L);
for i=1:N
seq3(1,i)=1;
end
for i=N+1:L
seq3(i)=~seq3(i).*seq3(i‐1)+seq3(i‐1).*~seq3(i‐1);
end
subplot(4,1,3);
stem(seq3);
seq4=zeros(1,L);
for i=1:N
seq4(1,i)=1;
end
for i=N+1:L
seq4(i)=~seq4(i‐2).*seq4(i‐1)+seq4(i).*~seq4(i‐1);
end
subplot(4,1,4);
stem(seq4);
Result:
Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. List the advantages of CDMA over FDMA and TDMA.
2. How does near far effect influence CDMA systems?

3. Explain frequency hopping spread spectrum? Compare slow frequency hop spread
spectrum and fast frequency hop spread spectrum.
(PHI).

Marks

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Laboratory Manual for

B.E. Semester 7 (E&C Engineering)

Government Engineering College, Patan

Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda

Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar, Gujarat

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________ Enrollment

No. _______________ of B.E. Semester 7 E&C Engineering of this Institute (GTU

Wireless Communication (3171004) for the academic year 2023-24.

Name and Sign of Faculty member

Head of the Department

Practical – Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

Received Power and Path Loss of Two Ray Model

Diffraction (Knife-Edge) Model

Path Loss based on the Value of Fresnel Diffraction

Outdoor Propagation Model - Okumura Model

Outdoor Propagation Model - Hata Model

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Multiple Access Techniques

Rubrics for Wireless Communication (3171004)

Industry Relevant Skills

Guidelines for Faculty members

Instructions for Students

Sr. Objective(s) of Experiment Page Date of Date of Assessme Sign. of Remar

4 Path Loss based on the Value of Fresnel

6 Outdoor Propagation Model - Hata Model

7 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

8 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

10 Multiple Access Techniques

Path Loss and Free Space Propagation Model

𝑃 =Free space received power

𝐺 =Transmitter antenna gain

𝐺 =Receiver antenna gain

𝑑=Distance between the transmitter and receiver antenna in meter

Free space propagation path loss 𝐿 is defined as

Matlab Code Path Loss, dBW:

2. The free space propagation path loss is

3. When an electromagnetic wave travels in free space it suffers from

Received Power and Path Loss of Two Ray Model

𝐸(𝑑, 𝑡) = cos 𝑤 𝑡− (𝑑 > 𝑑 )

According to Laws of reflection in dielectrics given

Figure 2: The method of images is used to find the path difference

To find total at a particular time interval t for which 𝑡 =

Figure 3: Phasor diagram showing the electric field components

hr=input('Enter the height of receiver antenna :: ');

3. Electromagnetic waves are refracted when they

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Diffraction (Knife-Edge) Model

Figure 3 Geometry to account for different transmitter and receiver heights

Figure 4: Knife Edge Diffraction Model Using Huygens Principle

Excess path length 𝛥 = 𝑑 + ℎ + 𝑑 + ℎ − (𝑑 + 𝑑 )

The angle 𝛼 = 𝛽 + 𝛾 since 𝑑 , 𝑑 ≥ ℎ

3. What is a wave front?

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Path Loss based on the Value of Fresnel Diffraction

h is the height of the obstruction above the line of sight

and λ is the wavelength

Following expressions are used for the approximate method.