Spatium 23

SPATIUM International Review
No. 23, October 2010, Belgrade ISSN 1450-569X
SCOPE AND AIMS

The review is concerned with a multi-disciplinary approach to spatial, regional and urban planning and architecture, as well as with various aspects of
land use, including housing, environment and related themes and topics. It attempts to contribute to better theoretical understanding of a new spatial
development processes and to improve the practice in the field.
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
VICE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Jasna Petrić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
SECRETARY
Tamara Maričić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
EDITORIAL BOARD
Branislav Bajat, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Milica Bajić Brković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade,
Serbia; Branko Cavrić, University of Botswana, Faculty of Engineering & Technology – FET, Department of Architecture and Planning – DAP, Gaborone, Botswana;
Tijana Crnčević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews, Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Zeynep Enlil, Yildiz
Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of City and Regional Planning, Istanbul, Turkey; Milorad Filipović; University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Economics, Belgrade, Serbia; Panagiotis Getimis, Panteion University of Political and Social Sciences, Dept. Economic and Regional Development, Athens, Greece,
and University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany; Grigoris Kafkalas, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Spatial Development and Research Unit-SDRU, Thessaloniki,
Greece; Douglas Kysar, Yale Law School, New Haven, USA; Luigi Mazza, Politecnico di Milano, Department of Architecture and Planning, Milano, Italy; Nada Milašin,
Belgrade, Serbia; Saša Milijić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Bernhard Müller, Leibniz-Institut für ökologische Raumentwicklung, Dresden, Germany; Zorica Nedović-Budić,
University College Dublin, School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, Dublin, Ireland; Ksenija Petovar, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Architecture and Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Vesna Popović, Institute of Agricultural Economics - IAE, Belgrade, Serbia; Mila Pucar, IAUS,
Belgrade, Serbia; Karl Peter Schön, Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning, Bonn, Germany; Wilfried Schönbäck, University of Technology,
Department of Spatial Development, Infrastructure & Environmental Policy, Centre Public Finance and Infrastructure Policy, Vienna, Austria; Paolo Tomasella,
Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia, Udine, Italy; Dragutin Tošić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Dobrivoje Tošković,
Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia.
PUBLISHING COUNCIL
Mila Pucar, President, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
Jasna Petrić, Vice President, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
Tamara Maričić, Secretary, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
Branislav Bajat, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Milica Bajić Brković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture,
Belgrade, Serbia; Dragana Bazik, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Branka Dimitrijević, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Glasgow, UK; Milorad Filipović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, Serbia; Igor Marić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Darko Marušić,
Belgrade, Serbia; Nada Milašin, Belgrade, Serbia; Saša Milijić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Zorica Nedović-Budić, University College Dublin, School of
Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, Dublin, Ireland; Marija Nikolić, Belgrade, Serbia; Vladimir Papić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Ratko Ristić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia; Nenad Spasić, Belgrade,
Serbia; Božidar Stojanović, Belgrade, Serbia; Borislav Stojkov, Republic of Serbia Republic Spatial Planning Agency, Belgrade, Serbia; Dragutin Tošić,
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia.
PROOF READING AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION
Snežana Lekić, Marija Obadović
COMPUTER DESIGN REVIEWERS
Jelena Stevanović Stojanović, Belgrade, Serbia Rudolf Giffinger, Vienna University of Technology, Centre for Regional
COVER PAGE DESIGN Science, Department of Spatial Development, Infrastructure and
Ines Maričić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Environmental Planning, Vienna, Austria; Miroljub Hadžić, University
PUBLISHER Singidunum, Faculty of Business, Belgrade, Serbia; Marina Ilić,
Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, IAUS University Union, Faculty of ecology and environmental protection,
Igor Marić, Director Belgrade, Serbia; Dimitris Kallioras, University of Thessaly, Department
of Planning and Regional Development, South and East European
ADDRESS
Development Centre, Volos, Greece; Boris Kolev, Institute of
Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, IAUS Geography, BAS, Sofia, Bulgaria; Werner Kvarda, University of Natural
"Spatium" Resources and Applied Life Sciences - BOKU, Institute of Soil Science -
Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, tel: (381 11) 3370-091 IBF, Vienna, Austria; Vladimir Mako, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
fax: (381 11) 3370-203, e-mail: [email protected], web address: www.iaus.ac.rs Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Igor Marić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia;
FINANCIAL SUPPORT Rade Ratković, Algonquin – College for Hospitality and Tourism
Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia Management, Sveti Stefan, Miločer, Montenegro; Borislav Stojkov,
Leibniz Institute of Ecological and Regional Development (IOER), Dresden, Germany Republic Spatial Planning Agency of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade,
Serbia; Miško Šuvaković, University of Arts in Belgrade, Interdisciplinary
Printed in Serbia by Grafo NIN Postgraduate Studies, Belgrade, Serbia; Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS,
Number of copies: 300 Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
spatium
CONTENTS
No. 23, October 2010, Belgrade
Miodrag Vujošević Editorial
TERRITORIAL COHESION IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE – CHALLENGES AHEAD FOR STRATEGIC PLANNING AND
URBAN-REGIONAL GOVERNANCE
1-8 Elena Dimitrova, Current challenges and innovative approaches in the development of
Angel Burov peripheral regions in Bulgaria (the case of Ivaylovgrad municipality)
9-16 Rudolf Giffinger, Danube region strategy - arguments for a territorial capital based
Johannes Suitner multilevel approach
17-21 Matej Jaššo, Selected aspects of territorial cohesion in Slovakia under the recent crisis
Maroš Finka
22-29 Miodrag Vujošević Collapse of strategic thinking, research and governance in Serbia and
possible role of the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia (2010) in its
renewal
MISCELLANEOUS
30-37 Marija Maksin, Strategic planning for sustainable spatial, landscape and tourism
Saša Milijić development in Serbia
38-45 Mihailo Lujak Spatialization of social process vs singular object of architecture
46-50 Irena Kuletin Ćulafić Marc-Antoine Laugier’s aesthetic postulates of architectural theory
spatium
EDITORIAL
Dear readers,
Here is the No. 23 of the International Journal „Spatium“. In accord with the previously anounced plan, this is a thematic issue in
the sequel. Mainly, it contains the already reviewed and accepted contributions to the spa-ce.net (Network of Spatial Research and
Planning Institutes in Central and Eastern Europe) Network conference 2010 „Territorial cohesion in Central and South-Eastern
Europe – Challenges ahead for strategic planning“. The Conference was held in Belgrade on 22-24th September 2010, organised
by the Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia (IAUS), Faculty of Geography-Institute for Spatial Planning,
University of Belgrade, and Leibniz Institute of Ecological and Regional Development Dresden (IOER), in cooperation with the
Republic Spatial Planning Agency of the Republic of Serbia (RAPP), and Serbian Academy for Engineering Sciences, Belgrade.
Some 20 academics and other professionals took part at the Conference.
Other contributions to this Conference may be published in the forthcoming issues of „Spatium“. This issue also contains a few
reviewed articles covering miscellaneous topics of relevance.
Editor-in-Chief
spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.2(497.2)"2006/2010"
No. 23, October 2010, pp. 1-8 Review paper
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023001D
CURRENT CHALLENGES AND INNOVATIVE

APPROACHES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PERIPHERAL REGIONS IN BULGARIA (THE CASE
OF IVAYLOVGRAD MUNICIPALITY)
Elena Dimitrova1, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering & Geodesy, Faculty of Architecture, Department of
Urban Planning, Sofia, Bulgaria
Angel Burov, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering & Geodesy, Faculty of Architecture, Department of
Urban Planning, Sofia, Bulgaria
The paper approaches territorial cohesion in SEE from the perspective of social equity with regard to the opportunity to choose
to live in one’s native place without compromising the quality of life. It is interested in border areas – both physical and
virtual; in real life situations as meeting points of theories and policies influencing human lives; and in the emerging
challenges there that often make us question once and again our concepts and actions as experts. Based on the Bulgarian
case-study analysis, the authors discuss the effectiveness and current challenges of real-life implementation of EU and
national policies aimed at sustainable development of peripheral regions. The rural peripheral municipality of Ivaylovgrad is an
indicative case study for the ongoing processes in the peripheral regions of Bulgaria and the efforts to overcome a continuing
loss of working places, services, markets and further isolation from the rest of the country since the early 1990s. The paper
presents a critical view of initiatives and projects undertaken by interest and local groups in the period 2006–2010. Possible
innovative approaches for regional revival are considered and conclusions are drawn about the importance of creating
development strategies sensitive to the existing and emerging socio-cultural patterns.
Key words: SEE, EU cohesion policy, sustainable regional development, socio-spatial networks.
development projects and emerging power life implementation and effectiveness of EU

INTRODUCTION1 relations (Csurgo et al, 2008); (c) the role of pre-accession and cohesion policies, as well
In the context of an increasingly urbanized knowledge in reconnecting social and natural as broader issues of the ‘continuity-change’
world with decreasing and scarce resources, a systems and in the development of indicator dichotomy in regional development and
question inevitably emerges that has to be systems capable of supporting joint learning the2challenge of developing as a rural region in
answered – whether we should consider by resource users (Parkins et al, 2001; Reed et an increasingly globalized and urbanized
peripheries a problem or an opportunity to find al, 2006; Bruckmeier and Tovey, 2008); (d) world. The paper provides arguments stating
a better way for a balanced urban-rural multiple factors influencing the dynamics of the need to formulate policies in a way more
relationship (RSA, 2009). The topic of rural sustaining activities (Pantic and Miljkovic, persistently sensitive to ‘life on the ground’
regions in Europe is nowadays being 2010); (f) potential effects and challenges of processes and in measuring and estimating
researched with a growing awareness about the interaction by socio-spatial networks in remote policy success and failure in the long term and
complexity of issues and interacting factors. rural regions (Mulder et al, 2006). from multiple perspectives. In accordance with
Recent research studies are increasingly EU cohesion policy priorities (Davoudi, 2010),
The paper discusses regional policy issues as
focused on process-oriented aspects: (a) rural it is focused on people and processes in space
traced in the particular context of a Bulgarian
development continuity (Vergunst et al, 2009); as determined by a particular cultural context;
peripheral municipality, but also situated at the
(b) co-operation between actors within rural meeting point of several broader topics:
2
sustainable regional development and its The paper is partially based on analyses undertaken
1
Hristo Smirnenski Blvd. 1, 1046 Sofia, Bulgaria peculiar dimensions under the dynamic within a university research project (UACEG, contract
[email protected] BN 103/2009)
peripheral/border conditions in Europe, real-
spatium 1
Dimitrova E., Burov A.: Current challenges and innovative approaches in the development of peripheral regions in Bulgaria...
on social equity with respect to opportunities problems of the south-eastern peripheral political changes brought additional challenges
created in living places; and on the emergence region of the country being already clearly to the region and required completely different
of value-based identities and communities in visible and addressed by state policy in the approaches to meet them.
peripheral regions as an important factor for early 1980s. In 1981 the region was already
enhancing social capital – mentioned in all strongly lagging behind the rest of the country Regional policy in the period 1990–2010
official documents on sustainable development in both industry and agriculture, with resulting
and territorial cohesion, but in many cases still serious demographic tendencies of After the democratic changes in Central and
strongly underestimated or misunderstood. depopulation. In the period 1965 ‐ 1985 the Eastern Europe during the 1990s, planning
activities were generally abandoned and
Strandzha-Sakar region lost about 45 000
The case study discussed the municipality of neglected for almost a decade – partly because
inhabitants, while at the same time the
Ivaylovgrad, located in a border region in the of the extreme shifts in social and economic
population of large industrial centers in the
south-eastern periphery of Bulgaria. Varying life and partly due to a general
region increased. There were also considerable
regional policies applied from the mid-1980s misunderstanding about the liberalization of
inner migrations inside municipalities, from
to the present day at different levels of society after the shift from a centralized
villages to municipal an secondary centres.
governance and under different political economy. Planning practice was then restored
The key political document providing policy
systems have attempted with no significant thanks to both external and internal
measures for regenerating the Strandza-Sakar
effect to stop and reverse the unfavourable and encouragements and was based on a
and Ivaylovgrad region23was adopted in 1982
unsustainable trends of socio-economic decentralized approach (Regional Development
(Statement No. 22/12.05.1982 of the Bulgarian
decline and depopulation of the region. Based Act, 1999). The need for harmonization
Council of Ministers). The targeted region was
on an analysis of available scientific references between socio-economic and spatial planning
later on communicated and known as The
about the region and personal experience at all levels was confirmed.
Republic of Youth. The Statement prescribed a
gained through contacts with local authorities,
set of strategic measures to slow down and A National Regional Development Plan and
educational and cultural institutions through
reverse the negative tendencies: support for district development plans were elaborated.
academic research (1988–1989), NGO activity
small and medium size enterprises, According to the Spatial Planning Act (2001),
(2005–2010) and educational field trips
development of agri-industrial complexes to a National Integrated Development Scheme is
(2008–2009), the paper discusses the need to
provide employment all year round, securing to be elaborated. Work has started by
re-conceptualize regional policy efforts with a
technical, transport and communication developing a Methodology for the elaboration
stronger focus on bottom-up processes, local
infrastructure, better housing and social of the National Scheme (to be bound with the
capacity-building and partnerships in long-
services, upgrading social care and National Regional Development Plan).
term initiatives designed with the purpose of
educational infrastructure, promotion of
achieving a higher level of regional and local The Spatial Planning Act envisages the
cultural heritage and tourism; and measures to
independence. The need for a new regional elaboration of regional development schemes,
stimulate people with secondary and higher
development policy is asserted, which should yet work in this field has hardly begun. A
education from all over the country to settle in
be based on integrated approaches, supported second generation of district development
the region.
by deeper interdisciplinary research and plans is in the implementation phase. It is
evaluated through specific sets of indicators A National Research Programme for the recommended that they should be coordinated
sensitive to the local and regional socio- Strandzha-Sakar Region was funded and a with district development schemes, but there
cultural context. The role and potential of rural series of symposia were organized to discuss has been no substantial evidence of such
peripheries are finally discussed in the its findings and policy implementation results. harmonization yet.
perspective of more global spatial interactions Although the region saw general development
and environmental impacts. tendencies of depopulation, in 1985 The elaboration of municipal master plans was
Ivaylovgrad was considered a region with continually hampered by financial deficit,
comparatively favourable conditions, and the however, in the period 1999–2000 a number of
BULGARIAN BORDER REGIONS: Municipal Development Strategies and relevant
REGIONAL POLICY CONTEXT demographic structure was expected to be
balanced by the year 2000 through measures Action Plans were prepared in all Bulgarian
that were to be implemented. Part of a field municipalities, the updating of which should
Regional policy under socialism (1970– take into account future municipal master
1989) research, undertaken within the National
Research Programme, focused on the effective plans, to define a territorial basis for economic
Regional policy came into focus of the operation of the educational network (primary and social planning.
Bulgarian national government in the 1970s, and secondary schools) and tried to outline the Rural multisectoral policies in support of
when the consequences of the broad opportunities provided by integrated facilities agriculture were a typical approach in the
industrialization processes undertaken in the for education and culture in smaller 1990s, although actual subsidies were very low
country since the early 1960s became clearly settlements to increase investment efficiency (due to budget limitations) compared to the
visible – fast urbanization changing the ratio of in social infrastructure (Dragiev et al, 1989). levels agreed on with the WTO. There were also
urban-rural population in the country, However, no effective action was undertaken by annual campaigns for targeted subsidizing of
population concentrated in large industrial state administration and a year later the overall production costs. Later on, through the support
centers, and – despite the approved subsidies of EU pre-accession instruments, an enhanced
for agriculture–diminishing and aging 2 correspondence between the state, SAPARD
Although not strictly belonging to the Strandzha-Sakar
population, and settlements with fading geographic region, the municipality of Ivaylovgrad was and CAP measures was achieved.
functions in rural and peripheral regions. The included in the programme because of the similar Nevertheless, the implementation of these
Integral National Plan for Territorial problems the municipality is facing measures was considered rather weak and
Development was adopted in 1979, the
2 spatium
Dimitrova E., Burov A.: Current challenges and innovative approaches in the development of peripheral regions in Bulgaria ...
ineffective because of the general low quality projects are completed, products are not Location, natural characteristics and
of projects, suspected/reported corruption and effectively utilized and the constructed cultural heritage
patronage of intermediaries (UNDP, 2004). The infrastructure is not properly maintained and
The municipality of Ivaylovgrad is located in
integrated rural development policy with a used. Comparatively low interest by local
the transitional zone between the western part
territorial emphasis on economic producers is visible in the reported project
of the Thracian Valley and the easternmost
diversification, provision of infrastructure and submissions in the Rhodope Programme
parts of the Rhodope Mountains, in south-
services, and environmental protection was (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2005).
eastern Bulgaria, which is now a south-eastern
introduced though the National Plan for the
A general estimate of the regional policy border region of the EU. The municipality is at
Development of Agriculture and Rural Regions
implementation could be the following: that the the Bulgarian-Greek border and close to the
in the early 2000s, mostly supported by
process is slow and difficult, with insufficient Bulgarian-Turkish one, although the main
SAPARD programme.
coordination and lacking truly effective railways and roads, part of the pan-European
indicators to support policy decisions. The top- Transport Corridors 4 and 9, are bypassing it.
Estimated policy results: impacts and
down initiatives lack flexibility and sensitivity to
shortcomings
the particular local context and the bottom-up
The first policy steps were marked by rather ones most often demonstrate a lack of capacity
contradictory practices. There were some good and continuity. This raises the crucial issue of
examples and satisfactory results, but also enhancing social capital and inventing
numerous common shortcomings due to possible ways to carry it out in order to
misunderstanding the priorities, low quality of guarantee sustainability in the region.
project concepts or their implementation, poor
institutional capacity and a lack of experience. THE CASE STUDY OF IVAYLOVGRAD
Although some municipalities prepared their MUNICIPALITY
own local sustainable development strategies
(Local Agenda 21), supported by international Being one of the 263 municipalities in the
and national NGOs and UNDP in particular, country, with an area of 818 sq. km and the
these did not develop as practical instruments population of 6 800 in December 2009 (13000
beyond the provided time-limited grants, as in 1979), the municipality of Ivaylovgrad
observed elsewhere (Petrakos, 2001). belongs to a region that can nowadays be
classified as border, mountainous,
It is important to mention the GEF/UNDP underdeveloped and rural one – the proportion
ambitious and large-scale Rhodope Project of agricultural to forest to urbanised land use in
(2004–2009), aimed at alternative livelihoods the municipality is 37:60:1 (compared to mean
related to the protection of the globally national values 59:34:5); population density is
important biodiversity in the Rhodope 9 inhabitants per sq km (70 for the country);
Mountains. Along with numerous positive and the ratio of population over 65 years old to
results in many of the target settlements, the the one under 14 years is 2 (1.3 for the
published project SWOT analysis outlined the country).
shortcomings of the process (Stavreva, 2007).
The main strengths mentioned comprise There are two main reasons for choosing this
existing tourist traditions in some of the case study: (a) its location, natural and cultural
settlements, local enthusiasm and successful characteristics, socio-economic development
local initiatives at the beginning of the project. tendencies – both its current situation and
The list of weaknesses is, however, much long-term development could be considered
longer and includes the uneven distribution of indicative of the broader processes taking
Tourist Information Centres (TIC) in the region, place in the new EU south-eastern border
a lack of network approach and national co- regions in the Balkans; and (b) a chance to
ordination, poor motivation of TICs for gain continual personal research experience
collaboration with other institutions, strong and establish contact with the changing local
reliance on outer funding. Recommendations authorities over a longer period of time, and
were put forward to keep the initiative in the from different positions and points of view –
hands of local people, providing them with research, NGO activities, an educational
additional qualification and organisational project – which provided an opportunity for a
capacity, diversification of services and deeper insight into the continuities and
building new partnerships. discontinuities in local traditions and culture,
the local authorities' estimates of implemented
The EU’s PHARE pre-accession programme regional policies in different periods and the
focused on various underdeveloped public local people’s attitude to life perspectives,
services and assets in the country – it governance and participation.
supported the inventory and access to tourist Fig 1. Regional agricultural (a,b)&
attractions, development of tourist products, tourist potential (c,d)
etc. On-site observations confirm that once the
spatium 3
Fig 2. Drougth (a) & fires (b), flooding (c) & erosion (d), land abandonment (e) & succession (f)
The region has diverse natural features and Minor after the War. Some of these refugees
Historical development context
resources. Various landscapes are spread came in place of Greek communities moving
among smooth weaving ridges, steep foots of The territory could be considered a typical out at the same time. There are also Turkish,
the slopes and narrow river valleys in-between. example of a periphery artificially created Roma and old Albanian communities.
Biodiversity is well preserved in its natural through continual military confrontation and
With the establishment of the new political
mosaic pattern, with some of the top political decisions, as observed in many other
order in Europe after WWII (1945), the
concentrations for Europe, including plenty of places in Europe (Armstrong, 2004).
permeability of the border strongly decreased
endemic and rare species (BSPB, 2002). This
In the historical retrospective, despite the and the region practically remained a closed
variety has been enriched by pastoral and
varying ethnic composition and conflicts area at the periphery of the Eastern Bloc for
cultivation patterns, some of them maintained
appearing all around, the Ivaylovgrad region over four decades. More than ten years of
for several thousand years. The region is an
has been prosperous and engaged in active transition after the collapse of the 'Iron Curtain'
important part of the European Green Belt with
exchange with settlements downstream the in 1989 were marked by constraints in trans-
its high natural conservation value of preserved
Maritsa River (Hebros, Evros, Meric) for border movements because of the EU’s stricter
and regenerated habitats due to almost 50
centuries. It has been bound with today’s regulations (on border safety, trade and other
years of political and military division along the
Edirne (Adrianopolis, Odrin), which has technical standards) and the Greek national
Iron Curtain. There is good potential for
remained a very important urban centre in the policy, while the border regime with Turkey
diversified agricultural development due to the
south-eastern Balkans from antiquity until provided better mobility of people and goods.
transitional temperate Mediterranean agro-
today. During the first half of the 20th century,
climatic conditions. There are considerable The pre-accession process and Bulgaria’s EU
after the Russian-Turkish War (1877–1878)
possibilities for accommodating the demands accession in 2007 gradually improved the
which brought independence to Bulgaria, the
of cultural, rural and ecological tourism (Fig. trans-border movement of people and goods
region remained at the periphery of the
1), provided by the unique cultural monuments between Bulgaria and Greece; however, the
Ottoman Empire. The area joined the Bulgarian
from a historical span of three thousand years, restrictions were now relocated to the
state after the Balkan War (in 1912), while its
various agricultural traditions and local Bulgarian-Turkish border. During this period
neighbouring regions were assigned to Greece,
celebrations and the preserved wilderness with there was a growing number of active trans-
and the town of Edirne remained in Turkey.
its scenic setting. Along with these values and border co-operation programmes and available
potential, there are new troubling processes The ethnic map of the region is a complex funds with both neighbouring countries (EU
challenging the present resource use practices result of the historical events from the early pre-accession instruments and a regional
and culture – the patterns of drought and fires, 20th century, generating waves of refugees – development fund). The municipality of
intensive rainfalls in combination with fast settling down and moving away. Today’s mixed Ivaylovgrad participated in a number of joint
snow melting, soil erosion, accelerated ethnic composition includes mostly Bulgarian initiatives, projects and actions mainly with
succession of abandoned agricultural land, the Orthodox Christians and Muslims, the Greek partner municipalities. In addition to the
spread of invasive species, etc. (Fig. 2). ancestors of whom have lived here since existing two border crossings between the two
before the Balkan War, and the vast majority of countries, five more were planned and a
whom came from Southern Thrace and Asia bilateral memorandum was signed in 1995
4 spatium
which was included in the agenda on several socio-economic crises of the 1990s, abandoned over the last 20 years, while one
occasions. There was, however, a considerable unfavourable geographic position, slow half of 48 villages in all are rapidly diminishing
time lag in the implementation of all projects economic restructuring and low productivity, and are at the point of disappearing, with few
due to underlying political inertia and mistrust, complicated land ownership issues and elderly people left and no residents of
among other technical and financial reasons. shrinking military presence in the region reproductive age.
Three new border crossings are now in use in altogether resulted in the closure of major state
All of these factors have led to a lack of
the region, the first from 2005 and the other enterprises and co-operative farms, loss of
community spirit and cohesion, where
two from this year. The one between the towns markets and income sources, long-term
fragmented individual efforts and separate
of Ivaylovgrad and Kyprinos opened in unemployment and further isolation of the
livelihood strategies come in place. The
September 2010. municipality from the rest of the country.
strength and value of the regional cultural
During the last five years, the municipality –
identity (various forms of heritage and
Demographic, socio - economic and especially its eastern part (including the
relations, local knowledge and collective
cultural processes municipal centre and a few more villages) –
memory) are nowadays jeopardized because of
experienced increased inner and outer
The demographic development in the region the negative trends of depopulation, aging,
investment interest. Micro, small and medium-
has a lot in common with other rural areas in intergenerational discontinuity, marginalization,
sized enterprises appeared in traditional and
Eastern Europe. It is defined by speedy poverty and social exclusion in vast parts of the
new sectors and branches (building materials
transformation and migration patterns in less region. At the beginning of the transition period
extraction, farming, winery, light industries,
than 50 years from the agriculture-based, there were certain optimistic expectations
tourist services, photovoltaic energy parks,
predominantly rural society before WWII into about the benefits of openness, but now there
etc.). However, most of these were seriously
an industrialized and urbanized one, structured is only widespread mistrust and scepticism
affected by the global economic recession and
around the capital city of Sofia and 26 larger accumulated among citizens living in poverty
positive expectations of stabilization were very
and medium-sized administrative and and downcast entrepreneurs in the
soon replaced by anxiety over a possible next
economic centres. The intensive depopulation municipalities which suffer from the still
wave of labour and poverty-driven migration.
in the Ivaylovgrad municipality, like in other ongoing isolation (results of an inquiry,
Poor access to education (only one secondary
border regions in South-eastern Bulgaria in the interviews, discussions and content analysis of
school in the town and three primary schools
1950s–1970s, took place alongside a natural local published materials during an
on fifty villages) and health care (ongoing
population growth observed at the national educational project will be discussed later on).
discussions for closing down small municipal
level. There was an additional peak of outward hospitals in the whole of the country, the one A Municipal Development Plan was adopted in
migration in the 1990s, at the expense of small
in Ivaylovgrad being on top of the list), 2006 and a number of measures and projects
villages and neighbourhoods in the
ineffective organization of utility services were undertaken – predominantly the ones
municipality. The population in the municipal
(waste collection available only in the representing fragmented physical rehabilitation
centre diminished at a lower pace and the town municipal town and three nearby villages) and of buildings and infrastructure. One of these is
still accommodates mechanical immigration insufficient maintenance of infrastructure and the local TIC, accommodated in a restored
from the adjacent parts of the region – well
the built environment are the result of a lack of building (a listed heritage site) – unfortunately
illustrated by the density map of the
a critical mass of users, inadequate state with no financial or organisational resource
municipality (Fig. 3).
support and very limited local financial committed. The next challenge is the
The political shift and the subsequent national resources. A number of settlements have been implementation of the Local Development
Fig 3. Population density of Ivaylovgrad municipality (based on data from 2009) Fig 4. Depopulated villages in Ivaylovgrad
spatium 5
Strategy – to be prepared and managed by education, consultation and project preparation (natural to technological to cultural and
the Local Action Group “Zaedno”, organized related to natural grazing, organic agriculture agricultural) by placing the focus on life
after the regulations of the Leader+ approach and eco-tourism. values and respect for nature, and searching
in co-operation with administration, the for alternative ways of life.
The Bikearea Association is on a mission to
business and civil sectors in the three NGOs have thus been acting as effective
bring people closer to nature, continually
municipalities – Ivaylovgrad, Madzharovo and agents of change and, being sensitive to real
developing responsible and sustainable
Stambolovo. life on the ground, they have initiated the
tourism and recreation across the Rhodope
At this stage of development, the region is Mountains, by organising education and evelopment of micro communities and
exposed to the utmost level of vulnerability. consultation for local guides and small scale networks of a new identity and culture.
The future role and contribution of the accommodation alongside the promotion of
recently opened and long awaited border sustainable forest use (Rhudopia product).
crossing need to be observed. The challenges
The Green School Village (GSV) Association is
of the proper management of local resources
a youth value-based community of people from
need to be adequately met and the local
different places, with varied experience and
potential well utilized. Therefore, urgent
professional interests. The Association actively
initiatives for revitalization have to include an
searches contacts with local communities, the
ambitious enhancement of the local capacity
municipality and the region. The GSV has
for maintenance and development on the one
focused on the revival of the shrinking
hand, and on the other an encouragement for
Kostilkovo village in the municipality, one of its
the colonization of disappearing settlements.
main projects being the development of a Non-
(Fig. 4).
formal Education Centre, planned to be a
multifunctional and self-sustaining centre
BUILDING NEW PARTNERSHIPS which will become a local enterprise, a
research and culture centre developing
The NGO sector–activities and concepts commercial and non-commercial services.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have Several youth exchange initiatives were
been emerging all over the country since the organised with a special emphasis on
early 1990s with a lot of EU, international and spreading the knowledge about natural building
national support. Recent regional policy and permaculture. A number of projects (some
documents have great expectations from them. of which were supported by the Municipality
The Ivaylovgrad region with its distinctive and the Cultural Centre) were very beneficial in
values is a suitable field for comprehensive terms of valuable experience and networking.
exploration. Acquisition of proficiency in life
'on the edge' and entering into deeper Estimation of the NGO driven process
interactions has stimulated a lot of NGOs with Despite often not fully reaching their genuine
various scales of work and declared priorities. objectives while adapting to grant
Some of them are active on the national scale; requirements and failing to attract additional
others are regionally based or focused. There resources, NGOs in the region have
are already numerous examples of succeeded in initiating a truly innovative
organizations which undertook important first process of enhancing and integrating social
steps and innovations for the region, trying to capital to support a re-conceptualization of
reconnect the regional potential through life in the border area. Several aspects of their
networking and supplementing efforts – activity can be considered as being of
sometimes functioning in real synergy and particular importance:
continuity.
• The enthusiasm of young people
The Bulgarian Biodiversity Foundation involved in various value-based activities;
promotes the 'Green Belt' concept on a national
scale and organizes events to raise awareness • The synergy created by linking different
about conservation opportunities and levels – from international through national
challenges in the border regions of Bulgaria. It and regional to local;
has conducted biodiversity investigations in • The active search for and initiation of
the region within the Rhodope project and acts partnerships with a large variety of actors
strategically by purchasing land of high natural from both the public and private sectors;
value. Together with the BSPB it organizes the
• The impressive variety of ideas,
Kartali annual training in field investigations,
priorities and practices coming into
monitoring and practical activities.
contact and mutually fertilizing each other; Fig 5. Communication, dialogue and co-operation
The ARK Nature and Avalon Foundation (Dutch with local communities (For one shared space
• The capacity to link into a truly Project, 2009)
organizations) initiated the region-focused New holistic way all the aspects of life
Thracian Gold Project with an accent on
6 spatium
The University as a partner in the 2008), there is an obvious need for further Developing process-based strategies
process professional debate on the strategies to provide should be strongly focused on in continuity.
and communicate at both the EU and national The Strategic Choice Approach could be
A partnership officially established between the
levels. There is also an urgency to counteract particularly useful (Friend and Hickling, 2005).
UACG and GSV Association on the occasion of
the negative tendencies of depopulation and It is important within the process-oriented
the For One Common Space and a Better Place
marginalization in SEE peripheral regions, framework to provide monitoring and
for Living Project provided a chance to explore
which requires innovative approaches sensitive evaluation with a time scope beyond the
the development opportunities for both actors,
to local institutional capacity, as well as to the framework of a particular project. Transparency
as well as for the capacity-building process at
peculiar needs and life-styles, priorities and of processes requires indicator systems that
the local level in the municipality of
culture of the people – those who have stayed have to be scientifically based, but also
Ivaylovgrad. In accordance with its educational
and those who would be interested in transparently communicable and designed with
concept (Dimitrova, 2009), the university team
inhabiting and reviving peripheries. Several all groups active at the local level.
searched for a real-life case-study to focus on
considerations resulting from the analysis of Comprehensible demonstrations and
within the Sustainable Development teaching
real-life processes in the Ivaylovgrad educational efforts explaining alternative
module of the BSc in Urbanism Programme
municipality could be particularly relevant and approaches and their expected results could
(winter semester 2009/2010). The NGO was in
helpful on the way: induce change in activities and practices, an
need of potential allies and partners, but also
intensified exchange and a common learning
methodological support to carry out a public Despite numerous reported results and many
process. Stimulating measures should be
dialogue with the local people on the issues of positive changes, a general low
clearly aimed at key actors and aspects of the
mobility, waste management and local cultural effectiveness of current practices and
processes.
identity. Throughout the teaching process activities has been observed and
students were actively involved in analyses of communicated up to the present day. The A long list of policy research issues should
local potential and best practices, in preparing major shortcoming clearly visible in many surely include critical preconditions for setting
questionnaires and carrying out a survey situations is the discontinuity of initiatives (due into motion gradual social interaction,
envisaged by the Project, in presenting both to a lack of financial support, adequate innovative entrepreneurship, balanced
good practices and their own development maintenance of products and results, training commodification and successful assessment
ideas to the local community, and organizing a services), which results in the disappearance methods of development and transformation
creative art workshop with local children. of public trust in the possibility to change the provided by top-down and bottom-up
status quo. approaches. Co-ordinated research will
The analysis of the outcome proved the
guarantee the effectiveness of efforts.
existence of considerable benefits for all A shift in the focus of capacity building
partners in the project. From an academic seems necessary. Most of the efforts have To conclude, it seems vital to a successful
standpoint, the process was valuable with been aimed at the administrative and expert regional policy in a period of a dynamically
regard to creating an expert point of view project management capacity. Capacity is evolving world and uncertainty of future
sensitive to local processes and challenges however equally needed in the real-life development challenges to continually keep in
and stimulating the students’ personal and management of local and shared regional mind that all people matter.
professional responsibilities to real-life people resources where local people have their stakes
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8 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.2(4-924.56)
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023009G
DANUBE REGION STRATEGY - ARGUMENTS FOR A

TERRITORIAL CAPITAL BASED MULTILEVEL APPROACH
Rudolf Giffinger1, Vienna University of Technology, Department of Spatial Development, Infrastructure and
Environmental Planning,Centre for Regional Science, Vienna, Austria
Johannes Suitner, Vienna University of Technology, Department of Spatial Development, Infrastructure and
Environmental Planning,Centre for Regional Science, Vienna, Austria
During the last months the discussion on a strategy for the Danube Region as a new approach for a European macro-region has
been intensified, predominantly within the area of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Evidently the territory of the Danube
Region is characterized by a divergent group of countries concerning the process of integration and the preconditions in
geographic, economic, cultural and socio-demographic terms. Besides, the region’s spatial development shows divergent
trends causing increasing regional disparities. Therefore, territorial cohesion - understood as intensified functional
interrelations and strategic cooperation - is jeopardized in manifold ways.
Hence, the main objective of this paper is to discuss the basic features of a strategy aiming at strengthening the polycentric
development on different spatial levels. We start by assuming that the development of every city (as an element of the urban
system) depends on its territorial capital and relevant assets providing location based advantages regarding its
competitiveness on different spatial levels. Therefore we uncover what we understand as assets driving urban development. In
this context the meaning of polycentric development and the importance of polycentric structures as an asset of a city’s
territorial capital is being revealed.
Based on these conceptual considerations we examine some relevant features of the urban polycentric system in the Danube
region and finally argue that a multilevel and evidence based approach should be evolved facing the differences in the
preconditions and already existing assets of spatial development.
covering several policy areas and interlinking different spatial levels as a precondition for
INTRODUCTION1 them and concentrating on main issues which territorial cohesion.
Based on an initiative of Romania and Austria concern the entire macro-region.
In order to elaborate these features we examine
the discussion about forming a Danube Region But countries within this large region are some relevant characteristics of the urban
started some years ago, first on bilateral, then meeting new challenges like an increasing system due to their importance as the basis for
on European level. Over the last months the competitive situation through the EU-isation of polycentric development in the Danube
talk regarding a ‘Strategy for the Danube national policy and through the process of Region. Based on this empirical evidence we
Region’ has been intensified due to an globalization (Hamilton, et al., 2005). And the elaborate the most important features of a
invitation of the European Council to the development on urban and regional level is multilevel and evidence based approach facing
European Commission to prepare an EU characterized by even stronger divergent the differences in the spatial preconditions and
Strategy for the Danube Region (see processes in economic, social and already existing assets of development. We
http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/ coopera- environmental terms (EC, 2001; or 2007). argue that the development of every city (as an
tion/danube/documents/council_conclusions. Despite the efforts of regional policy and element of the urban system) depends on its
pdf). The strategy - expected to be presented funding over the last years territorial cohesion - territorial capital and relevant assets providing
by the EC before the end of 2010 - should in terms of functional interrelations and location based advantages regarding its
consider the following aspects: meeting strategic cooperative initiatives - is still one of competitiveness on the interregional or
specific challenges facing in particular regions, the most important challenges. European level. Finally we state that the
development of the urban system should show
In front of these different conditions and
1
Karsplatz 13, 1040 Vienna, Austria polycentric features as a precondition and the
divergent trends the paper has the objective to
[email protected] outcome of the development of every city and
discuss the features of a strategy aiming at
at the same time for territorial cohesion in a
strengthening polycentric development on
spatium 9
Giffinger R., Suitner J.: Danube Region Strategy - Arguments for a territorial capital based multilevel approach
normative sense. Correspondingly, we discuss

the mutual relation between urban
development (cities with different sizes) and
polycentric development on different spatial
levels in a cross-border perspective. Based on
this discussion the meaning of competition
and in particular of cooperation as basic
principles of strategic efforts are being
described and some specific features
regarding a polycentric strategy are being
elaborated in a multilevel perspective.
BASIC FEATURES OF THE URBAN

SYSTEM IN THE DANUBE REGION
The Danube Region shows some important Fig.1: Largest Danube Region Cities (Data Source: http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de/; Sep 21, 2010), own figure
characteristics:
• It contains an area of about 800.000 km² further analysis within the Danube Region potential migration flows as well as on the
which in huge parts is some sort of ‘hinterland’ territory. preconditions for polycentric development.
of the river.
The result shows what was obvious to those Degree of urbanization
• 115 million citizens live in this area - a
already familiar with the region. No city within In comparison of countries this indicator gives
population strongly characterized by different
the territory has a population higher than 2 first evidence about the potential of rural-urban
identities in terms of language, traditions and
million people. Instead there are 7 cities with a migration as a driving factor of future trends of
religion.
population between 1 and 2 million people of urbanization. The empirical distribution shows
• 14 countries (not all of them neighboring the which 6 are national capitals. This leads to the differences across different countries and at the
river) are participating in the initiative. These assumption that - at least on a national level - same time any empirical distribution can be
countries experienced different processes in the Danube Region is characterized by a compared to the theoretically expected rank -
political, economic and socio-demographic strongly centralized urban system. size - distribution providing normative
terms and show different statuses of integration conclusions regarding a more polycentric
To get a more detailed view on the urban
to the EU (see http://www.bka.gv.at/site/cob__ system.
system the degree of urbanization is then being
38596/ currentpage__0/6726/default.aspx).
examined. To find out about how national Here the degree of urbanization is calculated
• Very obvious, the Danube does not have the populations of the Danube Region countries through a simple division of the population of
same meaning in economic and environmental are distributed between cities on a national the biggest cities of a country by the whole
terms or as a border across these countries. level the Rank-Size-Distribution is afterwards national population. To receive results that
Thus, discussing the spatial development of being analyzed. This lets us conclude on
such a large region the urban system seems to
be more important than the fluvial topography.
Accordingly, two important aspects of spatial
development should be considered: the
respective urban system in regard to the
territory of every country and of the whole
region and the borders of nations in duality to
potential cross-border polycentric relations.
Examining the urban system
The elaboration of characteristics of the urban

system is important because it constitutes the
basic structure for future demographic and
economic development and potential driving
forces for spatially differentiated trends of
urbanization and settlement growth. The
differences of urban systems of the respective
territory are described as follows.
City sizes
The first approach tries to give an overview of
the cities within the territory of the Danube
region to identify the most important
agglomerations and to establish a basis for Fig.2. Degree of Urbanization of Danube Region cities (Data Source: http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de/; Sep 21,
2010), own figure
10 spatium
better portray the tendency of urbanization in a distribution indicates a non-polycentric urban system that is undecided regarding a
country only those cities were considered that structure as a precondition of polycentric polycentric structure.
have at least 1/10th of the population of the development.
To conclude, the analysis of the observed rank-
largest city of a country. The territories of the
2) Flat Distribution size-distribution indicates from a normative
countries which are part of the Danube Region
point of view that the urban systems of most of
show the following results: The second group shows a flat distribution
the considered countries are not really
where medium sized cities show values larger
These results indicate strong differences in the balanced or do not show polycentric
than to be expected. Countries with a city-size-
degree of urbanization and in the number of characteristics. Countries show the less
distribution of this type are Bosnia-
cities included. Facing this fact we can adequate preconditions for polycentric
Herzegovina, Slovakia and partly German cities
conclude that the further process of development the more their city-size-
of Baden-Wurttemberg and Bavaria. In these
urbanization will vary across all national distributions indicate a primacy distribution
countries the city-size-distribution already
territories. Territories with a low degree of dominated by the size of the capital city.
indicates a polycentric structure as a good
urbanization will be affected through
precondition for further polycentric deve- On the other hand the rank-size-distribution for
outmigration and loss of population in rural
lopment. the whole Danube Region shows a rather
areas the lower the economic standards will
interesting result. Here a clear non-primacy
remain in the near future. Potential migration 3) Rank-Size-Equal
distribution can be seen. Medium-sized cities
flows are not easy to predict but size, distance
This group of countries shows an observed seem to be larger than expected theoretically.
and attractiveness of cities as potential
city-size-distribution which corresponds to the This indicates formally a well elaborated
destination as well as specific resistance to
theoretically expected values. Countries with a polycentric structure in the Danube Region - at
movement will play a crucial role in the
city-size-distribution of this type are Czech least on the level of medium-sized cities.
structure of migration flows. The weight of
Republic, Serbia and Slovenia. In these
borders plays an important part as well. The However, there is still the risk that one city will
countries the city-size-distribution indicates an
stronger barriers are the more migration will
take place within the territory leading to
AT - Austria BA - Bosnia and Herzegovina BG - Bulgaria
urbanization in the own country. The weaker
they are and the more integrated territories are
the stronger migration flows to cities in other
territories might become. In this case European
metropolises are likely to become even more
predominant as destinations of migration.
Rank-Size-Distribution of cities within CZ - Czech Republic DE - Germany HR - Croatia
their respective territory
To get an idea of the current state of the
polycentric structure of cities on a national
level within the countries of the Danube Region
the Rank-Size-Rule is being used. The rule
says that the size of any city in a given territory
is determined by the size of the largest city and HU - Hungary MD - Moldova ME - Macedonia
its rank within all cities of the respective
territory. This rule in logarithmic form
corresponds to a linear functional relation.
(Heineberg, 2006, p. 76 ff) The empirical and
theoretically expected rank-size-distributions
of the territories of all considered countries
show the following characteristics. RO - Romania RS - Serbia SI - Slovenia
The results show that three different groups of

countries can be distinguished concerning the
deviation between empirical city sizes and
theoretically expected ones:
1) Dominant Primate City
SK - Slovakia DR - Danube Region
The first group shows a strong primacy of the
capital city against the observed distribution of Score by Log of City
medium- and/or small-sized cities. Austria is Pop.
one of the countries showing a primacy of its Score by Rank-Size-
capital city. Other countries belonging to this Rule
are Croatia, Moldova and Macedonia to a Source:
strong extent as well as Bulgaria and Hungary http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de
to a weak extent. In these countries the Fig.3: Rank-Size-Rule on national level (Data Source: http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de/; Sep 21, 2010), own figure
spatium 11
Map 1 shows all potential metropolises with

their potential ‘hinterland’ (defined by an
approx. 100km radius). However, this group of
cities differs in size. Considering their
geographic position it becomes evident that
• … some of these cities like Prague or
Budapest figure as potential nodes in a
European network which are not close to other
cities or border regions.
• … the most integrated triangle of large cities
is Stuttgart, Nürnberg and Munich which
belong to an integrated territory with
characteristics of a polycentric structure.
Fig.4. Rank-Size-Rule on macro-regional level (Data Source: http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de/; Sep 21, • … Vienna and Bratislava show rather good
2010), own figure
preconditions for integration as they are in a
distance of less than 100 km, both at the river
establish as the most important one according religious or cultural differences and potential Danube because the meaning of borders
to rank-size-rule if conditions for development conflicts. decreases in importance as barrier through the
are unequal across the metropolises. At the integration process at least since 2005.
b) Borders separate border regions and
same time it becomes obvious that recently
guarantee independent spatial development but • … capital cities of Ljubljana and Zagreb are
many medium-sized cities constitute a good
allow few and strictly controlled relations due relative close to each other providing new
base for polycentric development. But they are
to national interests. potentials of metropolitan growth. The meaning
at the same time under an increasingly
competitive situation the more integrated the c) Borders integrate border regions in a
Danube Region becomes. controlled way according to bilateral interests
on the national level. Cooperative relations in
Combining both information (Rank-Size-
the economic and social sphere are allowed.
Distribution-type and Degree of Urbanization)
further conclusions can be made: cities in d) Borders integrate border regions in a
territories with a low degree of urbanization multifaceted and self-defined way through
show high potential immigration from their own cross border partnerships and cooperative a) alienated
hinterland. The risk of migration flows being relations in all spheres according to regional
directed to cities in other countries which show objectives.
higher attraction increases as barriers between
However, this classification emphasizes the
regions of origin and destination disappear and
differences in the dimension of separation –
if socioeconomic disparities are still huge.
integration in a multidimensional perspective.
Therefore, the more the Danube Region
It basically indicates that borders may have a
represents a territory with decreasing barriers
different meaning on the local, regional and
the more the risk of population concentration in
national level for the recent and future
large metropolitan agglomerations with higher b) co-existing
integration process in Europe.
socio-economic standards will increase.
Consequently, this development will jeopardize Based on this perspective, future development
existing urban systems in less developed of cities in border regions will strongly differ
countries and regions. due to their geographic situation in relation to
borders and their meaning as barriers. Hence,
Borders of nations in duality to
we will now discuss the urban system in its
potential cross-border relations geographic distribution focusing in particular
Borders of nations predominantly indicate the on the situation of cities in relation to borders.
territorial hegemony in political and (see Fig.6) Doing this kind of research a c) cooperative
administrative terms. But such borders do not completely different perspective will be
necessarily correspond with regions defined by discussed in comparison to ESPON 1.1.1
cultural or ethnic criteria or by historic (2005) In these studies polycentricity is
functional and social experiences. Facing the analyzed only within national territories. It does
variatons in the integration process, cross not consider any cross-border-situation of
border situations can be distinguished groups of cities explicitly. Two aspects are
basically along with Martinez (1994) as worked out under the aspect of borders:
follows: (1) Large cities or capital cities are regarded as d) integrated
a) Borders strictly separate border regions potential metropolises with a metropolitan
region which includes hinterland and Fig.5. Cross-border situations (Source: Martinez
because of strong political, economic, (1994, p.3)); own modifications
neighboring cities in cross border situations.
12 spatium
of borders between both states still decrease (b) New inner periphery regions between newly global phenomenon. In this perspective the
with the integration of Croatia into the EU. integrated countries: examples are border term ‘territorial capital’ was introduced by
• … other metropolises like Belgrade, Sofia, regions between Hungary and Rumania or OECD (2001, p. 13) recognizing that
Bukarest and Kischnau show enhanced Rumania and Bulgaria. “prosperity is increasingly a matter of how well
potentials if borders will disappear or decrease each city, each region, can achieve its
(c) Border regions between new members of
as barriers. However, these potential potential. It is a supply-side concept. Territorial
EU and neighboring non-EU-countries.
metropolitan areas the integration process if capital refers to the stock of assets which form
Examples are border regions between Moldova
ever started is still weak. the basis for endogenous development in each
and Romania or Hungary and Croatia.
city and region, as well as to the institutions,
Facing this geographic distribution it is (d) New inner periphery regions between non- modes of decision-making and professional
obvious that this group of cities experiences EU-member states and countries of the skills to make best use of those assets.”
different conditions of metropolitan polycentric Southwest Balkan. Accordingly, specific features of territorial
development. capital make the return of certain investments
Probably one may distinguish a group (e)
(2) In general cities are regarded as motors of higher than in other regions and generate a
describing such border situations where border
regional development in a decreasing higher return for certain kinds of investments
regions are still in the influence of
importance the smaller cities are. than for others (OECD, 2001, p. 15). Evidently,
metropolises but lacking small and medium
Consequently, border regions experience new same amount of investments or same external
sized cities. Examples are regions between
disadvantages if there are no cities spreading economic demand will lead to different effects
Slovenia and Carinthia or Slovenia and Croatia.
out corresponding positive effects. New on regional and urban development due to its
peripheries within the Danube region will specific ‘territorial capital’.
FEATURES OF A LEARNING BASED
emerge even if the meaning of borders as Territorial capital and assets of urban
barriers is decreasing. However, this risk of MULTILEVEL STRATEGIC
APPROACH competitiveness
new and inner peripheries will increase the
stronger barriers remain and the smaller and Facing the differences in the preconditions and Starting from this point of supply related view
less dense the groups of cities in border already existing assets of spatial development the question ‘What do we understand by assets
regions are. (urban system, borders) a multilevel and driving urban and regional development?’ is
Fig. 6 indicates such areas which potentially evidence based approach will be elaborated answered in its basic arguments. For a detailed
will become new inner peripheries because of subsequently. discussion see Camagni (2008; 2009) or
the lack of urban impacts. According to the Giffinger et al. (2009)
Territorial Capital: its implications for a
differences in the integration status regarding • Basic endowment and functional related
strategic approach for the macro-region
European Union and the lack of city influence elements are natural features, material and
we may distinguish following types of Facing the strong variation in regional immaterial cultural, technical and social
potentially new peripheries: endowment and heterogeneous governance heritage. These are fixed assets as
(a) New peripheral regions between old and capacities (OECD, 2001) academic attention is infrastructures and endowment related qualities
new member states through a clear lack of directed towards supply related approaches of distinct places. Basic relational elements are
large and medium sized cities: examples are since some years. Such approaches provide an ‘untraded’ interdependencies (like customs,
border regions Bavaria and Czech Republik, adequate theoretical view on the fact of high informal rules, understanding) or specific
South Burgenland and Southwest of Hungary. differentiation of urban developments in front environments (institutions, rules and practices,
of globalization and economic restructuring as common strategies and policies). The second
kind of elements becomes very important for
competitiveness because they are necessary
for the identification and activation of
potentials.
• In a more taxonomic perspective, Camagni
(2008, p. 123) identifies 9 different goods as
elements which describe the character of a
city’s territorial capital and he differentiates
them into tangible and intangible goods. They
are providing respective relative and absolute
comparative advantages.
Anyhow, spatial development at any spatial
level (urban, regional, metropolitan, national)
is finally driven through soft relational factors
which in combination activate resources and
mobilize perceived potentials and transform
them to assets. In this perspective spatial
development at any urban and regional level
is the outcome or result of the activation of
Fig. 6: Urban Systems and Borders
relevant potentials through competitive or
spatium 13
Thus, there is no common approach in

understanding as well as in planning practice
in recent years. Although there is awareness
against the problems of activating relevant
potentials in cross-border situations, relevant
planning approaches had been elaborated and
implemented only since some years and
experiences are rather inhomogenous.
Urban system and polycentricity as an
asset
The existence and development of cities is

based on different arguments: Besides
traditional interpretations (as central places of
a wide range of goods and services which are
supplying population in the respective
hinterland), urban agglomerations are regarded
Fig.7. Hypothesis on Metropolitan Governance (Source: own figure) nowadays as the motors of urban and regional
development in a globalized world and as
cooperative forms of initiatives. identified by relevant actors comprehensively
important nodes with corresponding
and potentials are not transformed in a
To conclude, a Danube strategy which is based metropolitan functions. Cities differ from each
productive way. If these preconditions for the
on the territorial approach has preliminary to other due to its centrality function in a
transformation process are not given, there are
foster such governance efforts which try to traditional meaning and through its
no impulses or activities likely to occur which
identify, select and activate endowment related specialisation (driven through creativity,
may yield corresponding assets. This process
resources and potentials in a strategic way – innovations and new metropolitan functions) in
therefore presumes common interests, more or
both in form of competition providing a more postmodern understanding.
less positive experiences and corresponding
predominantly tangible goods as well as in
capacities of respective stakeholder who In order to look at urban systems in a more
form of cooperation providing predominantly
should be involved in cooperative initiatives. comprehensive spatial perspective the term
intangible goods. Thus, the Danube strategy
‘polycentrism’ was introduced under the use of
mainly should focus on the different forms of In the Danube region this process of
analytical as well as normative criteria. The
relational capital and in particular encourage perception, assessment and activation of
term ‘polycentrism’ describes a system of
spatial governance in form of strategic efforts potentials becomes important under the
cities which are interlinked and mutually
which have the capacity to translate following aspects:
encourage themselves (Schubert und Klein,
endowment related resources and potentials
• Despite the integration process and in front 2006). In a spatial perspective it means a
into real assets for the respective territory
of several historical experiences in Central and dynamic concept in which cities are not
(Giffinger et al., 2009).
Southeast Europe countries national borders regarded only as centers of supply but also as
Perceptional aspect: identification, are still a strong and important instrument motors of development. (Schindegger et al.,
assessment and activation regarding national interests and corresponding 2002) Cities are not only elements in a system
The existence of endowment related resources national political, administrative and planning but more or less important nodes regarding
and potentials are only important and systems. From a border’s point of view border different forms of interlinkages. „A polycentric
contributing to spatial development if they are regions in the Danube region still have rather urban system is a spatial organization of cities
perceived, assessed and activated by different status of integration, some are characterized by a functional division of labor,
corresponding stakeholders. Any form of regarded as integrated since a long period of economic and institutional integration, and
initiative regarding urban development needs time, others are recently in process of political co-operation“. (Tatzberger, 2004)
therefore the focus on actors’ behaving and integration and others still have the status of at Under these perspectives polycentrism on the
social relationships. Such initiatives finally will least co-existing. Very obvious, in a historic one hand side regards cities as competitors
become important asset in urban and regional dimension border regions in the Danube region which are interlinked in a functional way
development only if this process of experienced even alienated forms and moved through trade of goods or flows of
transformation is realized efficiently including over to more integrated forms. Of course, the commodities or information, resp. which are
the interests of different actors and in perceptional challenge in the concept of related to each other through migration or
accordance to common goals. Thus, territorial capital presumes integrated or at commuters. This we call functional or
identification of stakeholders with the territory, least cooperative border regions. Such structural polycentrism which is based on
their ability to cooperate and their capacity to perceptional challenges are likely to be more complementarities and attractivity. On the other
behave creatively to common challenges are complicated the longer alienated forms of side a city is part of a polycentric system if
decisive preconditions for the creation of new borders dominated the development in border there exist strategic relations of stakeholders
assets. regions. between cities which are based on
Obviously, there is an important perceptional • There is a wide range of historical, political cooperation. Such cooperative efforts are
impact on urban - regional competitive and socioeconomic factors which influence the necessary and are likely to exist in order to
development so far endowment factors are not understanding of regional policy and spatial define and realize common goals which cannot
planning across countries, regions and cities. be subject of single actions. This we call
14 spatium
strategic polycentrism based on cooperative • Emphasis on enhancement of cultural, social and for those measures which help to
efforts which may have a wide range of goals and relational capital as intangible assets for jeopardize national interests hampering cross
reaching from political commitments via urban and regional development; border developments. Strategic polycentricity
institutional agreements until projects on should be enforced through the flow of
• Strengthening of place-specific assets, that
common technical and social infrastructure. information and production of knowledge
cannot be reproduced by moving people and
(ESPON 1.1.1, 2005, p.47) regarding the positioning of other metro-
goods, and stem from local culture, values,
polises.
Of course, the character of functional and and norms;
strategic polycentricity varies with the spatial • Strategic efforts in form of cooperative
• Empowerment of specific forms of co-
level. One distinguishes usually the micro, initiatives should be enabled in those border
operative efforts with strategic planning
meso and macro level. On the European regions where are only medium and small
character which in combination yield
(macro) level polycentricity describes the sized cities. These border regions in particular
competitive advantages for the attraction and
urban system of metropolises which should need specific capacity building measures.
realization of important economic functions
provide the base for European integration according to city size and positioning; • Along with the improvement of technical
zones from a normative point of view. Good infrastructure which improves competitive
connectivity on European or global level is In a perceptional perspective, the Danube
strategy should obtain the following features conditions or standards of living a special
necessary in order to open up the ‘hinterworld’ focus of strategic polycentrism should
enhancing and improving the competitive regarding spatial governance in a perceptional
perspective: concentrate on the creation and empowerment
conditions regarding metropolitan develop- of social networks in different spheres of
ment. On the national or transnational (meso-) • In particular cross border cooperative development and on different levels.
level polycentricty describes the urban system initiatives should be enforced in border regions
of a metropolitan region consisting of networks Considering the different spatial levels with
which are still less integrated or even respective challenges, effective measures
of smaller cities usually enhancing the fragmented. First and basic efforts should
attractivity of the metropolis through improving its ‘hinterland’ on the micro and
concentrate on provision of information, meso level or its ‘hinterworld’ on the macro
complementary economic specialisation. Very discussion of strengths and weaknesses and
often such metropolitan regions are fragmented level are necessary to be defined and to be
common learning processes how to meet implemented in this strategy. Cooperation and
through national borders which hamper challenges.
functional or strategic relations to other cities. competition as two complementing governance
On the national or even regional (micro-) level • Predominantly those cross border initiatives approaches have to be enforced in an efficient
polycentricity describes the urban system with should be empowered which aim at the way through the Danube strategy.
its characteristics of the ‘hinterland’ which identification and assessment of regional
• The strategy has to guarantee the
potentials or which try to support and integrate
provides larger potentials of demand and coordination of instruments and measures
workforce, higher diversity in housing and regional identities as a base for future
between the 3 levels: the multilevel approach
living quality, different types of area bounded activities.
has to consider the implications of competitive
advantages regarding the allocation of new • An evidence based learning approach has to and cooperative efforts on the macro-meso-
metropolitan functions. be implemented. It should predominantly micro level.
support cooperative initiatives in a bottom-up
Basically, competition between cities drives • In particular, functional and strategic
way in order to learn from local experts about
functional interrelations if cities try to polycentricity easily is jeopardized through
local and (inter-)regional potentials and it
specialise and position them into niches borders hampering interregional relations. A
should provide information on European
making flows of goods, persons and specific instrument aiming at this problem
perspectives and support the activation and
information necessary. Of course, metropolitan should be defined in order to improve network
transformation of potentials into assets in a
growth areas (MEGAs) (ESPON, 1.1.1, 2005) effects in form of spill-overs which strengthen
top-down manner.
compete for metropolitan functions (Krätke, competitiveness of distinct cities and steer
2007) which drive metropolitan development. • Support of corresponding capacity building territorial cohesion in an effective way.
Competition on the meso or micro level is necessary in particular in small (and
To sum up, the degrees of urbanization and the
concentrate even more on regional and local medium) sized cities in border regions.
rank-size-distributions vary remarkably across
economic activities or even households as Finally, taking the concept of polycentricity into the countries of the Danube region. Very
residents. Opposite to functional polycentricity, consideration a Danube Region strategy should obviously, the respective urban systems in
strategic polycentricity between metropolises contain the following features: combination with the different meaning of
focuses on different issues than on the meso or borders provide rather strong differences and
micro level and concerns different aspects of • Initiatives of cities aiming at the
improvement of its competitiveness should be deficits in polycentric development conditions.
positioning, infrastructure and economic Hence, polycentricity will only become an
niches in a hierarchical way. empowered through the Danube strategy:
corresponding instruments on the micro- and asset of respective cities and regions if
meso-level should empower cooperative strategic efforts will strengthen it in an effective
CONCLUSIONS: BASIC FEATURES way on the different spatial levels.
efforts; on the meso- and macro-level they
OF A MULTILEVEL APPROACH should improve competitive conditions The concept of territorial capital emphasizes
Taking territorial capital and assets into inducing new economic relations. that urban-regional development is not only
consideration a Danube strategy basically • In particular strategic efforts for metropolises based on some endowment factors providing
should show following features: in border regions should be defined including potentials in a functional sense but needs
a clear concept for infrastructure investments specific knowledge for the transformation of
spatium 15
potentials into assets. Thus, corresponding gv.at/DocView.axd?CobId=3387 (Stand 9.12.

instruments on the European level are needed 2008)
in order to support those efforts which Schubert K. und Klein M. (2006) Das
strengthen relational elements. In a successful Politiklexikon. 4., aktual. Aufl. Bonn: Dietz
strategy knowledge about the potentials as well 2006,http://www.bpb.de/popup/popup_lemmat
as about the meaning of assets is necessary a.html?guid=WB9V6L (Stand 11.12.2008)
and should be supported through corres- Tatzberger G. (2004) Stadtentwicklung in
ponding initiatives. Thus, the main goal of EUROPA-die Polyzentrismus Diskussion,
governance in Danube region is to facilitate the http://www. oerok.gv.at/fileadmin/Bilder/2.
coordination and steering of collective actions, ReiterRaum_u._Region/3.Themen_und_ Fors 2
in particular in border situations. chungsbereiche/9.Zentralitaet_ u._Raument
wicklung/ Zentralitaet_ u._Raumentwick
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2008)
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towards a theory of territorial capital“, in
“Modelling regional scenarios for the enlarged
Europe: European competitiveness and global
strategies”, Capello,-Camagni-Chizzolini-Fratesi
(eds.), Berlin: Springer Verlag.
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regional development. In R. Capello and P.
Nijkamp (eds.) Handbook of Regional Growth
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Mass.: Edward Elgar Publ. p. 118-132,
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Zusammenhalt. Luxemburg
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(2005) ESPON 1.1.1 - Potentials for
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by the European Community through the
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2004, revised March 2005, Stockholm,
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die räumliche Entwicklung, http://www.bka.
16 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC. 711.2(437.6)
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023017J
SELECTED ASPECTS OF TERRITORIAL COHESION

IN SLOVAKIA UNDER THE RECENT CRISIS
Matej Jaššo1, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Department of Spatial Planning, Bratislava, Slovakia
Maroš Finka, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Department of Spatial Planning, Bratislava, Slovakia
Territorial cohesion has been one of the most prominent topics of discourse among spatial planners, urban sociologists,
economists and experts from various other fields. Territorial systems with high degree of cohesion are better equipped to
withstand the external pressures and situational imbalancies. Recent global crisis exposed these imbalancies and challenged
the smooth and balanced spatial development of European countries. Major economic setbacks influenced entire society in
Slovakia. Global financial crisis evaporated the ultimate growth of Slovak economics and exposed hidden imbalancies of
development policies solely related to GDP growth instead of creating the fundaments for sustainability in the transition
economy. Spatial polarization on different levels of society weakened down the overall (mainly social) cohesion and
highlighted the problems of marginalized regions and social groups. Social aspects of territorial and spatial processes are
more visible than ever before and regional disparities are becoming more prominent issue in political and scientific discourse.
Despite the deep profilation of regional identity and place attachment, there are still considerable distinctions and disparities
between metropolitan/urban and rural communities in terms of values, consumption patterns, life style, sense of solidarity or
wealth distribution. Selected aspects of territorial cohesion in Slovakia, mainly in the field of social cohesion are in the
spotlight in this paper. Focus on integrative spatial development balancing the contradictions by effective mixture of general
approach and reasonable and sensible differentiation is considered highly essential.
Key words: territorial cohesion, social cohesion, balanced spatial development, common values, social capital, place
attachment.
“At the moment of evaporation of criminal environmentally sound economic development are voices claiming that „political reality of EU
ideology of collectivism, the new highly self- which preserves present resources for use by characterized by weak position of
confident but helplessly lonely singularity was future generations but also includes a balanced comprehensive development policies and
born. This singularis slowly and unattending spatial development“ (ESDP). Green paper on spatial planning at all is reflected in the official
liquidates the future society – it does not have Territorial cohesion explicitly mentions that distance of the EC from the responsibility of
the ancestors. Everybody is smoothly becoming „concept of territorial cohesion builds bridges spatial development“ (Finka, Jamečný 2010).2
homeless”. between economic effectiveness, social
Territorial cohesion was in the spotlight of the
cohesion and ecological balance, putting
(Alexander Tomský on Demographic crisis in European spatial policies even before the start of
sustainable development at the heart of policy
Europe) the crisis. In the times of growth and bright
design“ (Green paper on Territorial Cohesion,
integration perspectives, it became one of the
p.3). Thus, concept of sustainability is the
INITIAL THOUGHTS 1 frequently used concepts when arguing the
philosophical and ideological background of this
advantages of future spatial and societal
European spatial development and modification approach. Among the particular priorities we can
development of the Europe (see e.g. Peyrony
of its spatial patterns and structures is a find coordination of policies in large areas (such
2005). The crisis highlighted the importance of
complicated and multifocal process going as Baltic states region), improving condition on
the coherent development, and even made it a
beyond pure aggregation of national spatial the outermost border of EU, competitive and
fundamental precondition of the successful
structures (more e.g. in Zillmer, Boehme 2010). sustainable cities, fighting the social exclusion,
Almost every EU policy has its territorial impacts improving the health care and education etc.
and reflections. Back in the 1990s, ESDP states Promoting territorial cohesion should be part of 2
This contribution is the result of the project
that „sustainable development covers not only the effort to ensure that all Europe´s territory has implementation: Centre for the Development of Settlement
the opportunity to contribute to the growth and Infrastructure for Knowledge-Based Economy, ITMS
jobs agenda (Community Strategic Guidelines 26240120002, supported by the Research &
1
Vazovova 5, 812 43 Bratislava 1, Slovak Republic Development Operational Programme funded by the
[email protected]
on Cohesion, 2006). On the other hand, there ERDF.
spatium 17
Jaššo M., Finka M. : Selected aspects of territorial cohesion in Slovakia under the recent crisis
progress of the integrated Europe. Before we Almost every policy and politic documents of EC related to the process of transformation (foreign
start to examine territorial cohesion in Slovakia is dealing with territorial cohesion (see e.g. investments in the lacking behind regions,
under the pressure of current global financial Barrosso, Verheugen 2005, Falludi 2005), refurbishments of the city centers,
and economic crisis, we should investigate the starting with ESDP, Green Paper on Territorial improvements of the living environment) of
methodological backgrounds of territorial Cohesion, ESPON analyses (van Gestel and Slovakia, there have been still persisting many
cohesion. Falludi 2005), Territorial agenda and its action problems and challenges. We are still being
programme, Lisbon and Gothenburg agenda and witnesses of the rigorous duel between the
Territorial cohesion as an academic/
even Lisbon treaty. Territorial cohesion became proclamative economically oriented regional
research issue one of the strategic axes of many above policy and barrier-free neo-liberalism.
mentioned documents and most of them Proclamative social oriented regional policy is in
Each type of cohesion might be characterized as
consider this issue as a fundamental the municipal practice confronted with post-
an ability of the parts of the system to „stick
precondition for balanced spatial development socialist clientelism and corruption. The
together“ bringing synergy effect and enriching
of EU. bureaucratic elements of decision-making are
all the particular parts without harming any of
being multiplied by the bureaucracy in the EU
them. Cohesive systems are better equipped to
TERRITORIAL COHESION IN funds and hegemony of ministerial bureaucrats.
withstand the external pressures and situational
SLOVAKIA In addition, the implementation of the EU TA
imbalancies. Cohesion secures the stability in
policies in real spatial development policy is
time and space and makes systems more
Mainly during the 1990s, variety of further ignored. Despite the utter importance of
predictable and more legible both from external
overestimated expectation of the self-regulative balanced and cohesive development on the
as well as from internal point of view. Concept of
mechanisms of the free market based on the national level, it seems that the era of
cohesive development brought on the territorial
neo-liberal paradigm had been vigorously arisen unprecedented economic growth (2002-2008)
level should include balanced economic
(more in Finka 2010). The underdeveloped has not been fully utilized to diminish vigorous
development, social cohesion of the entire
market environment, protectionism, absence of contradictions in spatial development in
society and particular communities living within
natural control mechanisms like ethic principles Slovakia. In opposite, the hidden imbalancies
the territory and preservation of the natural
in business, lack of political culture and of became more prominent and social tensions
sources. This is reflected in the paradigm of
public sensitivity against political failures seem have grown with the first contact with the global
sustainability, ideologically covering the concept
to be in their synergy behind the development crisis.
of territorial cohesion. The unique and versatile
problems. Experience from the centralised
combination of various systems (economic,
planning and politic decision making from the SOCIAL COHESION IN SLOVAKIA
social, ecological) interacting in the certain
previous era imposed the distrust in any pubic
territory makes the research of territorial Concept of social cohesion got into the
driven planning (deeper analysis in e.g. Finka
cohesion demanding and multidimensional scientific/research spotlight in the beginning of
2002, 2003, 2007). The overall situation in
issue. There are appearing the following 1990s. The very term of social cohesion was
Slovakia during the previous decade might be
haunting questions: How to achieve social and defined in many ways and under different point
characterized by following patterns (Gajdoš and
economic cohesion, preservation of natural and of view (more e.g. in Beauvais and Jenson
Pašiak 2006):
cultural diversity and territorial competitiveness 2002). Main scope of the most approaches was
at once? How to measure territorial cohesion? In - spatial polarization on different levels of to determine how various social and economic
which scale and which units? Is territorial society is weakening the overall (mainly social) variables are related in the process of social
cohesion a qualitative phenomena per se, or is it cohesion reality construction . Various concepts (or quasi-
a continuous scale allowing basic benchmarking concepts) of social cohesion integrate the
- social aspects of territorial and spatial
among the societies and territories? Duehr et al. intangible issues of social capital (degree of
processes are more visible than ever before
(2010, In Zillmer, Boehme 2010, p.5) brought trust and mutuality, values, perception of
(paradigm of new regionalism)
the concept of division onto: collective goal) with direct measurable
- the regional disparities are still growing from outcomes (health, education, public
a) territorial quality – living standards, quality of
the 1990s and are one of the main scopes of the participation) of cohesive society.
life, social wellness
political and scientific discourse.
b) territorial efficiency – different use of Social cohesion in developed European and
At the beginning of the 21st century, the Northern American countries has been put under
resources and territorial capital
following risk-portfolio is essential to be taken vigorous challenges during the last decade.
c) territorial identity – social capital, soft factors into the consideration (according to Gajdoš and Cities and societies are becoming more fluid,
like regional identity, City Branding etc. Pašiak 2006): fragmented and even chaotic, with unpredictable
This concept tries to integrate measurable • risk of deepening the regional disparities, outcomes of parallel running social processes
factors (effective allocation of sources) with mainly in the field of the quality of human (see e.g. Bauman´s concept of liquid modernity
unique, soft elements (identity). resources 2002). Decline of social cohesion has been
attributed to several factors (see e.g. Bauman
Territorial cohesion as a political issue • risk of the social environment of 2002 or Putnam 2001): time pressure, various
marginalized regions break-down distractive factors, residential mobility and
Idea behind is to reduce the cost of non-
• risk of the readiness to implement regional suburbanization, “privatization” of societal goals.
coordinated national policies, contribute to
policies (mainly due to the lack of financial and
goals set up in Lisbon and Gothenburg agendas If we define the social cohesion as an absence
human capital) break-down
and counterbalance the economic and social of conflict between societal goals and groups
collateral effects of European single market. Beside many great successes and achievements and absence of disruptive behavior (Kearns and
18 spatium
Forrest 2000, p.996) the overall social cohesion weakened down by social and mindset gaps need for self-realisation, the need for belonging
in Slovakia is low. If we define the social between autochthon population and newcomers. and structuring the outer environment. Highly
cohesion as the societal niveau where all the This is visible especially in prosperous suburban profiled regional identity contributes to the
components are contributing to the fitness of the settlements, which completely adopted legibility of the place and space. The people are
whole and are profiting from the advantage being metropolitan/urban consumption, life-style and still generally territorial in their behavioural
a part of the whole, there have been some behavioural patterns. patterns. Slovak communities, mainly in smaller
remarkable achievements during the recent settlements (but even in urban milieu) always
Solidarity and Reduction of Wealth
years. displayed rather strong and deep place
Disparities attachment and deep identification with living
The comprehensible set of the criteria of social
place and environment. However, we can
cohesion in territorial dimension have been Solidarity and reduction of wealth disparities are
conclude from recent surveys (e.g. project
introduced by Kearns and Forrest (2000): one of the basic pillars of social market
Identity of River Basins, Jaššo 2005) that both
economy. This dimension of social cohesion
Common Values and Civic Culture these phenomena (place attachment and
refers to “extending opportunities for income-
territorial identification) are saturated more by
Cohesive society within the field of common generating activities; reduction of poverty;
emotional and social identification patterns („I
culture and civic values is one in which the reduced disparities in incomes, employment
have grown up here“, „my family lives here for
members share values which enable them to and competitiveness; higher quality of life; and
decades“) than by value based identification
identify and support common goals (Kearns and open access to services of general benefit and
patterns („I am living here because I appreciated
Forrest (2000, p.997). In more applied way, in protection.” (Keats and Forrest 2000, p.999). If
the value profile and behaviour of our
such society there is a general support for the we analyse the tendencies of wealth distribution
municipality“). The territorial identification and
political systems and structures which are the in Slovakia in absolute numbers, the disparities
sense of belonging is rather deep, but in many
pillars of the entire society. In addition, in are not huge, but in relative measurement the
cases rather mono-dimensional.
cohesive society based on the commonly shared distinctions are considerable (especially in
values, the individuals do display pro-active certain private sectors). Solidarity is shown in
extreme situations (floods), not as an everyday SLOVAKIA IN THE RECENT CRISIS
behavior in terms of participation in local and
national policies, decision making and attitude (e.g. toward marginalised social Before the crisis, Slovak republic enjoyed
engagement. In contemporary Slovakia, there are groups). In 2007, 11% of the population relatively high economical growth. Foreign
still considerable distinctions and disparities qualified as living in poverty, with earnings of investments were the most prominent topics of
between metropolitan/urban and rural less than €198 per month. Those identified as economic discourse in late 1990s and first half
communities in terms of values, consumption living in material need (under €185) receive a of 2000s and 91% of GDP was made by 22
patterns, life style or political preferences. The subsidy that varies according to the individual’s transnational corporations (more in Staněk
level of participation is rather low, despite some situation (www.euractiv.com). Poverty does 2010). Slovakia utilized its main competitive
considerable shifts in some behavioural patterns affect predominantly the Roma population. advantage: favorable geographical position, low
of certain actors of public life. Leadership, Social Networks and Social Capital salaries level with relatively high skilled
engagement and high motivation are present in workforce. The leader branches were the
certain cases, but the majority of the public Cohesive community is based on the high automotive cluster (Peugeot- Citroen,
remains still rather unattached and indifferent. degree of social interactions. The most Volkswagen, Kia) and electronics (Samsung,
important platform for developing social network Sony). Massive investments, improving the
Social Order and Social Control and accumulating social capital is the local level conditions within entrepreneurial and business
Social order and control refers to more mundane (Kearns and Forrest 2000, p.999). Repeating landscape and business innovations brought
level of community life, mutually interlinked mutual support mechanisms within the dramatic decline of unemployment rates within
circle of daily routine and reciprocities. Social neighborhood keep the social networks alive and 2002-2007. Even the social and job mobility,
order is seen as the general framework in which prevent isolation, stress and frustration. that has always been rather weak point of Slovak
the individuals are ready to cooperate, Voluntary participation and high degree of trust society, improved. In 2000-06 more than 200
communicate and interact (Wrong 1994, Kearns are essential for socially cohesive society. In 000 people left the country for jobs abroad (80
and Forrest 2000). It is sometimes not easy to terms of social capital, Slovak population had 000 came back in 2009-2010). First half of
harmonize the diversity of urban milieu with the been always rather conservative, that means that 2000s is the era when high share of economics
need for informal rules of social order and social interlinkages are rather stable and are (98%) became private, including strategic
control (Giddens 1994, In Kearns and Forrest considered to be a subject of high esteem, but sectors (energy/water supply, telecommu-
2000). Incivility, crime and unpunished violent lower flexibility. However, there are obvious nication, utilities).
behaviour are the consequences of horror vacui observable trends, similar to other countries,
Contemporary global economic crisis exposed
in terms of informal social order and control. For that social networks are transformed from
several hidden imbalances and structural
example, unemployed people, loosing their territorial to virtual dimension.
weaknesses of Slovak economy. Specific
„dull daily routines“ are prone to engage Place Attachment and Regional Identity situation of Slovakia results from the huge
themselves in social interpersonal conflicts and development intensity in the last decade
territorial struggles (Kearns and Forrest 2000). It is generally supposed that highly profiled (Slovakia’s economy grew 8.7 percent in a
Social control in territory of Slovakia, regional identity and strong ties of place 2007/2008 comparison) and synergy of different
represented mainly by rural settlements and attachment are of utter importance for social contradictory processes in the triangle social,
small sized cities had been rather strong and cohesion within the territory (Kearns and Forrest economic and environmental policies. Global
deeply profiled in the past. However, nowadays, 2000). Place Attachment saturates many financial crisis stopped the rapid growth of
even in the rural areas the social control was psychological needs: the need for security, the Slovak economics and in the same time
spatium 19
deepened natural selective processes of economic competition. In addition, wrong focused only on the rush GDP growth in some
economic and spatial development displaying experience from the centralised planning and regions instead of development sustainability in
the deformations brought by the development politic decision from the previous era supported the transition countries (Finka 2010). The
policies focused only on the rush GDP growth the distrust of public in any pubic driven pressure on spatial planning in terms of quick
instead of creating the fundaments for planning and so the transformation processes in reaction and lower/eliminated impacts of the
sustainability in the transition economy. the post-socialist period have been connected crisis has considerably grown. Particular
with false expectations and overestimation of the elements of the territorial cohesion: social
Unilateral orientation on automotive industry,
self-regulative function of the market cohesion based on the common values,
dependence on foreign markets, limited effects
mechanism and with underdeveloped system of solidarity and local feeling of togetherness,
of state incentives have shaken the Slovak
public control and public intervention proper utilization of territorial capital as well as
economy. Due to the limited ownership of state,
instruments and mechanisms. The combination ethical aspects of planning got into the spotlight
the opportunities for state intervention and
of this gap with protectionism, absence of of the scientific discourse. Focus on integrated
reactions on crisis are undermined. As
natural control mechanisms like ethic principles policies – complex (spatially, across economic
a secondary effect, we are witnessing stagnation
in business, lack of political culture and of sectors) and in the same time concentrated on
of volumes in real estate market and
public sensitivity against political failures led to efficient solution of respective problems in
questionable future of overpriced highway
many errors in the spatial development, of which respective contexts is essential. Integrative
building PPP projects. There are no new flagship
effects have been multiplied under the situation spatial development balancing the
projects (like Eurovea or Riverpark in the past)
of global crisis. contradictions and disparities is vitally important
ahead and real estate stakeholders are
especially at times when the system is heavily
confronted with new paradigm of consumer Stronger limitations of available financial
challenged/shaken (complex transformation,
behaviour („no more debts“). Social sources in public sector, higher vulnerability of
global crisis). Regional disparities should be
consequences are obvious: dominance of transforming local and regional social and
approached not only as weaknesses and failures
certain branches (automotive cluster) with high economic environment did not allow,
of recent spatial development, but as well as the
volumes of production imposed prevailing particularly in the weak peripheral regions, to
preconditions/opportunities for sustainability
„passive employee“ mentality over absorb the disturbances caused by the outer
(e.g. Camagni (2005) for understanding
„entrepreneurial spirit“. Another drawback is a economic upheavals. The effects of crisis are
territorial cohesion as the territorial dimension of
brain drain within the country (qualified brisant especially there, where the economic
sustainability, reflected in an ordered, resource-
workforce is moving from Eastern Slovakia development is not based on efficient use of
efficient and environmental-friendly spatial
toward the Bratislava and western parts) which sustainable factors of the territorial capital and
distribution of human activities) and versatile
aggravates regional disparities. Some moderate where the phase shifts of necessary structural
competitiveness (see e.g. Giffinger 2005). The
cultural clashes have occurred (rejection of transformation processes in economy and in the
balance between general approach and
Corporate Culture of Korean company KIA by settlement systems structures is too long.
reasonable and sensible differentiation, based
Slovak employees, arising of concrete walls in Absence of clear expressions concerning the
on the serious spatial analyses, is highly
the boundaries between the Roma population perspectives of spatial development in enlarged
essential. New innovative spatial
inhabited urban areas and majority). Lately, EU and position of particular spaces in those
structures/categories are arising: (new spatial-
several municipalities are struggling with perspectives (see e.g. the E.S.D.P) in the
temporal structures, virtual spaces, self-learning
financial break-down. combination with the protectionism in the EU
spatial structures, interactive spaces, intelligent
and contradictory EU sector policies made the
The global financial crisis and overall economic cities and regions etc.). The actors in spatial
positioning of many regions in Slovakia and
decline determined increased competition not development are due to learn new meta-skills
other new EU member states against the
only for the enterprises but for the territorial (Saentti 2001): ability to learn and to forget,
competing regions in the EU and around the
subjects at the communal, regional and national ability to interpret chaos, ability to tolerate
World not easier. The vague definition of the
level as well. Slovak municipalities and regions distinctions, ability to work and communicate in
target quality of territorial cohesion brings again
have to face new situation, in which they occur virtual territories, ability to give vital feedback
the uncertainty and distrust on the site of the
as actors at the global market competing for etc. Only if actively pursuing balanced
communes and regions and lead to the lost of
investments, working places, inhabitants. This development of territory, the concept of
interest on the European spatial development
brought the pressure on spatial planning to react territorial cohesion has the potential to step
debates.
quickly, to look for hidden potentials as the basis ahead toward transformation into the political
for competitive advantages and to offer efficient concept of the EU Territorial Agenda.
solutions lowering the dramatic effects of the CONCLUSIONS
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Towards a More Competitive and Sustainable 3 3
Between Expectations, Disparities and October 2010
spatium 21
SPATIUM International Review UDC 711(497.11)"2010"
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023022V
COLLAPSE OF STRATEGIC THINKING, RESEARCH

AND GOVERNANCE IN SERBIA AND POSSIBLE
ROLE OF THE SPATIAL PLAN OF THE REPUBLIC OF
SERBIA (2010) IN ITS RENEWAL
Miodrag Vujošević1, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Early reforms in Serbia (Yugoslavia) were announced immediately after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. From the beginning
of the 1990s few attempts of the kind announced have taken place, and, altogether, they still remain more or less
uncompleted. To a large extent, this is a result of choices taken by the political and economic elites, in effect without any
broader public dialogue undertaken about the strategic directions, contents and means for the implementation of such
reforms. So far no overall societal consensus on the key strategic issues has been reached whatsoever, and, therefore, the
choices in question have simply been imposed on the society at large by decree. The economic recovery from 2000 onwards,
while fairly dynamic, has still been insufficient, and more or less assumes the form of “growth without development”. Serbia
still keeps one of the most dissipating and non-sustainable economies, social services and spatial development patterns in
Europe. Its “post-socialist Argonautics” has been facing a number of difficulties, also exacerbated by a lack of adequate
institutional and organizational adjustments, as well as by a lack of proper cognitive and heuristic support. The spatial and
environmental planning practice represents a mixture of old habits and substandard approaches, with only some new
initiatives. There have been few attempts to redirect the improper development path, however, which have so far either failed
of been uncompleted, mostly reflecting the collapse an overall collapse of strategic thinking, research and governance in this
country.
Key words: postsocialist Argonautics, institutional adjustments, collapse of strategic thinking, research and governance,
planning in crisis, national spatial plan, territorial capital, Europeanization of Serbia outside the EU
INTRODUCTORY NOTES 1 successful, resulting in a number of negative and governance system and practice. Then,
developments, which have been pointed to by the intentions and contents of the two
Following the institutional and economic many independent commentators in the strategic spatial plans, one from the mid-
crisis of the former Yugoslavia (Socialist country and abroad much before the 1990s, and another from this year (2010),
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) in the 1980s, appearance of the global crisis towards the have been discussed, respectively, and
its dissolution at the beginning of 1990s and end of 2008. Now, Serbia is still in a deep compared. The paper concludes with an
subsequent economic and social collapse economic, social and political crisis, and no estimate of the predictable outcomes and
during the international isolation and appropriate “exit strategy” has been prepared imminent development prospects of Serbia.2
sanctions, Serbia (first within the Federal so far to serve as a long term solution. To a
Republic of Yugoslavia, then as a part of large part, this crisis has resulted from the
Serbia and Montenegro, and as from recently concomitant collapse of strategic thinking,
as the Republic of Serbia) has been going research and governance, which has been
through a number of ups and downs over two manifested in many ways.
decades of the postsocialist transition.
Especially, the course of adjustments after In this contribution, first a brief account of the
2
2000 proved improper and only partly score of institutional, economic, social and The paper is prepared as a part of the scientific project
spatio-ecological (environmental) adjust- TR 16013 “Approach and concept for compilation and
implementation of Strategy of Spatial Development of
1
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd
ments in recent decade or so is given,
Serbia", financed by the Republic of Serbia Ministry of
[email protected] followed by a short presentation of planning Science and Technological Development.
22 spatium
Vujošević M.: Collapse of strategic thinking, research and governance in Serbia and possible role of the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia (2010)...
THE SCORE OF INSTITUTIONAL large, and agreed upon by all key elements of largest social and regional disparities in
AND DEVELOPMENT society, the reform projects have been Europe, paralleled by enormous social
imposed by decree by the political and polarization, extreme spatial disorder and
ADJUSTMENTS OF THE
economic elites (this also applies to the steps enormous illegal construction, extremely
POSTSOCIALIST TRANSITION undertaken from 2000 onwards) and basically dissipative patterns of production,
REFORMS IN SERBIA supported by the key international actors.2) consumption and energy utilization, and so on,
Serbia has been through much turmoil over the despite enormous foreign resources, all the
• The entire reform project is basically non-
last three decades. As a result, the country has pro-growth rhetoric, booster imagery, and
equitable/unjust, as it has been directed and
now for quite time been in a deep social, various give-away packages of incentives for
performed as a grand redistribution of assets,
political and economic crisis, also reflected in the business, financial and commercial
incomes, existential chances, etc., and often so
a number of spatio-ecological (environmental) through various forms of merciless robbery of sectors.3)
problems. More than 20 years after the fall of deprived social groups.3) For example, in • Apart from that, there has been only a weak
the Berlin Wall, Serbia still finds itself in a Vujošević, Zeković, Maričić (2009: 23), the correspondence between the dominant
post-socialist proto-democracy (“post- entire Serbian postsocialist Argonautics was European development trends (at least in the
socialist proto-capitalist laissez-faire”, “wild depicted as “Post-socialist transition in Serbia: majority of the EU countries) and the
postsocialist capitalism”, etc.),1) yet with only poor premises, great hopes, false promises, development involution of Serbia (for more
rudimentary developed institutions of and bleak futures” . details on this important issues cf. Vujošević,
representative democracy, civil society and a 2007, and Vujošević, 2009).
• There has been a dominance of new-old
market economy. On the one hand, the better
ideological and political mantras in this period, In sum, entire territorial capital of Serbia,
parts of the former self-management system of
viz., liberalization, destation, marketization, that is, social, institutional, economic,
the past ideological and political monopoly
stabilization, etc., paralleled by a “growth cultural, and so forth, has been endangered for
have been abandoned and almost forgotten,
without development”, as an outcome of a some time now. In fact, this capital has been
most prominently, for example, the practices of
hegemony of domicile neo-liberal gurus, mostly utilized in a number of suboptimal
territorial and work participation. On the other,
seconded by mostly second- and third-grade ways, as compared to its potential, and,
its bad parts, e.g., paternalism, manipulation,
foreign experts, and concomitantly poor role of furthermore, there will predictably be even
clientism, and so forth have been kept, due to
independent expertise. more difficulties in its activation in the future
the retrogressive and unfortunate events of the
(for detailed discussion of this topic see
1990s. Serbia has been developing as a • Until recently, the new-old elites have been
Vujošević, Zeković, Maričić, 2010, and
“hybrid” society (for a more detailed demonstrating mostly anti-development and
Vujošević, Zeković, Maričić, 2009).
discussion on this se Golubović, 2006). While anti-planning stance of, paralleled by an
one should not overlook the occasional traits of aversion to any form of societal constructivism, In cognitive and heuristic terms, there has
“enlightened political will” in some reform mobilization and learning other than Hayek’s been a serious lack of proper expertise for
efforts (which is a prerequisite for political katalaxia (i.e., the free interplay of independent controlling and carrying out the developmental
legitimacy), still, all of the reform steps that market agents/actors). and related matters in the era of postsocialist
have been attempted from the beginning of In developmental terms, the following transition, this being with no earlier
1990s have suffered from a lack of legitimacy. trends of the mentioned “economic growth precedence in this and all other key aspects
without development” are of most relevance (for more details regarding this issue cf.
In sum, three decades seem to have been lost
here (for more details cf. Vujošević, 2007, and Vujošević, 2004).
after the ideological turmoil and socio-
economic stagnation of 1980s, the auto- Vujošević and Spasić, 2007):
destruction and other miss-events of 1990s, THE COLLAPSE OF PLANNING AND
• Serbia has now been developing as a
and poor political legitimacy of the post- GOVERNANCE SYSTEM AND
political, economic and financial (semi)colony,
socialist reforms after 2000, mostly decreed loosing its “territorial capital” and becoming a PRACTICE
upon the society at large, Serbia has now part of the “inner peripheries of Europe”, with As in almost all ex-socialist countries, in
found itself in deep crisis. Now, after all, the primitive forms of consumerism spreading and Serbia a radical change has taken place in the
emancipatory and modernizing potential of dominating the public scene, stimulated by the formerly established balance within the state
Serbia elites is questioned and dispute again, government and key economic actors. In sum, (power) - market - planning - privatization
summarized in a dilemma: “Is there a third it is a weak, land-locked country with ill- quadrangle as from the very beginning of the
beginning for the Serbian society and its defined boundaries. post-socialist transition. A new balance has
elites?”
• Serbia belongs to the group of the least therefore been searched for, thus influencing
Especially, the postsocialist transition reforms, developed European countries with regard to entire system and practice of development
which have been undertaken since 2000, are the GDP per capita, HDI, unemployment, living planning policy. However, such a balance has
now found unfinished and at the same time standard, poverty4), demographic recession, not been reached so far, due to a variety of
carrying a number of negative outcomes. In enormous foreign debt, the highest rate of reasons, both political and professional. In
socio - political terms, the key deindustrialization among all ex-socialist sum, the planning system and practice in
characteristics of the transformation in countries (ESCs), extremely poor technical Serbia suffers from the so-called “democratic
question read as follows .(based on Vidojević, infrastructure, poor competitiveness, deficit” syndrome, as well as from its
2000, and Vujošević, Spasić, 2007a): disproportionably high pollution, as compared inefficiency (for more details cf. Vujošević, N.
to the development level achieved, the lowest Spasić, 2007a).
• The overall legitimacy of reforms is very low:
instead of being discussed in the public at percentage of the GDP for R&D in Europe, the The planning system and practice has grossly
spatium 23
fallen behind the need to introduce a more from recently embarked upon a hectic BDP is expected, from 27.6% (2009) to 65%
strategic mode of development guidance and preparation of enormous number of over the same period.
control and has been characterized by poor development documents at various governance • The decrease of the share of current foreign
planning of legislation for sustainable levels. This has brought us to somehow deficit in the GDP is predicted, from 7.1% to
development and poor institutional and schizophrenic situation: some 80 strategies or 3.3%.
organizational arrangements, by a new group of similar documents,7) which have been
past and new “institutional Zombies”, by the elaborated since 2000, did not contribute to • Average annual growth rate of industry should
dominance of manipulation and “systematic the veritable socio-economic and spatio- reach 6.9%.
and organized mobilization of interests and ecological transformation and evolution of • The increase of gross investments is also
bias,” by slowly emerging “coalitions for Serbian society. Instead, they “contributed” to expected, from 4.9 billion euros (2009) to 15
sustainable development,” and by a poorly its social, economic and ecological billion euros (2020), out of which 2.3 billion
developed civil society with weak influence in “involution”, visible to a number of euros of FDI per year (from 800 million in
planning matters. The current development independent commentators and pointed much 2009).
policy is in essence composed of a number of prior to the occurrence of global crisis in 2008.
large development projects and programmes, It this “methodological void” that is particularly TWO ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH A
uncoordinated and non-harmonized, whereas a indicative of the collapse of strategic thinking, COMMON SPATIO-ECOLOGICAL
more consistent and coherent strategic planning and governance in Serbia. Namely, it
FRAMEWORK FOR THE
framework resembling the German Steurung is is indicative that not a single document of the
missing so far. Instead of strategic governance, kind predicted the global crisis, thereby still INTEGRATION AND COORDINATION
chaotic decision-making predominates, leaving Serbia without an “exit strategy”. OF VARIOUS DEVELOPMENT
encompassing a strange combination of POLICIES
elements of the so-called “crisis Following such a “U-turn”, most recently a
new model has been produced and Over the last two decades there have been two
management”, “planning-supporting-
promulgated to cope with the crisis, sponsored attempts to redirect unfavourable course of
privatization-and-marketization” (which is
by the Government of Serbia, and financed by development from the spatio-ecological
especially visible in urban and environmental
the USAID (sic!), Belgrade Office, prepared by (environmental) perspective, with a view to
planning at the local-regulation level), and
a group of the mainstream economists, among establish a common strategic framework for
“project-led planning”. In terms of their
whom there have been some who have been the coordination and integration of various
respective socio-political functions, the
servicing all political regimes as early as from general and specific development policies,
majority of spatial, urban and other
the 1970s onwards in their concomitant viz., Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia
development plans that have been elaborated
development enthusiasm, optimism and (1996, English version, 1997), and Spatial
over the recent period seem to have been
“boosterism”.8) Consequently and Plan of the Republic of Serbia 2010-2014-
following other purposes than those
unfortunately, the new document is but one 2021 (2010).
conventionally attached to the “true” plans,
thereby more emanating from what was new mathematico-statistical simulacrum, In 1996 The Spatial Plan of the Republic of
“beneath the surface”, than through the based on appropriate simulation and Serbia/Prostorni plan republike Srbije was
declared (nominal) values, aims and manipulation, and not veritably rooted in real adopted, in which a large number of basic
objectives, viz. (after Sillince, 1986): 1) economic and social life.9) Once more, we reference points and strategic commitments
Creating confidence among the planning/ have witnessed a set of “phantom” targets, and general goals were set up, viz. (English
development society. 2) Providing symbolic defined by the economists in question, version, 9-12):12)
reassurance. 3) (Mere) countering of basically not rooted in the economic reality,
criticisms. 4) Simple monitoring of planning but a newest feigned one.10) • A higher degree of functional integration of
decisions implementation. 5) Instigating and Serbia's space.
In that respect, the new model keeps safe a
generating commitment of others. 6) Back methodological rule, that has been tried out by • A considerably greater communication and
covering. 7) Bidding for resources at various the mainstream economist on many occasions, economic links between Serbia and its
governance levels and with some foreign that is, what we depict here as an neighbouring and other European countries.
actors. 8) “Making everything legal and above- “extrapolation of the non-existing, forecasting • Lessening regional disproportions (a more
board”. 9) Establishing an arena for debate and the impossible”, viz.:11) balanced regional development), based on the
broader development planning discourse; etc.
• In ten years, an increase of 430,000 new jobs development of a number of regional centres
In sum, the role of planning has been reduced is expected. for pertinent functional (gravitational) areas,
to a “junior partner of market” within the designed with the aim to rationalize
• BDP per capita should reach 8,000 €, GDP management and organization of public
emerging institutional arrangements, and the
52.7 billion €, at assumed average annual services and efficient coordination of local
entire planning profession to a “residual
growth rate of 5.8%. community activities.
factor”. So far planning has only occasionally
served the causes of democratic pluralism and • The share of investments in the GDP should • Improvement of the quality of life in macro
participative democracy.6) increase to 25% (2015), and 28% (2020), from and regional centres, supported by the
the current 15%. incentives for the development of small towns.
Now, having been slowly departing from the
initial neoliberal political and ideological • Decrease of consumption in the GDP is • Introducing in effective way the principle of
mantras, paralleled by the mentioned anti- stipulated for, from 92.5% (2009), to 81% in polycentric development.
planning and anti-development stance, the 2020.
• The development of rural settlements and
political authorities and the “reformers” as • The increase of the share of exports in the
24 spatium
areas as multifunctional production, social and of the country, slow pace of transition reforms, forth. Particularly, much room has been
cultural entities. the NATO bombardment of the country in the devoted to the strategic planning control of the
• Improvement of attractiveness of the zones sprig 1999, etc. As a result, only few elements so-called “Serbian spatial banana”, that is, the
with considerable development potential, in of the Plan have been realised, and even those area of concentration and polarization of a large
order to selectively relocate some economic more resulting from the non-coordinated portion of population and economic and social
activities and population. activities of some individual actors, than as an activities in the relatively small metropolitan
outcome of some well organized, programmed area of Belgrade and Novi Sad, a pendant of
• Priority development of insufficiently and systematic efforts of key institutional the European “blue banana”.20)
developed hilly, mountainous and border actors. Furthermore, contrary to its intentions,
areas. • Deterred in no way by the current miserable
the Plan has only occasionally served as the
development conditions, or even worse
• Introducing rigorous locational, technical, key strategic (referent) framework for
development prospects of Serbia under the
techno-economic and environmental criteria in integrating development documents that have
predictably prolonged international and
the investment-decision procedures. been adopted in the sequel at various
national crisis, the authors of the new Plan
governance levels, which particularly applied
• Careful management, rational use and (2010: 25) envisage the following “long term
to the period after 2000.16) vision of the spatial development of Serbia”,
protection of natural resources, and
concomitant protection of natural and cultural In many respects the new Plan (Spatial Plan of imbued with further “boosterism” of the kind –
heritage. the Republic of Serbia 2010-2014-2021, “…Serbia…defined in territorial terms,
Draft/Nacrt prostornog plana Republike Srbije balanced in regional terms, comprising
• Priority protection for the best-preserved
2010-2014-2021, februar 2010)17) has sustainable and competitive economic growth,
ecological areas, as well as of those areas with
replicated the ambitions, approach and socially coherent and stable, equipped in
best prospects for sustainable development.
structure of the former Plan (1996/1997). In a infrastructural terms of good transport
• Providing the timely reservation of space in way which is quite similar to that of the Plan accessibility, with conserved/preserved and
the corridors of technical infrastructure. from 1996, the new Plan (2010) has protected natural and cultural heritage, and
• Combating illegal construction and non- demonstrated an ambition to be “more than a environment of high quality, and integrated in
planned utilization of space, etc.13) mere spatial/physical plan” at the functional terms in the broader regional
national/state level, that is, to instigate and environment.”
In more spatial (“physical”) terms, a number of
introduce a number of measures targeted at • As compared to the previous Plan (1996), the
development axes of various ranks (I-III) have
broader reform of systems, approaches and new document has more dwelled on the spatial
also been designated.
practices in the sphere of sustainable spatial development scenarios (at least nominally).
Also, a very elaborate system of planning and governance, as well as in the Without any more detailed and substantiated
implementation measures and support was system of regional planning, organisation and corroboration (and analysis of the respective
stipulated at the very end of this document, to governance.18) Also, both documents insist, at pros and cons either), two basic scenarios
be elaborated in detail in the sequel via a least intentionally, on proper implementation of have been defined (31-32), i.e., “scenario of
particular implementation programme, which, the key sustainable spatial development recessive growth with the elements of crisis
however, did not happen. propositions, via a particular implementation management” (“predictably not to last more
programme elaborated after the adoption of the than 3-4 years”), and “scenario of sustainable
Although there has been neither systematic
Plan. Finally, analogously to the former Plan, spatial development”, to emulate the above
monitoring nor ex post evaluation of the
this new document defines an enormous defined vision and subsumed key strategic
implementation of the Spatial Plan of the
number of various propositions, belonging to goals in the sectors comprised by the Plan.
Republic of Serbia (1996/1997), even a
different categories (altogether, many Within the latter, a number of reform steps
fragmented evidence of the kind indicate that
hundreds), which will most certainly prove have been stipulated with regard to the
the majority of its provisions have not been
unmanageable vis-à-vis the poorly developed following “frameworks”: legal and institutional;
implemented. An exception to this relates to
planning culture and capacity – as was the market, economic and development; macro
the preparation of spatial plans at lower
case with the former Plan.19) However, there economic; demographic; social; ecological;
planning levels, which progressed fairly in
has also been a number of differences between and spatial-urban. This scenario contemplates
recent years, albeit not at the pace stipulated
the two documents, out of which the most four specific sub-scenarios (“variants”), viz.:
by the Plan, as well as an indirect
notable for our interest here are as follows: “negative economic growth and disintegrated
implementation of some of its propositions via
spatial and urban plans at sub-national spatial system” (1); “negative economic
• In the new Plan more room has been opened
governance/planning levels, the key reason growth and integrated and partially regulated
for rather more recent categories from the
being a lack of effective political will to define spatial system” (2); “positive economic growth
European planning discourse, viz., “territorial
workable implementation devices.14) (for more and disintegrated and partially regulated spatial
cohesion”, “spatial banana” (here: “Serbian
details cf. Vujošević, Petovar, 2002; and system” (3); and “positive economic growth
spatial banana”, that is, the broader
and integrated spatial system” (4), all under
Vujošević, Spasić, 2007).15) metropolitan area of Belgrade and Novi Sad),
different assumptions regarding the pace of
“social inclusion”, “territorial capital” (here: of
Apart from the lack of effective political will to intensity of the integration of Serbia into the
Serbia), “European gateway cities”, “
make it implemented (illustrated, e.g., by the European Union.
knowledge based economy and society”, “the
missing of a programme for its implemen- • Already at hits point of time, an elaborate list
role of European Corridors” (here: particularly
tation), a number of unfavourable miss-events of indicators has been defined, for the
VII and X), “urban-rural cooperation”,
also prevented its implementation, viz.: monitoring and ex post evaluation of the key
“territorial-regional decentralization”, “spatial
prolonged international sanctions and isolation strategic propositions of the Plan.
integration of the territory of Serbia”, and so
spatium 25
• The key comparable aspect pertains to the most recent Spatial Plan of the Republic of elites, and for the entire society as well, in its
broader contextual factors that influence the Serbia 2010-2014-2021. Both have been very post-socialist Argonautics (a “long voyage of
implementation of the new Plan (2010). They ambitious efforts to establish a common Serbia to Europe”), paralleled by a “search for
are in many respects different as compared to strategic development framework for various a new Kolchida”, encounters problems that
those pertaining to the implementation of the general and sectoral development and related even more complex than those from the 1990s.
former Plan (1997). However, regarding the policies, otherwise lacking (1), to renew the Once more time, the emancipatory and
effective manoeuvring space of the planning collapsed strategic thinking, research and modernizing potential of Serbian elites has
authorities at various governance level, this has governance (2), and to introduce new been questioned. The country is now facing a
even narrowed in three key aspects: first, development policy approach (3). The former “Europeanization of Serbia outside the EU and
misbalances are worse, the macroeconomic plan has been poorly implemented, for two key with its limited support”, under predictably
situation is worse, and the foreign debt has group of reasons: first, a number of miss- prolonged overall crisis, and a narrowed
reached a multi-ten billion of euros mark21) – events as from mid-1990s which prevented its manoeuvring space for interventions of the
altogether crippling the effective capacity to implementation, and second, a lack of public sector aimed at social, economic and
introduce more redistributive policies, which appropriate political will to define proper territorial redistribution. There is no doubt that
are however an imperative (a must) vis-à-vis implementation mechanism and devices. the prospects to be developing as a “civil
ever enlarging territorial misbalances and Albeit the latter plan has not been adopted so society” via model of a complex social,
social differentiation and polarization…And far, the prospects for its implementation are economic and spatio-ecological
this brings us to the concluding comments, similarly open, now for the reasons that are (“environmental”) transformation are rather
which has in essence to do with the key issue, somehow analogous to the earlier ones, and weak – which is at the very basis of the most
i.e., that of the real transformative and specific and new as well. On the one hand, recent national spatial plan – especially under
modernizing capacity of Serbian elites, which general development prospects for Serbia are the circumstances of pending bankruptcy. In
has been opened and disputed for a longer rather bleak, also encompassing ever narrower that respect, in M. Vujošević (2007b), we
period now. This issue will be particularly manoeuvring space for the planning authorities depicted the existing situation and the
reflected under the predictable circumstances to introduce more redistributive policies (in imminent development prospects in the
of a prolonged “Europeanization of Serbia economic, social and territorial terms). On the following way: ‘The Serbian elites are
outside the European Union and with its limited other, also on this occasion the effective confused…In its “post-socialist Argonautics”,
assistance”. Also, the current and pending political will to define and deploy appropriate Serbia faces a number of crucial questions –
budget deficit management, dictated by the implementation instruments is still to be Where is the new Kolchida to be found now and
IMF, will certainly influence the demonstrated. To a large extent, this has to do where to search for a new Golden fleece –
implementation of the Plan in a negative way. with a necessity for political and economic prospecting for it in the West, or in the East, or
elites of Serbia to radically change their credo somewhere in the ex-Third World, or within the
• Ultimately, there has been the utmost limit to
which has been practiced for two decades now, “Club of Porto Allegro” or elsewhere? – still
the Plan’s implementation, namely, that
namely, that of pro domo sua.23) In parallel, the unanswered. The potential of its human capital,
stemming from a predominant compart-
elites should also demonstrate appropriate with its enormous illiteracy, “poor education
mentalization of development policies in
competence and modernizing and for Europe”, and “poor education for
Serbia. The work of ministries is extremely
emancipatory capacity, which was basically sustainability”, is questionable. The “new
competing and uncoordinated, as being mostly
lacking over the entire last period, vis-à-vis the Jasons” of the post-socialist Argonautics have
managed under the auspices of political parties
development problems and challenges and been facing a different sort of conundrum, that
as their “feuds”, under the circumstances of
conundrums the society has been facing, also is, how to “rebuild the ship at sea” while
prevailing “partitocracy”,22) as the current state
since 2000. Namely, after 2000, Serbia avoiding its sinking? Do they enjoy the ultimate
of political governance of Serbia is depicted by
experienced dynamic nominal economic support of the Gods? Do the activities taking
the majority of most authoritative
growth of ca. 5% annually, but with slow place on the “boat” Argo-Serbia (e.g.,
commentators. Under such circumstances, it is
recovery and the so-called “eco-eco” diligently rowing , grumbling commons, the
difficult to expect that new Plan will act as
(economic and ecological) restructuring of its bad reputation of Karl Marx and his comrades,
strategic synthesis of particular frameworks
real economy. The general trend has been etc.) work in favour of positive outcomes?’24)
and concepts, now integrated within a common
depicted as a “growth without development”,
strategic framework, i.e., combining both There is a number of preconditions which are
despite all the pro-growth rhetoric, booster
spatio-ecological (environmental) proper, and needed to depart from the existing substandard
imagery, and various give-away packages of
broader development concerns. This brings us and inferior practices, towards a more
incentives for the business, financial and
to the concluding part of this paper, where the enlightened political will that is needed now:
commercial sectors. The nominal growth has
issue of the role of Serbian elites under the
been absorbed by the imports and supporting • The will to establish wide societal dialogue
predictably bleak development prospects is
sectors (trade, finance, insurance, transport and to reach general consensus on the key
briefly commented.
and freight servicing, etc.), thereby piling up development problems and prospects.
enormous foreign debt. Nov, Serbia has been
CONCLUDING REMARKS • The will to provide all necessary
developing as an economic and ecological
preconditions for preparing and passing of
There have been only few attempts to redirect (semi) colony, with primitive forms of
both democratic and relevant development
the wrong economic growth and development consumerism spreading and dominating the
decisions.
path that took place in Serbia since the end of public scene, basically stimulated by the
1980s/beginning of 1990s, most notable being government and key economic actors. • The will to make sure that all needed
two national/state spatial plans, the Spatial implementation devices, policies and support
Consequently, this “third” beginning for the are also provided. So far, in terms of spatial
Plan of the Republic of Serbia (1996), and the
26 spatium
and urban development planning at the Srbija. Uvodno izlaganje, V-VII., u U potrazi za international review, No 10, pp. 12-18
national (state) level, the attempts of the Srbijom. Knjiga u novinama, I-XL, Međunarodna Vujošević, M., Zeković, S. Maričić, T. (2010)
professional planners to that end have grossly konferencija u organizaciji Fondacije Hajnrih Bel, Postsocijalisitčka tranzicija u Srbiji i teritorijalni
failed. Republika, 1.11-31.12. 2006. kapital Srbije. Stanje, neki budući izgledi i
However, we also point to the necessity for a Lazić, M. (2010) Zašto je Miloševiću bio potreban predvidljivi scenariji, Institut za arhitekturu i
more constructive role of Brussels in građanski rat. Lični stav - Postsocijalistička urbanizam Srbije, Beograd
transformacija u Srbiji”, Danas, 14/10/2010 .
supporting pro-European actors in the country. Vujošević, M., Zeković, S., Maričić, T. (2009)
The critics of both the inadequate decisions of Mihailović, S. (2010) Živeo život tranzicioni Jovan Undermined territorial capital of Serbia, some
Serbian political and economic leaders, and Jovanović. Dvadeset godina tranzicije u Srbiji: future prospects and predictable scenarios,
those of the EU bureaucrats and political Uvod u nalaze istraživanja Kako građani Srbije vide International Scientific Conference “Regional
apparatchiki highlight a number of pertinent tranziciju iz socijalizma u kapitalizam, Danas, 2. 10. Development, Spatial Planning and Strategic
2010. Governance”, Thematic Conference, Proceedings,
issues. Particularly, they point out the
Просторни план Републике Србије 2010-2014- Volume I, , IAUS, Belgrade, December 2009. pp.
necessity to consult more actors on the key
2021 (Нацрт)/Spatial Plan of the Republic of 21-52
Serbian issues beyond the political interface
Serbia, Draft, (2010) Министарство животне Vujošević, M., Spasić, N. (2007a) Transition
between Brussels and Belgrade.25)
средине и просторног планирања, Републичка Changes and Their Impact on Sustainable Spatial,
There are, however, a number of imperatives агенција за просторно планирање, Београд, Urban and Rural Development of Serbia, in
that should be realized on the internal фебруар 2010. Sustainable Development of Towns in Serbia,
(Serbian) political and planning scene. In the Просторни план Републике Србије, Службени Institute of Architecture and Urban&Regional
first place, a radical departure is needed from гласник, Београд, 1996. (English version: Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, pp. 1-45.
the dominating partisanship and the so-called Plan of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade, 1997) Vujošević, M., Spasić, N. (2007b) Pristup izradi
“systematic and organized mobilization of Sillince, J. (1986) A Theory of Planning, Gower, Strategije prostornog razvoja Republike Srbije,
interests and bias” on the public scene at Aldershot uloga Strategije i osnovni elementi strukture i
large, in order to better follow contemporary Slavujević, Z (2010) Institucije političkog sistema – sadržaja, u Nacionalni ekspertski sastanak: ka
European practices. We still assume that key bez lokomotive promena, Danas, 26. oktobra Strategiji prostornog i urbanog razvoja Republike
progress can be expected from engaging more Srbije, Zbornik naučnih radova, Republička agencija
Vidojević, Z. (2010) Demokratija na zalasku. za prostorno planiranje Republike Srbije,
independent and unbiased expertise during the Autoritarno-totalitarna pretnja, Службени
preparation and passing of the key planning Ministarstvo za kapitalne investicije Republike
гласник, Institut društvenih nauka, Beograd Srbije, Beograd, pp 38-48.
decisions. This implies that many new forms
Vujošević, M. (2009a) Serbia’s long voyage to Вујошевић, М. Спасић, Н. (2007) Искуства из
of professional and political communication
Europe. Spatial and environmental planning примене Просторног плана Републике Србије
and interaction should be established. Of the system and practice and an urge for institutional (1996) и поуке за припремање Стратегије
utmost importance is the establishment of firm and organizational adjustments”, in, P. Palavestra одрживог просторног и урбаног развоја Србије
professional rules against widespread (ed.), Proceedings from the IV Swedish-Serbian (2008), Aрхитектура и урбанизам, 20/21-2007,
intellectual and other corruption in spatial, Symposium “Stockholm-Belgrade. Sustainable pp. 112-125.
urban and environmental planning, and the Development and the Role of Humanistic Vujošević, M., Petovar, K. (2002) Implementacija
provision of better expertise in this field. Disciplines”, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Prostornog plana Republike Srbije u uslovima
Finally, radically better education is needed on Arts, Academic Conferences, Volume CXXVI, tranzicionih promena – Predlog za prilagođavanje
sustainable development and related matters Department of Language and Literature, Book 21, pristupa, metodologije i sadržaja, Grupa autora,
within the academia. In parallel, there has for a Belgrade,. pp. 49-59, Prilog unapređenju teorije i prakse planiranja i
long time now been an imperative to establish Vujošević, M. (2009b) The Development Reality of implementacije, Institut za arhitekturu i urbanizam
a clear demarcation of responsibility among Serbia and the New Generation of European Srbije, Beograd, pp. 99-116
institutional actors, with a view to prevent Sustainable Development Documents: the
various conflict of interests, especially of statal Problem of Correspondence, in M. Bajić Brković
and parastatal institutions and organizations (ed.), Innovation and Creative Spaces in 1) Some authors, e.g., Vidojević (2010), emphasizes
vis-à-vis professional organizations proper, Sustainable Cities, HOLCIM, Belgrade, p. 98-123, that the most proper definition of this era should read
“postrealsocialism” (54). The same author especially
which particularly applies to the strategic Vujošević, M. (2008) Implementacija Prostornog points to the “...state of a degenerative crisis”, as the
planning. Finally, radically better education is plana Republike Srbije (1996): iskustva i pouke za most proper description of Serbian society (11).
needed on sustainable development and pripremanje Strategije prostornog razvoja
2) According to Mihailović (2010), reporting on the
related matters within the academia. Republike Srbije, Institut za arhitekturu i perception of and average Serbian citizen on the
urbanizam Srbije, Beograd. score of transition reforms in Serbia in the last 20
References Vujošević, M. (2007) The New Generation of years, the “image” of the so far implemented
European Sustainable Development Documents privatization model has particularly been non-
Anker, A. (1998) The Spatial Plan of the Republic of favorable among in the public at large: 44%
and Strategic Development Schemes of Serbia
Serbia, EUREG, European Journal of Regional interviewed citizens find that the applied model has
and Montenegro. The problem of been a “mere robbery”, another 27% understand it
Development, 7, pp. 65-66.
correspondence’, in P. Getimis and G. Kafkalas “necessary, but implemented in a wrong way”, 26%
Goler, D. (2005) South-East Europe as European (eds.), Overcoming Fragmentation in still cannot estimate fully its relevance and results,
Periphery? Empirical and Theoretical Aspects, in Southeastern Europe: Prospects for Spatial and only 3% support it in the existing form. Many
Serbia and Modern Processes in Europe and the Cohesion, Ashgate, Aldershot. pp. 191-233 authoritative commentators depict the main course of
World, The Faculty of Geography, University of reforms in the same way, e.g., Z. Vidojević (2010:
Vujošević M. (2004) The Search for a New
Belgrade, Belgrade, pp. 137-142, 239): “…privatization…as legalized robbery of a
Development Planning/Policy Mode: Problems of major part of societal wealth”, that has produced an
Golubović, Z. (2006) Kuda ide postoktobarska Expertise in the Transition Period’, SPATIUM enormous “human surplus/waste” (op. cit.: 249).
spatium 27
3) According to Lazić (2010), professor of sociology at more than 210 euro per household member monthly. 2020”, Vlada Republike Srbije, oktobar 2020. Serbia
the Faculty of Philosoph, University of Belgrade, the Some 83% of the total populations of Serbia consider (former Yugoslavia) has now been living already a
postsocialist transformation in Serbia (Yugoslavia), poverty and unemployment as the most important long history of various reforms. In recent 20 or so
and formation of the (new) capitalist order, since the issues. years, the most famous among them were two: first,
beginning of 1990s took place primarily as a 5) The development collapse took place as a “natural led by the last prime minister of the SFRY Ante
redistribution of the existing wealth, instead of a outcome” of some government decisions, viz: in a Marković (1989/1990), and second, designed by the
generation of new wealth: “The capitalist class in semi-official paper/programme (2002/2003) of the governer of the National Bank of the FRJ Dragoslav
postsocialism has been formed primarily as the result Government of Serbia, which was neither disclosed to Avramović (1994), both failed to be implemented.
of the redistribution of the already existing societal the wider public, nor discussed in the public at large, 10) To remind, according to Joseph Stiglitz, a good
wealth (that is, by its appropriation), and not by the for the coming period as the priority was defined the programme of the kind should comprise a set of
generation and accumulation of new wealth.” Thus we growth of services and supporting activites. In the measures, which (here reframed and slightly
had a “capitalism without capitalists”, in which the real sector, only a part of technical infrastructure, and reformulated): 1) Will be instantly implemented, and
old-new capital was grabbed up through a number of agriculture, were put to the front. have fast effectuation, both in the first period and over
social clashes, and a number of wars in some of the the long term. 2) Are focused on the key short term
6) To note, in Yugoslavia first efforts to constitute spatial
former Yugoslav republics. This is seen by the author problems, with the view to solve long term (strategic)
as the key tenet of the so-called Milošević’s era and planning as a trans-engineering discipline took place
in the second half of 1950s (which has now been problems. 3) Are focused on the investment side of
its regime. Author also insists that, in parallel to the the implementation devices and support. 4) Remove
Serbian newly constituted political and economic neglected and almost nullified in Serbia, especially
by the spatial and urban planning legislation of 2003 the deficiencies in those sectors in which the largest
elites (new-old “nomenclatura”), a number of number of jobs have been lost. 5) Is based on
influential actors played a decissive role in defining and 2009). In 1960s and 1970s this trend was
strengthened by introducing new legislation and societal consensus, and carrying overall social and
such a direction of events. political responsibility.
institutionalization of integral planning, with a view to
4) It should be emphasized here that official appraisals harmonize social, spatial and economic development 11) It would also be interested here to point to a
of poverty seem to have largely underestimated the (“cohesion”). At the time, Yugoslavia was found hypocrisy of the authors, who, instead of clearly
depth and broadness of this phenomenon. By official among the “planned-most and the most- explicating that the “transformation” after the model
presentation, in the first half of 2010. the number of decentralized country in the world”, however, with a applied especially since 2000 has resulted in a
citizens beyond the poverty line increased for another highly hypertrophied planning system and planning, destruction of economy and society, heading,
100,000, thereby, measured by the official statistics, followed by the crisis of “socialist self-management according to some predictions, ultimate catastrophe,
reached 8.8% of the total population, i.e., ca. planning” (1980s). As from the beginning of 1990s a still keep to the formulation that “...the existing model
650,000 persons. This is sharp contrast to the sort of professional autism started to dominate the exhausted its potential.”
equivalent estimate for the European Union, namely, planning scene, viz.: economism (in economic 12) At the time, Serbia (then, a part of the Federal
marked at some 17% of its total population (average), planning), ecologism (in environmental protection
ranking from the lowest 11% (Netherlands and Republic of Yugoslavia) was first among the
policy), and physicalism (in spatial and urban postsocialist countries that have had a newly
Slovakia) to the highest 23% (Romania). In recent 10 planning), rendering planning as a junior partner of
or so years the threshold of absolute poverty prepared and adopted national/state spatial plan. This
market. After 2000, there have been faint efforts to author has presented it at the “Conference on the
oscillated between 8 and 10 euros per day per person depart from “planning-as-crisis-management”,
(“per consumption unit”), i.e., up to 150 euros per European Spatial Development Perspective/ESDP”,
“planning – as - supporting-privatization-and- held in Vienna on November 25-26th, 1998. At the
month. In the Union, the understanding of poverty is marketization”, “planning-led-by-projects”, etc., so
somewhat different, as poverty is understood in same time, the Plan was also commented in one of
far mostly unsuccessful. the leading European journals for regional
relative terms, and not measured vis-à-vis some
7) The development documents in question comprise development planning (cf. Anker, 1998), when the
absolute threshold: those persons with the income
less than 60% of the national average are treated both various sectoral conceptions (e.g., for tourism, problem of its implementation and coordination was
poverty (this percentage varying by states from 40% agriculture, energy, transportation and already pointed to (“...there is a need for further
do 70%), to reflect the concern for the principles of communication, commerce, etc.), and a number of coordination of the proposed concepts over the
equity and social solidarity. If the absolute standards general strategies (viz., general economic medium term with other policies and development
are applied in the Union, two are in question: first, development, information society, sustainable measures”).
five euros per person per day, to reflect the so-called development, employment, foreign investment, 13) According to Vujošević (2007), “…the Plan was a
absolute poverty line; and second, ten euros per regional development, exports, etc.). This also wordy document comprising some 300 various
person per day, to express the relative poverty. The applies to ever growing number of development and propositions, i.e. prospects/perspectives, forecasts/
first threshold gives some 150 euros per person related documents at various sub-national planning prognoses, goals, aims, objectives, targets, policy
monthly, that is, almost double the mark applied in and governance levels, now already reaching many measures, implementation instruments, and so forth,
Serbia. For a comparison, in the USA average annual hundreds of the kind. for mid- and long-term planning period. The majority
income of a four-member family was some 50,000 8) The mainstream economists, in their institutional zeal of those propositions have not been operational zed
US dollars, and ca 22,000 dollars (that is, ca. 1.700 and loyalty to the political regime after 2000, which afterward, i.e., “brought down” to directly
dollars per month) has been defined as the poverty has been inducing both myopia and hypocrisy, would implementable stipulations; the gross of them have
line for a family of that size in recent years. The admit, at most, that the applied transition reforms been expressed in rather glowing terms.” In the
absurdness, as well as the extent of political model exhausted its potential, and never that it has meantime, especially its vague and malleable
manipulation applied in defining such a miserable been initially wrong. In order to not “rock the boat”, notions, viz., “development”, “sustainability”,
threshold (“African”), can only be understood vis-à- i.e., to foreclose the unwanted conclusions about “polycentric development”, “territorial cohesion”,
vis estimates of independent persons, appraising that this, they would never admit that deep development and many other, have been left open to many different
for a decent material life to live, a four-member crisis in Serbia took place as a result of a deep-slated and often disparate interpretations, which by itself
family (households) would necessitate some 600 systemic (structural) flaws in the postsocialist rendered the implementation process very complex
euro per month to cover the basic minimum of a transition model. The global crisis has merely and almost non-manageable. To note, the new Plan
standard “consumer basket”! Also, this sharply accelerated it and made its manifestations more has also been elaborated as a voluminous and
contrasts the more reliable evidence from readily vivid. Thus, the old-new model seems to be a extensive document.
independent sources, according to which some 23% mere rhetorical repackaging of the former, basically 14) For a detailed discussion on this cf. Vujošević,
of the total population of Serbia lived (2005) on the “market” ideas, now slightly redirected to what was Petovar (2002), and Vujošević, Spasić (2007).
household income per capita (that is, per household some 10 years ago understood as heresy, e.g., the
15) The year 2010 was fixed as a long term horizon for
member) less than 35 euro per month, the other 25% imperative to introduce a strategic development
approach, re-industrialisation policy, and similar. the Plan, and even longer periods for conceived for
with the per capita family income of 35-70 euro per
some sectors, mostly those in the sphere of technical
month, some 25% with the per capita family income 9) Cf. “Postkrizni model ekonomskog rasta i razvoja infrastructure.
of 70-140 euro per month, 20% with 140-210 euro Srbije 2011-2020. godine”/”Postcrisis model of
per month, while some 7% of total population spent 16) As we wrote in Vujošević (2008), and Вујошевић,
economic growth and development of Serbia 2011-
28 spatium
Спасић (2008), for a strategic development to confidence to political parties, out of the following
assume the proper societal (social and political) institutional and legal institutions, ranked in
legitimacy, three kinds of political will is needed: descending/negative order: school system, military,
first, the planning authorities should carry out a police, President of Serbia, judiciary, Government of
continuos ex post evaluation of previous decisions, Serbia, trade unions, Parliament, and political parties.
followed by established broad societal dialogue – 23) Already as from the mid-seventieth century, a
and, preferably, consensus – on the key development dictum was posted at the entrance of Dubrovnik City
issues; second, they should provide that high Hall, that is, Obliti privatorum, publica curate!, to
professionalism and the so-called “nonmanipulative always remind the local representatives and
persuasion” rank high among the communicative dignitaries of their public duties.
techniques in the public discourse, as the key
24) In parallel, while the galeati are ever more
instruments by means of which to make a departure
from the “systematic and organized mobilization of grumbling, the Brussels, and Washington, on their
interest and bias”, that dominate the public scene; part, are devotedly following an old rule that “the
and third, to pass, after all, decisions for which powerful always prefer to work with a larger number
implementation proper instruments will be of weak actors, than with a smaller number of strong
appropriately designed. actors,” and have been continually and systematically
working to fragment the Balkan geopolitical space.
17) Following the Strategy of Spatial Development of
25) The process of consultations has for many years
Serbia, which was prepared in 2009, and the broad
public discussion on the first Draft version of the Plan been somehow confined to these circles and kept
(2010), this document has as from recently been put grossly non-transparent to the public at large, both in
to the Parliamentary deliberation (and, hopefully, political and professional terms.
adoption), now, under way.
18) The implementation programme is stipulated to
comprise a number of elements (273-274), in the
first place those on: priority projects (with all
necessary financial and other details regarding
timing, responsible actors, etc.); the criteria and
indicators for monitoring of spatial dynamics and
changes; revision of the so far adopted development
documents at varios governance level; legal
adjustments (from the standpoint of the Plan’s
priorities); guidances for the implementation of the
Plan via other development documents; guidances
regarding strategic development and governance at
regional level; spatio-ecological norms for the Plan’s
implementation; implementation of the Plan under
the circumstances of a prolonged global crisis; 3
priorities of research, institutional and organizational
adjustments; priorities for the elaboration of spatial,
urban and environmental plans/documents; and
indicators for the monitoring and ex post evaluation
of the Plan’s implementation.
19) In terms of its scope, the new Plan has been much
similar to the former one, within the format of a
conventional spatial development strategy/plan at the
state/national level, comprising almost a standard set
of issues.
20) Not only malicious persons would depict this as a
“part of the Archipelago of Balkan banana states”, as
Miroslav Lazanski, commentator of the daily Politika
did recently (October 2010).
21) It would be interesting to point to a curious fact how
the key economists of the former Yugoslavia (Federal
Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia) were ominously
predicting towards the end of 1980s that the ever
enlarging foreign debt of the country might ultimately
put it apart (which effectively happened at the end).
To note, at that time total debt reached some 16
billion US dollars. Now (2010), total foreign debt of
Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia has already exceeded
100 billion US dollars.
22) The preponderance of political parties in the
political life in Serbia has been described in a
number of ways, perhaps the most veritable being
that of “the (terror) of partitocracy”. According to
Slavujević (2010), reporting on the results of a
research on the perception of citizens of Serbia on
the credibility of post-socialist transition to
capitalism, based on the representative sample of
1.800 persons, the citizens carry the lowest 3
Received October 2010; accepted October 2010
spatium 29
SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.455(497.11)
No. 23, October 2010, pp. 30-37 338.48(497.11)
1 502.131.1(497.11)
1 Review paper
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023030M
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE SPATIAL,

LANDSCAPE AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN SERBIA
Marija Maksin1, University Singidunum, Faculty of tourism and hospitality management, Belgrade, Serbia
Saša Milijić, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
The paper presents an overview of the expected role of spatial and environmental planning in coordination and integration with
strategic planning for sustainable spatial/territorial, landscape and tourism development. The application of an integrated
approach to sustainable territorial development planning and management in the European Union is also analyzed in the
context of problems associated with and possibilities to enhance the European Landscape Convention and Agenda for a
sustainable and competitive European tourism implementation. We have analyzed the contributions of reforms that have so far
been implemented in current legislation and of planning bases to the establishment of coordinated sustainable territorial
development planning and management in Serbia and to the procurement of support for the integration of sustainable tourism
development and landscape planning and management into the process of spatial, environmental and sectoral planning. The
approach to and problems of landscape protection and sustainable tourism development occurring in the practice in spatial
planning are analyzed through examples of a new generation of spatial plans – the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, and a
spatial plan of the special-purpose area for the Nature Park and Tourism Region of Stara Planina Mountain. Through the
example of Mt Stara Planina, the role of strategic environmental assessment in coordination with spatial and sectoral planning
is analyzed, as well as potential contribution to landscape integration and sustainable tourism development in the process of
planning. The possibilities for better coordination of Serbian strategic planning in achieving the sustainable spatial and
tourism development, and possibilities to integrate landscapes into the planning process are indicated.
Key words: spatial, sectoral and environmental planning, landscape and sustainable tourism planning, legislation, coordination
and integration of strategic plans, strategic environmental assessment.
institutional block, considered to have a Development Perspective, 1999), TAE

INTRODUCTION 1 coordinating and integrating role in planning (Territorial Agenda of the European Union,
The main idea of this paper is to indicate the and directing the development, have been Towards a More Competitive and Sustainable
possibilities and problems of achieving manifested. Europe of Diverse Regions, 2007), EU SDS (A
sustainable spatial/territorial development by European Union Strategy for Sustainable
There is an ongoing transformation of the
coordinating and integrating the process of Development, 2006), ELC (European Land-
planning system in Serbia along with
strategic planning and development mana- scape Convention, 2000), European Charter for
expectations in acquiring its legitimacy and
gement. In this context, the key problems of Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas
establishing greater efficiency of practice in
the spatial, sectoral and environmental (1995), ASCET (Agenda for a sustainable and
planning and managing the development. The
planning system and practice have been competitive European tourism, 2007), etc.2
planning system and the relevant legislation
discussed, particularly for the areas with will be recognized on the basis of the EU The European Spatial Development Perspective
landscapes and attractive natural and cultural strategic framework, regulations and instru- (ESDP) lists the conservation and wise
heritage, suitable for tourism development. ments. These circumstances represent an management of natural and cultural heritage as
Along with the implementation of the advantage and convenience for the deve- one of the three fundamental objectives of the
sustainable development concept, tendencies lopment of sustainable tourism and landscape
to integrate spatial planning and planning of planning, and their coordination with and 22
integration into the planning system in Serbia. The paper is prepared as a part of the scientific project TR
environmental quality into one form of planning 16013 “Approach and concept for compilation and
and their singling out into a separate The abovementioned standpoint is based on implementation of Strategy of Spatial Development of
some of the numerous EU strategic frameworks Serbia" and TR 16007 “Sustainable Development and
Organization of Spas and Other Tourist Settlements in
1
Danijelova 29, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia
and instruments (Maksin-Mićić et al, 2009), Serbia”, financed by the Republic of Serbia Ministry of
[email protected] primarily the ESDP (European Spatial Science and Technological Development.
30 spatium
Maksin M., Milijić S.: Strategic planning for sustainable spatial, landscape and tourism development in Serbia
European spatial development policy. The and management in the European Union has local and national one. Spatial planning at the
proposed wise management allows for been analyzed and, in this context, problems level of the EU and certain member states still
controlled development of environmentally associated with and possibilities for enhancing does not have enough political and institutional
friendly economic activities, primarily ASCET and ECL implementation were also support in relation to sectoral policies,
sustainable tourism, and gains the support for contemplated. In the second part of the paper, primarily the agrarian and transportation ones.
the protection and strengthening of regional we have analyzed the contributions of reforms In spite of this, spatial planning has been
and local identity and diversity. This document that have so far been implemented in current growing in popularity during the last decade.
also sets out options for the policy of creative legislation and of planning bases to the Efforts invested in strengthening social,
management of cultural landscapes: establishment of coordinated sustainable economic and territorial cohesion in the
(i) inclusion of cultural landscape values in territorial development planning and European Union on the one hand, and different,
integrated space development strategies; management in Serbia and to the procurement often unfavorable, effects of sectoral policies
(ii) improved coordination of development of support for the integration of sustainable on the desired achievement of cohesion and
measures, particularly those having an impact tourism development and landscape planning competitiveness in the European continent on
on landscapes (European Spatial Development and management into the process of spatial, the other hand, have resulted in a need to seek
Perspective, 1999, p. 34). In the European environmental and sectoral planning. The the most suitable instruments for integration of
Landscape Convention, which is undergoing approach to and problems of landscape various aspects and effects of general and
the ratification procedure in Serbia, the most protection and sustainable tourism sectoral policies, as well as for achieving
important responsibilities of countries when it development occurring in practice in spatial sustainable territorial development (Maksin-
comes to integrating landscapes into the planning are analyzed through examples of a Mićić et al, 2009).
system and process of planning are the new generation of spatial plans – the Spatial
Spatial planning is promoted as one of the
following: (i) to recognize landscape by law as Plan of the Republic of Serbia and a spatial
instruments for sustainable development, able
a dominant component of diversity of shared plan for the special-purpose area of the Stara
to offer an integral view of the future
natural and cultural heritage and their identity Planina Nature Park and Tourism Region.
development of a territory. The assumed
basis; (ii) landscape integration into regional Through the example of Mt Stara Planina, the
capacity of spatial planning is based on its
and urban planning, as well as sectoral and role of strategic environmental assessment in
spatial dimension and the capacity for
other policies having direct or indirect impact coordination with spatial and sectoral planning
coordination and integration of various
on landscape; (iii) to define and assess is analyzed, as well as its potential contribution
policies, starting from economic development,
landscapes on the country’s territory; and to landscape integration and sustainable
transportation and environmental protection to
(iv) to establish procedures for the tourism development to the process of
cultural and landscape policies. The major
participation of the broader public, local and planning.
goals of spatial planning are to plan
regional authorities, as well as other
The possibilities for better coordination of sustainable territorial development as an
stakeholders with an interest in the definition
Serbian strategic planning in achieving overall strategic framework for general and
and assessment of landscape, and the
sustainable spatial and tourism development sectoral policies. Thus, a controlling role of
establishment and implementation of
through a coordination of spatial, sectoral spatial planning is also achieved, because it
landscape policies. In the Agenda for a
(tourism) and environmental planning and enables decision makers to consider the
sustainable and competitive European tourism,
possibilities to integrate landscapes into the results and efficiency of different policies in a
which has not yet been perceived in Serbia, the
planning process are indicated. specific space and landscape, as well as to
key to achieving sustainable tourism
anticipate their efficiency and the necessary
development is the following: (i) a holistic and
INTEGRATED APPROACH TO harmonization in the future (Adams, Alden,
integrated approach, taking all impacts of
STRATEGIC PLANNING OF Harris, 2006). This is also confirmed by the
tourism into account in its planning and
framework for action proposed in the Agenda
development, with tourism being well balanced SUSTAINABLE SPATIAL
for a sustainable and competitive European
and integrated with a whole range of activities DEVELOPMENT tourism, where it has been stated that
that affect society and the environment;
“sustainable destination management is critical
(ii) long term planning, (iii) achieving an Designing an Integrated Approach to for tourism development, especially through
appropriate pace and rhythm of development Spatial, Environmental and Sectoral effective spatial and land use planning and
that should reflect and respect the character, Planning in the European Union control, and through investment decisions on
resources and needs of host communities and
The ambition to design a uniform, integrated infrastructure and services” (2007, p. 5).
destinations (2007, p. 5–6).
approach to strategic planning is present today Over the past ten decades, a series of
Starting from regulations and measures set out in all European countries and countries with development documents has been adopted by
by the European frameworks and regulations, developed planning systems. Along with the the European Union, as well as several pan-
as well as the need and directions for development of a sustainable development European initiatives representing a new
redefining strategic planning in Serbia, some concept, there is an increasing number of generation of strategic documents. The
possibilities for the coordination and pronounced tendencies to integrate spatial and greatest contribution to the promotion of the
integration of landscape and sustainable environmental planning into a separate role of spatial planning in the European Union
tourism development into strategic planning institutional block considered to have a has been made by the European Spatial
have been considered, particularly in terms of coordinating and integrating role in planning Development Perspective (ESDP, 1999), which
spatial planning. In the first part of this paper, and directing the development. was followed by the Territorial Agenda of the
the application of an integrated approach to
After almost three decades, spatial planning European Union (2007) as its corrective. It is
sustainable territorial development planning
has assumed a European dimension, from a important to note that the Territorial Agenda
spatium 31
has introduced the obligation to apply In the Agenda for a sustainable and competitive landholders to practice sustainable land
integrated strategic territorial approach, i.e. the European tourism, similar principles are management, and raising support for
obligation to implement integral planning and outlined: (i) to minimise and manage risk (the conservation from visitors and enterprises),
management for all stakeholders in the EU, precautionary principle), where there is (x) resource efficiency (some policy areas take
particularly local and regional ones, within the uncertainty about outcomes, full evaluation and account of the supply of resources when
frameworks established at the pan-European preventive actions should be undertaken to planning tourism development, and ensure an
and national levels. Designing an integrated avoid damage to the environment and society; efficient use of land and raw materials in
approach to directing and managing the (ii) to reflect impacts and costs (user and tourism development), (xi) environmental
development of the European Union has also polluter pays), meaning that the prices should purity (one of the policy areas is influence on
been supported by the revised EU Sustainable reflect the real costs to society of consumption the development of new tourism facilities).
Development Strategy (2006). and production activities; (iii) to set and Another set of these guidelines refers to
respect limits, meaning to recognize the structures and sustainable strategies, focusing
Implementation of strategic documents and
carrying capacity of sites and areas, with a the coordination of multi-stakeholder structure
establishment of sustainable territorial
readiness to limit, where and when appropriate, at the national, regional and local level of
development framework has encountered
the amount of tourism development and governance, and at interrelated national
difficulties, partially because spatial planning
volume of tourist flows; (iv) participation, strategies that have relevance to sustainable
does not fall within the original EU
meaning to involve all stakeholders by tourism. The relationship between the three
competencies, but within the competencies of
widespread and committed participation in types of strategies has been discussed – an
its member states. The major problem lies in
decision making and practical implementation overall tourism strategy embracing
the main EU policies, primarily in the Lisbon
by all those implicated in the outcome; sustainability principles, other relevant
Strategy, in which macro-economic compe-
(vii) continuous monitoring of impacts, as government strategies recognizing or
titiveness was given priority over social and
sustainability is all about understanding embracing sustainable tourism (such as
environmental objectives. According to some
impacts and being alert to them, so that the biodiversity strategy), strategies for sub-
estimates, most of the basic European sectoral
necessary changes and improvements can be sectors of tourism that can play a role in
policies have been directed towards achieving
made (2007, p. 6). making all of tourism more sustainable. The
economic competitiveness–from transportation
recommendation is that a tourism strategy
to urban policies (Kunzmann, 2006). In a greater detail, this and other guiding
should fully embrace the concept of
principles have been brought up by the
Although the implementation of documents on sustainable development. It is based on
UNWTO and UNEP guidelines for policy
EU territorial development is not binding, as problems identified in the past when tourism
makers in making tourism more sustainable
they rather represent guidelines and a strategic strategies, and especially tourism master plans
(2005, p. 15–17). Some of these guidelines
framework for coordinating different policies, which tend to be more about physical and
refer to policy areas that ought to be addressed
current experience in their implementation is spatial issues, often treated sustainability as a
in implementing sustainable tourism, some of
positive, primarily in the application of new separate section of a strategy or plan, being
which are (UNWTO, UNEP, 2005, p. 25–48):
approaches and concepts. Implementation of essentially a statement on possible impacts
(i) economic viability (one of the policy areas
these documents in EU countries is based on and proposals for their mitigation, which is not
is overall environmental quality in maintaining
the subsidiary principle and development of sufficient. Instead, the whole strategy should
and projecting an attractive destination),
horizontal (inter-sectoral at the level of be based on the principles of sustainable
(ii) local prosperity, (iii) social equity (some
governance) and vertical coordination (across development and it should emerge from a
policy areas utilize income from tourism to
governance levels – EU, transnational, national, process that ensures stakeholder participation,
support social programmes and pro-poor
regional and local levels). promotes and respects planning for tourism at
tourism), (iv) visitor fulfilment, (v) local control
the local level, and reflects aims and principles
(some policy areas ensure appropriate
Sustainability in Spatial, Landscape and for sustainable tourism. Another requirement is
engagement and empowerment of local
Tourism Development Policy Principles for governments to ensure that the sustainable
communities, and improve the conditions for
development of tourism is fully recognized
Can we assume that sustainable spatial, effective local decision making),
within other government strategies, based on
landscape and tourism development policies refer (vi) community well-being (one of the policy
an efficient coordination of government
to similar principles? areas is careful planning and management of
departments and agencies (Ibid, p. 50–70).
tourism enterprises and infrastructure),
In the UNECE (2008) researches, six fundamental (vii) cultural richness (some policy areas UNWTO methodology for the preparation of
principles of spatial planning have been identified: ensure effective management and the tourism strategies and master plans embraces
the principles of democracy, subsidiarity, conservation of cultural and historic heritage environmental, socio-cultural and economic
participation, integration, proportionality, and sites, and work with communities on sensitive analyses and assessments. It is now widely
prevention. For the sake of example, the principle presentation and promotion of culture and implemented by governments and destinations
of prevention refers to the implementation of an traditions), (viii) physical integrity (some in planning sustainable tourism development.
environmental impact assessment and risk policy areas ensure that new tourism
assessment in defining and evaluating spatial Many local destinations in different parts of the
development complies with the local
planning policies and options. It also world have developed strategies and policies
environmental conditions, and maintain high
encompasses a commitment to limit the for tourism within the context of Local Agenda
quality rural and urban landscapes as a tourism
development in sensitive regions in order to 21. Some destinations have pursued the Local
resource), (ix) biological diversity (some
minimize the anticipated effects of climate change Agenda 21 process, where tourism is seen as
policy areas work with national parks and other
and preserve biodiversity, landscape and natural just one activity alongside many others.
protected areas, using tourism to encourage
resources (see more: Maksin-Mićić et al, 2009). Ideally, it is good to take this holistic approach
32 spatium
first and then to develop a sustainable tourism sustainable and competitive European tourism, term or short-term action implementation
strategy out of this process. In destinations and to be submitted in 2011. programme, to monitoring landscape change
areas where tourism is a dominant activity, a and effects of landscape and other policies.
How is the landscape integrated into the
Local Agenda 21 strategy may be tantamount The landscape quality objectives should be
process of planning, i.e. how is the European
to a sustainable tourism strategy (Ibid, p. 57). designed by policies at all levels of
Landscape Convention being implemented?
governance and implemented in spatial, urban
EUROPARC (The Federation of National and
The European landscape diversity, continual and sectoral planning. The implementation of
Nature Parks of Europe) has established a
landscape transformation, as well as the landscape planning in other policies may be
Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected
complexity of landscape functions, indicates determined by legislation or developed on a
Areas (2000). So far 21 parks from the EU
that it may not be simple to meet the voluntary basis. Determining the responsi-
participate in the European ″Charter Parks″
obligations set out in the European Landscape bilities for landscape policy implementation
network, none of them from Serbia
Convention (ELC), or a short-term activity at depends on the legislation of the country in
(www.european-charter.org, 20.10.2010). The
the national and other levels of landscape question and on the expected effects, either by
first requirement from the Charter is that there
management. integrating the objectives and measures into
should be a permanent forum (or a similar
spatial (and urban) plans, or by providing
arrangement) between the protected area Sublimating various experiences of European
specific instruments for landscape integration
authority, local municipalities, conservation countries in landscape planning and into landscape or (sectoral) policies
and community organizations and repre- management, as well as in integrating the (landscape study, landscape impact study,
sentatives of the tourism industry involved in a landscape into a planning process, the Council
reports on the status of landscapes and
sustainable tourism strategy and action plan of Europe Committee of Ministers has
landscape policies, etc). Voluntary imple-
preparation, approval and implementation for established the Recommendation CM/Rec
mentation is based on agreements, charters,
the protected area. (2008)3 on the guidelines for the contracts and quality labelling between public
implementation of the European Landscape authorities and relevant stakeholders. As an
A key and the most difficult task in the planning
Convention. General principles of the
process is to achieve sustainable development alternative to the development of an
Guidelines are particularly focused on:
through directing general/framework spatial autonomous landscape plan, it is
(i) defining specific or sectoral landscape
distribution of development and investment, recommended to introduce a landscape study
strategies at all levels of management and for
coordination of infrastructure, housing, public in the process of spatial and sectoral planning
all territorial units; (ii) integrating the
services and economic activities development, (particularly for the power supply system, all
landscape dimension in territorial and other
environmental protection, and landscape and infrastructure systems, agriculture, tourism,
relevant sectoral policies, as well as into their
natural resources protection. cultural heritage protection, river catchment
horizontal and vertical coordination; (iii) active
areas) at all governance levels. It has been
Options for tourism development and spatial participation of relevant stakeholders and the
concluded that the Strategic Environmental
distribution should be the subject of public public in the process of landscape planning
Assessment (SEA) and the Environmental
debates and strategic environmental and management, etc. The Guidelines indicate
Impact Statement (EIS) are very useful
assessment (SEA). Strategic environmental different practices in landscape development
instruments, but also that inadequate methods
assessment is an important control instrument policies and institutional arrangements in
of analysis and evaluation of landscape
for the integration of various policies and for European countries, ranging from policies
dimension in the assessment process have
support in achieving sustainable territorial dominantly associated with the protection of
been used, as they consider landscape
development. By implementing strategic particularly valuable natural and cultural
quantitatively as merely one of environmental
environmental assessment, it is possible to heritage landscapes to the policies which are
components, instead of taking into account a
determine whether plans and policies are also part of environmental policies or spatial
qualitative evaluation of the effects of the
mutually harmonized with sustainable territorial planning. The Guidelines also indicate the
planned development on the landscape. It has
development objectives, provided that the SEA importance of incorporating landscape
been recommended to integrate the landscape
is integrated into the process of spatial and problems into mechanisms of coordination
dimension, primarily landscape quality
sectoral planning. which should be strengthened by establishing
objectives, into environmental impact
the processes and procedures for permanent
Screening and checking processes for the assessment, particularly into strategic
interdepartmental consultations at the national
sustainability of policies are being introduced environmental assessment for spatial plans and
level, and from the national governance level
in some countries. In the European Union, the programmes.
with the regional governance level, as well as
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of
the mechanisms of cooperation with The similarities in guiding principles and
all public policies in certain sectors (which
organizations and representatives of the private stages in the process of spatial, sustainable
explicitly include tourism) is now a
sector. tourism and landscape planning should be the
requirement.
starting point for managing their mutual
A section of the Guidelines dealing with the
How successful is the implementation of the coordination and integration, particularly for
Criteria and Instruments for Landscape Policy
concept of sustainable tourism development in the areas with attractive landscapes, natural
Implementation indicates the stages in the
European countries? What are the effects of the and cultural heritage, suitable for tourism
process of landscape protection, planning and
SEA process in achieving more sustainable development.
management, starting from landscape
tourism planning and development
identification and assessment, through the
management? The answers and recommen-
establishment of objectives, actions and
dations should be included in the first report
measures for landscape protection or
on the implementation of the Agenda for a
improvement of landscape quality, medium-
spatium 33
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH specified objectives and established principled standpoint on the classification of
SUSTAINABLE SPATIAL, recommendations/guidelines for their landscape types was mentioned, but without
preservation, development and management? prescribing any obligation and competency for
LANDSCAPE AND TOURISM
Provided that the answer is negative, the their investigation, identification and
STRATEGIC PLANNING IN SERBIA implementation of landscape dimension of assessment in compliance with the ELC and
sustainable spatial development in spatial practice of European countries. These
An Assessment of Legislative Support to planning will be postponed. inconsistencies and indistinctness will perhaps
Sustainable Spatial, Landscape and be corrected by the adoption of the envisaged
Tourism Strategic Planning in Serbia The Law on Environmental Protection (2004,
Strategy of Nature and Natural Resources
2009), modelled on similar regulations of
Since the transition period began in Serbia, Protection, which will contain guidelines for
European countries, established an integral
there have been frequent changes in legislation landscape diversity preservation, based on the
environmental protection system, as well as
in all domains, the development of general and Report on the State of the Environment of the
measures and instruments for sustainable
sectoral plans/strategies and programmes has Republic of Serbia which should also contain
management and the protection of natural
been intensified, and the lack of their mutual data on the status of landscape diversity and
resources and cultural heritage, while spatial
coordination and insufficient coordination with impacts on landscape diversity. The question
planning is represented as a planning basis for
spatial and environmental planning has been arises as to how these inconsistencies and
integrated protection of the environment,
manifested. indistinctness can be overcome in the period
natural resources and cultural heritage.
prior to the adoption of the Strategy and the
The major changes in legislation in terms of Landscape was only formally mentioned in
Report, so as to enable the implementation of
spatial planning and development were made environmental principles and within the
the obligation, prescribed by the law, to set out
in 2003 and 2009. None of these changes in principles of natural resources preservation. In
requirements and measures for landscape
legal solutions took into account the issues other words, the notion of landscape was
protection and landscape diversity preservation
crucial for the improvement of the process and solely associated with natural heritage as one
through spatial, urban and sectoral planning
efficiency of spatial planning in achieving of the criteria for defining and proclaiming a
(power supply, traffic, water resources
sustainable spatial/territorial development, natural heritage (national park, nature park,
management, agriculture, forestry, tourism,
such as: principles and methodology of spatial outstanding landscape). The Law on Strategic
etc.). The Law on Nature Protection also
planning, methods of plan elaboration; Environmental Assessment (2004) required
defines a basis for landscape integration into
mechanisms and procedures for coordination this assessment to be carried out for spatial
environmental planning and management by
in the elaboration of spatial and other (general and sectoral plans, which explicitly includes
setting out the obligation which states that the
and sectoral) plans and strategies, as well as tourism strategies and plans. This law did not
requirements for nature protection, including
their integration through the process of spatial envisage the obligation to assess the
the preservation of landscape diversity, have to
and environmental planning; participation of environmental impact of spatial and sectoral
be an integral part of an environmental impact
relevant stakeholders in and support to the plans on the protection and improvement of
assessment.
implementation of plan documents. The Law landscape quality.
on Planning and Construction of the Republic In the Draft Law on Immovable Cultural
The problem also arose out of the fact that laws
of Serbia (2009) placed an emphasis on Heritage (2008), the protection of immovable
on spatial planning and development and
buildable land, i.e. the marketability of cultural heritage was not associated with
environmental protection have failed to specify
buildable land in state ownership, and on the (cultural) landscape protection and sustainable
to a sufficient extent the obligation to
construction of buildings, i.e. easier procedure tourism development, or with the protected
coordinate spatial and environmental planning,
for obtaining building permits. All other territories of immovable cultural heritage.
or sectoral with spatial and environmental
aspects of spatial planning and development planning, thus also aggravating the integration The Law on Tourism (2009) is also indicative,
were neglected, namely the coordination and of sustainable tourism and landscape into the which, within the principles of tourism
integration role of spatial planning in achieving planning process. development, mentions sustainable deve-
sustainable spatial development. The pro- lopment only declaratively, but leaves out any
tection and improvement of landscape quality However, in the Law on Nature Protection
coordination with laws on spatial planning and
were not mentioned in spatial and urban plans. (2009) it is clearly stipulated that sustainable
environment protection. Therefore, the
To some extent, this has been corrected by spatial development is endorsed by spatial and
coordination of tourism planning with spatial
secondary legislation (in the Rulebook on sectoral plans delivered, approved and
and environmental planning is not even
Contents, Scope and Mode of Designing Plan implemented in compliance with the
mentioned. Quite the opposite, the Law
Documents, 2010) for spatial plans, but not for conditions and measures of nature protection.
requires that spatial and urban plans must
urban plans. Designing the concepts, What if this obligation is not supported by
implement a tourism strategy or plan, without
regulations and plan concepts for envi- other laws, as is the case with the Law on
any adjustment to sustainable spatial
ronmental, landscape, natural resources and Tourism? Neither nature and landscape
development and conclusions of an
cultural heritage protection has been included protection, nor sustainable spatial and tourism
environmental impact assessment. The
in spatial plans. At this level of planning development of destinations can be achieved
obligation stated in the Law on Strategic
system development, this could be considered until all relevant laws are harmonized. In the
Environmental Assessment for tourism sector
a satisfactory, although an incomplete solution Law on Nature Protection, certain attention was
is not confirmed by the Law on Tourism, and
provided that it is feasible. And, is it actually paid to landscape and landscape diversity. The
therefore it has not been carried out for tourism
feasible? Have we investigated, identified, Law, in principle, established obligations on
strategies and master plans. It has only been
evaluated and verified landscape types and landscape protection and its characteristics
envisaged that the Tourism Development
their regional distribution in Serbia, as well as within the nature protection measures. A
Strategy of the Republic of Serbia should
34 spatium
include an analysis of the impact on cultural master plans) or mainly reduced to short-term The approach to the preservation and
heritage and natural resources, but not of the and medium-term development programmes. improvement of landscape quality in spatial
impact on the environment, or sustainable planning has been fragmented and limited to
In the first decade of the 21st century, a series
spatial/territorial and landscape development. some landscape components or to outstanding
of general strategies has been adopted in
The current Law on Tourism does not provide landscapes. At almost all levels of spatial
Serbia modelled on the EU practice, having a
adequate support for sustainable spatial and planning, landscape has been completely
direct or indirect impact on sustainable
tourism development, landscape and heritage neglected in relation to its ecological,
development management, and thus also on
protection. historical and cultural, social, economic,
space and landscape protection and
aesthetic, and other functions (Maksin-Mićić,
We believe that environmental regulations are development, and sustainable tourism
2003). Certain progress has been made in the
the most significant legal basis for defining development. This primarily refers to the
proposal of the new Spatial Plan of the
sustainable sectoral development and National Sustainable Development Strategy of
Republic of Serbia (2010), which specifies
environmental implications for sectoral the Republic of Serbia (2008) and the National
problems, objectives, the concept and
planning. The same stands for landscape Environmental Protection Programme of the
priorities in landscape protection and
(landscape planning, design, development and Republic of Serbia (2010). In the National
development. An elaboration of the
management) and for setting out obligations Sustainable Development Strategy, the concept
Characterization of Landscapes of Serbia
for other forms of planning, in the same way in of sustainable development in Serbia is too
project has been included amongst priorities.
which the environmental protection and general and without a spatial and landscape
The project should be a basis for developing
management are determined. Without this, it dimension. In the National Environmental
landscape planning and management, as well
may not be expected that sustainable Protection Programme, landscape is
as for landscape integration into spatial,
development and landscape will be adequately neglected, not being mentioned even in the
sectoral and urban plans. Such a
regulated in other sectors. segments referring to the protection of nature
recommendation may be specified in the
and biodiversity. In both documents tourism is
This brief analysis indicates that the issues Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, but it
identified as an emerging sector with a
associated with Serbia’s sustainable spatial must be determined by the legislation in the
significant environmental impact, but left
development, sustainable tourism and domain of environmental and nature protection.
without any objective or priority action to make
landscape have been sporadically, Although spatial plans for special-purpose
it more sustainable. This ommission has been
inadequately and inconsistently dealt with in areas are mainly drafted for areas with
corrected by the Action plan for the
legislation. The necessary support has not intensive spatial and socio-economic
Implementation of the National Sustainable
been provided for the integration of strategic transformations, or protected and envi-
Development Strategy of the Republic of Serbia
planning, primarily spatial, environmental and ronmentally vulnerable areas, they, as a rule,
for the period 2009–2017 (2009), where the
sectoral planning in compliance with the do not include a landscape dimension. For this
ratification of the European Landscape
analyzed European documents (agendas, reason, it is worth mentioning the approach to
Convention and revitalization is mentioned, and
conventions, etc), guidelines/recommenda- landscape planning in the elaboration of the
a set of issues for tourism sector has been
tions and experiences in their implementation. Spatial Plan for the Special-Purpose Area of
stipulated (on environment and cultural
In other words, voluminous work is still ahead the Golija Natural Park (2009), in which the
heritage protection, sewage treatment,
of us in terms of preparation and harmonization Golija-Studenica Biosphere Reserve (MAB list)
renewable energy).
of our legislation with acquis communautaire. has been included. A step forward has been
In the Serbian spatial planning practice, the made with this plan, compared to earlier
Problems Associated with Coordination concept and principles of sustainable spatial practice in spatial planning of protected areas.
and Integration of Strategic Spatial, development have been implemented more or The Plan sets out objectives of cultural
Sectoral and Environmental Planning in less successfully (see more: Maksin-Mićić et landscape protection and the preservation of
Serbia al, 2009). As for the concept of sustainable landscape ambience, aesthetic and
tourism development, its implementation recreational values; a general identification of
Coordination and integration of spatial, sectoral biotope types has been carried out and general
started in spatial plans for special-purpose
and environmental planning is established by measures for their protection have been
areas, primarily for protected areas with natural
legislation and carried out through established. However, differentiating the area
and cultural heritage. In the proposal of a new
institutional-organizational arrangements. The into landscape units/elements and establishing
Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia (2010),
previous analysis has indicated that the guidelines and regulations for the preservation
the main goal for tourism is to achieve
Serbian legislation has not provided this of the quality of these units has fallen through.
sustainable development. As the national
precondition. In the Serbian planning practice, In this case, as in others, except for formal
spatial plan has no power to change the
a coordination of a formal and informal type demands, it is difficult to observe a real impact
regulations set by legislation, the
has been achieved in spatial and sectoral of plan concepts and solutions for the
abovementioned problems in the
planning in the domain of agriculture, water protection of cultural landscape and biotope on
implementation of proposed sustainable
resources management, forestry, and the plan concepts in other plan segments (forests,
tourism development remains unsolved. The
protection of natural values. The informal type forest and agricultural land, etc.), especially on
problems in implementing the concept of
of coordination has also been achieved with the concept of tourism development and its
sustainable tourism development already
some other sectors (transportation, energy and spatial distribution (Maksin-Mićić, 2003).
occurred in spatial plans for special-purpose
telecommunication infrastructure), but has
areas, due to a lack of environmental impact
been conducted with difficulty with certain The integration of strategic environmental
assessment of tourism strategies/master plans
sectoral plans, which are insufficiently situated assessment into spatial (and urban) plans in
and their insufficient coordination with spatial
in the planning system (tourism strategies and Serbia yields good results in the evaluation of
plans.
spatium 35
variant concepts of territorial development and of the area covered by the Spatial Plan for Mt accommodation of the employed, the quality of
contributes to the improvement of envi- Stara Planina (to about 88% of the area), none life in local communities (due to non-uniform
ronmental quality and the quality of life. A of the plan solutions will generate a significant distribution of workplaces, dominant parti-
limitation in achieving the coordinating and long-term adverse environmental impact which cipation of the employed coming from distant
integrative role of strategic environmental cannot be kept under control (Fig. 1). In the surrounding areas, etc.). One of the
assessment in the Serbian planning system is SEA Report, due to solutions incorporated in conclusions in the SEA Report is that from the
the fact that it does not observe the legal the Spatial Plan for Mt Stara Planina from the standpoint of the environment, nature heritage
obligation to perform the SEA for sectoral Master Plan for the Jabučko Ravnište-Leskovac and landscape protection, the dispersive
plans. Thus, the realization of the integrative Tourist Resort (Fig. 2), it has been concluded development concept is more appropriate for
role of spatial and environmental planning in that, for a smaller part of the area (about 12%), the protected area of Mt Stara Planina.
directing and managing sustainable deve- where the concept of highly-concentrated
Strategic environmental assessment has
lopment in Serbia is, at the same time, put in development in the Jabučko Ravnište Tourist
provided recommendations for the reduction of
question (Maksin-Mićić et al, 2009). In order Resort has been applied, it will generate a
the originally determined capacities in Jabučko
to include a landscape dimension in the SEA significant long-term adverse environmental
Ravnište to the level which will not pose an
process, it would be most appropriate to impact which will be difficult to control. The
environmental threat, and also defined
extend its coverage and harmonize objectives Jabučko Ravnište Tourist Resort will generate a
measures for the reduction and neutralization
and methods to include an assessment of plan particularly unfavorable long-term impact on
of an adverse environmental impact which may
solution impact on landscape. nature and the environment, especially in
occur in the implementation of sectoral plan
terms of water supply, wastewater drainage
The collision of spatial, environmental, solutions. By introducing strategic envi-
system, access and internal roads, solid
landscape and sectoral objectives and interests ronmental assessment in resolving conflicts in
municipal waste disposal, power supply and
in tourism development might grow in intensity planning, a certain degree of compromise has
with the implementation of the new Law on been achieved by which the sectoral plan
Tourism. In these circumstances, the concept has been reduced, as well as the
implementation of strategic environmental planned development and its adverse
assessment for spatial plans represents a environmental impact on the most sensitive
controlling instrument enabling the coordi- area of the Natural Park, at least in the first
nation between the sectoral-oriented strategies stage of tourist resort development. The
and master plans for tourism development and efficiency of this controlling instrument would
spatial and environmental planning, as well as have been even greater had the assessment of
future landscape planning. The controlling role sectoral and spatial plan impact on landscape
of strategic environmental assessment of been also adequately included.
sectoral strategies and plans is realized by
By introducing strategic environmental
indicating the adverse spatial, environmental
assessment in sectoral planning, as well as
and social effects that may be caused by their
extending its coverage to include landscape,
non-critical incorporation into spatial, urban Fig. 1.The Golema Reka and Topli Do ski-resort sectors strategic environmental assessment would also
and other plans and programmes. according to the Spatial Plan
assume the role of an instrument for the
The role of strategic environmental assessment Source: Spatial Plan for the Stara planina Natural Park and evaluation of various spatial and sectoral plan
may be explained through the example of Tourism Region, 2008 options and solutions related to the
spatial and sectoral plans for the Stara Planina environment and landscape.
Natural Park and Tourism Region. One of the
objectives of strategic environmental impact CONCLUSIONS
assessment of the Spatial Plan for the Special-
Purpose Areas of the Stara Planina Natural Park The reforms of the planning system
and Tourism Region (further: Spatial Plan for implemented so far and the process of spatial,
Mt Stara Planina) was the protection of cultural environmental and sectoral planning in Serbia
landscape, i.e. the preservation of landscape do not provide their harmonization with the
type diversity and the preservation and approach, policies, concepts and principles for
improvement of elements of landscape planning and managing sustainable and
features. In the SEA Report, it has been competitive territorial development of the
concluded that significant positive effects of European Union. The process of elaboration
the Spatial Plan for Mt Stara Planina will be and preparation of plans in Serbia is not
particularly manifested within: the protection adequate for directing and managing Serbia’s
and improvement of the state of nature, sustainable spatial/territorial development in
environment and landscape; the preservation, the process of EU integration. Due to poor
presentation and adequate use of natural and coordination and absence of integration of
cultural heritage; overall economic effects and strategic planning, the integrative role of
uniform increase in local population spatial and environmental planning may not be
Fig. 2. Solution for the Jabučko Ravnište ski and tourist achieved.
employment, etc. It has been concluded that resort according to the Master Plan
according to the concept of dispersive It is important to consider recommendations/
development, which has been applied to most Source: Stara Planina Resort Area Master Plan, 2007
guidelines and various experiences of
36 spatium
countries in the TAE (Territorial Agenda of the and implementing sectoral plans, as well as 16, Beograd
European Union, Towards a More Competitive enable the implementation of the Aarhus Recommendation CM/Rec(2008)3 of the
and Sustainable Europe of Diverse Regions, Convention and other conventions and agendas Committee of Ministers to member states on
2007), ELC (European Landscape Convention, associated with environmental protection, the the guidelines for the implementation of the
2000), ASCET (Agenda for a sustainable and protection of landscape, biodiversity and European Landscape Convention. http://www.
competitive European tourism, 2007) and, in cultural heritage, and which have been, or will landscapecharacter.org.uk/files/pdfs/ELC-Guide-
line with realistic possibilities, to elaborate be, ratified by the Republic of Serbia. lines-For-Implementation.pdf
them in the Serbian national legislation. The Stara Planina Resort Area Master Plan (2007),
similarities in guiding principles and stages in References Ecosign – Mountain Resort Planners Ltd.,
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public and diminish manipulations of public
prirode Golija (2009), Službeni glasnik RS, br. Received October 2010; accepted in revised form
authorities and interested investors in adopting
3
October 2010
spatium 37
SPATIUM International Review UDC 72.01(497.11)
No. 23, October 2010, pp. 38-45 711.4(497.11)
1 Preliminary report-Short Communications
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023038L
SPATIALIZATION OF SOCIAL PROCESS VS

SINGULAR OBJECT OF ARCHITECTURE
Mihailo Lujak1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
The fundamental subject of this research is spatialization of social process in the period of modernism manifested through
transformation and/or change in meaning of space under a variety of social processes without changing the physical structure
of space. These changes in meaning represent the specificity of development in space under the influence of the said social
processes, which in this case is Yugoslav modernism, resulting in the creation of a singular object of architecture specific of a
certain environment.
These processes have been researched in the residential complex of Block 19a in New Belgrade, designed by architects Milan
Lojanica, Predrag Cagić, and Borivoje Jovanović, and constructed between 1975 and 1982.
The basic objective of this paper is to establish crucial causes for this complex to be considered the landmark in the designing
practice of the time in Yugoslavia through research and critical analysis of the residential complex of Block 19a, and to try and
determine the importance and potential influence in further architectural development in the period following its construction.
In other words, the basic objective of this paper is to establish whether residential complex Block 19a represents a singular
object of architecture in Yugoslavia/Serbia.
Key words: paradigm of modernism, singular object of architecture, discontinuity, intuition/anticipation, utopia, and an event.
subject of this paper originates from the fact that practices in Yugoslavia through research and
INTRODUCTION1 Block 19a, though one of the last in socialist critical analysis of the residential complex Block
Residential construction in Belgrade after World modernism of Yugoslavia, due to some of its 19a, and also to try and determine the
War II until the early eighties of the last century architectural features, represents the turning significance and potential influence on further
is characterized by construction of huge, point or terra incognita, “the seed of possible architectural development in the period
economical residential structures (buildings) anticipation of things to come” (Baudrillard and following its construction.
within residential suburbs and suburban areas, Nouvel, 2002), and can be simultaneously
Most writings dealing with residential complex
and also in the territory of New Belgrade. This regarded as one of the first works in post-
Block 19a were written during the period
system of residential construction was put in modern architecture in Yugoslavia.
immediately following the conclusion of the
place instead of the system of constructing Speaking of architectural principles executed in public competiton (1975), that is, after the
individual buildings (Marić et al., 2009), within the residential complex Block 19a architect complex was constructed (1982) thus, due to
the framework of traditional block-structures in Milan Lojanica speaks (Lojanica, 2006) about the lack of necessary time distancing, these texts
the old city core, that is, architecture of socialist changes in the paradigm of modern architecture are mainly dedicated to the description and
modernism that had undergone several and, at the same time, about the beginning of analyses of urban and eco characteristics,
development stages in the three decades. post-modern architecture in Yugoslavia. This spatial and functional organization, and technical
The subject of this research is the residential stated indefiniteness or ambiguity of one of the features of the structure, and will consequently
complex of Block 19a in New Belgrade, authors indicates an insufficiently defined be of secondary importance in this paper. Since
designed by architects Milan Lojanica, Predrag position of this residential complex in the this work has no aim at comprehensive research
Cagić, and Borivoje Jovanović, and constructed development of modern architecture in of Block 19a, the focus of the subject will be on
between 1975 and 1982, in the final stage of Yugoslavia and additionally proves the statement three aspects rendering this residential complex
socialist modernism in Yugoslavia. that Block 19a represents the turning point in the the significance of a landmark in the then
development of modern architecture in architectural practice in Yugoslavia. The three
Singularity of architectural structure that is the Yugoslavia. aspects, which are the subject of research, are:
diagonal orientation of structures in an
The underlying objective of this paper is to
1
Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia orthogonal city; vernacular architecture in a
[email protected] establish the crucial reasons which make this
modern city; and, spatial pattern of a residential
complex a landmark in the former architectural
38 spatium
Lujak M.: Spatialization of social process vs singular object of architecture
unit. Therefore, primary objectives of this Singular object of architecture - an as production of concepts whose impact and
residential complex Block 19a are to determine, event significance will exceed the domain of
within contemporary architectural theory, the architecture and enter socio-cultural field. This
The subject of research in this paper, which is
following: new activity of theory does not demand new
residential complex Block 19a, after a time
ideas for objects but the invention of new
- If residential complex Block 19a represents the distance of more than two decades following the
techniques of thinking and analyzing the forms
turning point in the former architectural practice; construction, will not be observed in a
of representation, meaning that theory has
conventional or traditional way characteristic for
- If residential complex Block 19a represents a transformed “that what used to be philosophy”
the theory of architecture in the last decades of
unique structure of architecture; (Baudrillard and Nouvel, 2002), into its subject
the 20th century.
of research – architectural problem.
- Significance of this architectural structure for
During the eighties of the last century, at the
the development of modern architecture in Event is an unstable but adaptable open system
time of post-structural thought, progressive
Yugoslavia/Serbia. whose essence is the production of novelty, that
thinkers advocated de-differentiation of
is, new political, social or cultural reality. It
The theoretical starting points for the research of disciplines, that is, uniting theory and practice
transforms non-current potential into a new
residential complex Block 19a are the two into one discipline – theory of architecture. Two
state, in other words, produces a whole new
contemporary architectural theories: Theory of decades later at the beginning of 21st century
series of potentials that will be effectuated or
Singular Object and Event Theory. Creation of a de-differentiation of disciplines and intentional
not. The event is unique and autonomous but
singular object of architecture is one of the erasing of borders between specific cultural
there is a whole network of influences,
essential goals of architecture which Peter areas and practice tends to homogenize all
intentions, borrowings, and exchanges in its
Zumthor defined as search for the uncatchable. distinctions and differences into one neutral and
background and they are the subject of this
The job of an architect means the search for global way of thinking. The negative character of
research. As authors we are not able to choose
what is necessary or for what constitutes a such approach is defined by terms ‘global’ and
or determine the event, it appears or not
singular object of architecture, while theoretician ‘neutral’, with term neutral as something
independently of our intention leaving us with
insists that, at the same time, no intention or indefinite that signifies the lack of quality thus
the opportunity to choose the concept. At one
individual effort can guarantee the achievement becoming non-quality, and so, according to
moment in time object becomes an event,
of that singularity. Together, an architect and a Jean Baudrillard: “neutral can not be loved.”
namely object becomes something that is not
theoretician will say that the search for (Baudrillard and Nouvel, 2002), The latter term
easy to define sociologically, politically,
singularity should go on. ‘globalization’ represents a conscious and
spatially or esthetically. What is certain is that
intentional discrimination which forms a closed
Research is based on the analysis of primary singularity is not an issue of esthetics, an object
virtual space available only to those connected.
sources, mainly original design documentation, may be outstandingly beautiful but it does not
In the globalized world there are those who are
and then design documentation obtained from necessarily become a singular object of
in the process of globalization or IT connectivity,
the author, and published texts and papers on architecture, and vice versa, singularity itself is a
while those who are not simply do not exist.
the subject of research, touring the site and the very complex socio-cultural system.
Global unification, apart from excluding any
analysis of secondary sources.
possibility of social conflicts, creates absolute By researching the event in this paper, it is the
This work consists of five parts: 1) Introduction neutrality and as such represents the production change or mutation of space that is researched,
stating the subject of the paper, objectives of the of non-quality. Baudrillard regards a singular change of Block 19a that went on in front of our
research, basic hypotheses, methods of object of architecture as a declaration against eyes although not as a confirmation of change or
research, and structure of paper; 2) second part these neutral global systems, aspirating to a contemporary need for constant change but as
stating basic theoretical assumptions, universal quality with the term universal change which represents coming into being, as
description of researched facts, as well as review designating the system of values. change which aspires to a certain goal as a
and explanations of research results in regard to result of conscious or unconscious intention.
Accepting the necessary individuality of
Singular object of architecture and Event; 3) The issue of coming into being is far more
disciplines and authors, this research done on
third part which gives basic theoretical complex and more profound than the issue of
the example of residential complex Block 19a
assumptions, descriptions of researched facts, change (Djokić and Nikezić, 2007). In this way it
represents a search for the singular object of
review and explanations of research results in does not imply the existence of theory, just as
architecture and theory.
regard to residential complex Block 19a ; 4) this paper is not an analysis of strategy because
fourth finishing part, presents proof for the According to Baudrillard the singular object of strategy in this case does not exist, but there is a
hypotheses, review and explanations of results architecture is an event. The event exists collection of single events which unconsciously
of the research, and derived conclusions which between specific cultural practice and specific reflect reality and anticipate future.
represent the sum and synthesis of results cultural context in real time. Duality of event is
obtained during research; 5) conclusion, as an expressed in the need to be placed between two Residential complex Block 19a
appendix to part four with comparative analysis forms of reality: what was and what will be.
In the period after World War II most designs for
of given hypotheses and research objectives, Baudrillard claims that “future of architecture is
reconstruction of larger parts of cities or
that is, definite and unambiguous confirmation not architectural” (Baudrillard and Nouvel,
construction of new cities in the world
of research results as presented in parts two, 2002), while it must be determined “what
(Blagojević, 2004) were executed by the urban
three, and four. Conclusion is followed by 6) architecture is and where it is headed, that is,
concept of modern city as advocated by CIAM.
Notes to the text; 7) Literature, list of sources what culture is and where it is headed.”
Basic principles of urbanization by CIAM were
structured alphabetically according to the (Baudrillard and Nouvel, 2002), Through the
given in the publication ‘Athens Charter’ which
significance. growth of domination of perspective, specific
greatly reflected Le Corbusier concept of Radiant
form of architecture and its practice will be seen
spatium 39
City, as well as CIAM concept of Functional City. 1975 saw the beginning of public local limited - affirmation of the issue of optimization of
urbanization-architectural competition for ecological conditions in residential entities;
The subject of this research residential complex
Ideological solution of residential complex Block
Block 19a is situated in New Belgrade, part of - need to create a higher level of residential
19a located in southern New Belgrade, Milentije
Belgrade which was constructed in the period entities’ identity.
Popović Street, to which five design teams were
following World War II. New Belgrade was also
invited: According to these characteristics, we notice
planned and designed as a modern and
that Block 19a represents a practical realization
functional city involving concept and principles Team 1 - Aleksandar Stjepanović, Branislav
of theoretical assumptions of CIAM. In
of CIAM and Le Corbusier Athens Charter Karadžić, and Božidar Janković;
accordance with the standing about unity of
(Blagojević, 2004). Basic principles of Athens
Team 2 - Milan Lojanica, Predrag Cagić, disciplines, theory or theoretical assumptions
Charter, which were crucial in designing
Borivoje Jovanović, Radisav Marić, and Radmila represent the framework or guidelines for
residential blocks in New Belgrade, as well as
Lojanica; architecture, not the definition. Theory is the
residential complex Block 19a, are besides the
chart of a singular object of architecture and as
concept of strict functional zoning and also Team 3 - Darko Marušić, Milenija Marušić, and
such it produces architecture as the subject of
several significant principles relating to function Nedeljko Borovica;
knowledge. Acceptance and transformation of
of residing:
Team 4 - Slobodan Komadina, Dušanka Lalić, dominant theoretical assumptions into
- Paragraph 14–aired structures (pleasant and Tamara Škulić; architectural design from Block 19a produce
apartments) occupy refined zones sheltered primary cultural system for representation; that
Team 5 - Slobodan Drnjaković, Zoran
from hostile winds … with abundant insulation is, Block 19a becomes an exclusive
Radosavljević, Ljubomir Zdravković, and Milan
(Le Corbusier, 1933). representative of the present.
Pavković.
- Paragraph 16 - structures rising along busy
Competition being completed and the first prize Location
roads and at crossroads are damaging to
awarded to team Milan Lojanica, Predrag Cagić,
living conditions: noise, dust, and harmful gases Location of Block 19a is a spatial entity
Borivoje Jovanović and Radmila Lojanica, it was
(Le Corbusier, 1933). surrounded by very busy city roads, Bulevar
pointed out that the judging jury selected the
Milentije Popović, two other streets and inter-
- Paragraph 27 – arranging residential buildings designs “evaluating the contribution to
city highway Belgrade-Nis. In the vicinity of the
along highways should be prohibited (Le environmental improvement, attitude towards
location, just by the Vladimir Popović Street,
Corbusier, 1933). activities – the degree of functional aggregation,
there is a railroad. City roads, spots of their
importance for social community – socializing
- Paragraph 29 – high rising buildings arranged intersections and the railroad represent
component, contribution to relationships
at distance from one another (Le Corbusier, significant sources of negative impacts in terms
between visual forms, and the attitude towards
1933). of air pollution and high levels of noise, while a
technical and technological treatment” (Aleksić,
certain favorable influence is observed in the
- Paragraph 62 – a pedestrian should be able to 1977). The jury also emphasized their detailed
closeness of green banks of the Sava River.
move on a path separated from the road (Le analysis of all organizational levels of submitted
Corbusier, 1933). designs by the following characteristics: features With these characteristics of the location in view,
of proposed units and structures, and the way authors located residential objects in the center
- Paragraph 63 – streets should be distinct as to
urban tissue is organized; the degree of of the block, and positioned them diagonally to
their purpose: residential streets, walking paths,
development of individual and collective sphere; surrounding roads. Objects, which are
transit roads, and main roads (Le Corbusier,
the way units get enclosed or included into diagonally positioned to the surrounding road
1933).
urban tissue, or how the hierarchy of the network and to the usual position of objects in
complex is organized – from an apartment, nearby blocks, stretch along the narrower side in
Competition
neighbors next door, local community – content the direction north-south, and by its wider side
The planning framework for construction of cooperation and physical connectivity; proposed in the direction east-west. This abandonment of
residential complex Block 19a was General Plan standards or residing in the block; value of orthogonal system provides better use of natural
for Urbanization of New Belgrade from 1958. design in terms of development – according to characteristics of the location; in other words,
This plan resolved the main issues of zoning and international experience. Besides evaluating better quality of apartment insulation is achieved
the purpose of areas, it defined the road and these characteristics, another complex model of as well as airing of the space between structures
railway networks as well as planned river and appraising the apartments, structures and (Aleksić, 1977).
other water-area regulation. Plan of New residential complexes was applied, which was
Discussing the competition for Block 19a and
Belgrade is dominated by the residential made by Centre for studies of residences IMS,
analyzing the awarded design, Branko Aleksić
function whose density of population was as well as the partial model of evaluating the
emphasizes three very significant conceptual
determined at 350 per hectare. Exact locations inner organization of apartments with the aim of
characteristics of Block 19a in his text:
of individual objects were not defined by plan, obtaining parameters for the complex model
they were only indicated. Definite locations and (Aleksić, 1977). Having completed evaluation of - positioning of objects in the center of the block
dimensions were to be defined during detailed the submitted designs, the jury emphasized the due to the need for isolating unpleasant sounds
design of individual blocks or by public urban following as significant results of the and fluids; (Aleksić, 1977)
tenders for more significant blocks and competition:
- diagonal orientation of objects due to more
structures.
- opening the issue of methods of construction favorable position in regard to insulation and
In accordance with such recommendation given for residential complexes in New Belgrade and wind direction;
by General Urbanization Plan, September 1, their applicability in Block 19a;
- importance of spatial context stated through
40 spatium
house by which the author consciously

burdened an object of modern architecture with
history, that is, constructional tradition. The
author calls this act an attack on the Modernism,
(Lojanica, 2006) which it certainly is in the
context of late development of post-modernism
in Yugoslavia, while in the context of
development of post-modernism in the world it
can be viewed only as a logical consequence of
current courses. However, another act in Block
19a is much more of an attack on the
Modernism, and that is the rotation of the whole
block, namely introduction of (baroque)
diagonal into a (renaissance) orthogonal city of
Modernism, which initiated the process of post-
modernization of the Modern city of New
Belgrade.
The basic concept of spatial organization of
Block 19a is “orientation of residential objects
towards environmentally most valuable part –
Fig. 1. A wider location - showing diagonal organization of Block 19a in comparison with surrounding buildings the center of the block in a way which renders it
and traffic organization
the character of coherent entity; visually
connection with vital spots of Belgrade 2006) or as he explicates himself, he is connects it to vital spots of Belgrade
landscape. (Aleksić, 1977) interested in spatial organization based on the landscape…which have the visual root and
principle of island form (Lojanica, 2006) which beginnings in the sketches and silhouettes of the
The first two features are the result of
has a spatial point in the center and plasmatic city” (Aleksić, 1977). Later in the text he adds
environmental needs, while their theoretical
bordering space. Such spatial concept was that ‘urban matrix of New Belgrade blocks,
base is represented by Paragraphs 14, 16, and
applied in the international competition for characterized by orthogonality and harmony with
27 of Athens Charter. Moreover, we notice that
Goclaw, a town in Poland, then in residential directions of main traffic flows, then enclosure –
changes in “‘recipes applied in construction of
suburb Julino Brdo in Belgrade, and also in the some sort of autonomy realized through
New Belgrade blocks” (Aleksić, 1977) do not
spatial solution for residential complex Block enclosing space and directing it towards central
represent negation of paradigms of modernism
19a in New Belgrade. The central space of Block parts of the block – is being cleverly and bravely
or abandonment of modernism but the very
19a is a square or an island in the negative transformed here” (Aleksić, 1977). Similar
opposite – they represent the return to its
(Lojanica, 2006), to which outer structures with explanation was also presented by Milan
fundamental principles.
residential objects gravitate. The whole Lojanica more than twenty years later at a lecture
composition of Block 19a is spatially rotated in in the School of Architecture of Belgrade
Diagonal spatial organization regard to surrounding streets and to orthogonal University, which suggests that signifying
“It was Mondrian who finally detached himself in matrix of New Belgrade for environmental component of a diagonal in an orthogonal city
1925 from De Style and Van Duisburg due to reasons as the author points out, and because of represents an unknown, an unconscious
Van Duisburg’s ‘arbitrary’ rotation of orthogonal enabling better orientation to the sun and the discovery or intuitive risk.
format. wind. Lojanica respects the obligatory
We notice that only environmental reasons were
standardization and industrialization so he builds
The third stage of de Style’s activities after 1925 given for conceptual explanation of withdrawing
the complex form of object from a simple
is the period of post - neoplastic object to the central part of the block and for the
standardized particle with two same windows –
development…At the very beginning of the rotation of the axis of objects and their diagonal
the traditional bifora. Bifora on the structures in
period there was a dramatic severance of positioning. Importance of orientation for the full
Block 19a originated from the transformation of
relations between Mondrian and Van Duisburg quality of residential objects is great but the
double lancet windows of the traditional Morava
caused by Van Duisburg’s introduction of
diagonal into his work back in 1924. The
conflict led to Mondrian’s detachment from the
group.
…At his parting Mondrian wrote to Van
Doesburg: “After your arrogant improvement (?)
of neoplasticism any further cooperation is
impossible for me…as for the rest sans
rancune.” (Troj, 2000)
During the seventies and eighties of the last
century Lojanica was researching the problem
of form identity through the relationship of full
and empty, place and non-place, (Lojanica, Fig. 2. and 3. The diagonal organization of Block 19a in comparison with surrounding buildings
spatium 41
position of objects in Block 19a, according to development and practical use of new skeletal
the conceptual and the aspect of meaning constructive system, which during the fifties of
overcomes environmental interests of a the last century provoked the construction of first
residential complex. With such concept authors modern apartments in Belgrade. Spatial
do not accept the new modern context of organization of modern apartments in Belgrade
orthogonal matrix of New Belgrade but associate was characterized by the appearance of ‘widened
the design of new residential block to the spatial communication’, (Baylon, 1979) the room which
context of location – its natural characteristics in economically limited conditions played the
and position within city surroundings, where role of ‘living room as a family gathering spot,
they tend to establish ‘direct dialogue with the around the dining table removed from the space
panorama of the (old) city’ (Aleksić, 1977). of kitchen’. (Baylon, 1979)
Architecture of Modernism tended to form new
During the fifties and sixties of the last century
spatial context criticizing and often negating the
modern apartments developed fast going
heritage of the traditional town so that urban
through several stages of development in short
matrix of New Belgrade developed Fig. 4. Block 19a: The Double-tract-base time, during which rooms in the apartment were
independently from the matrix of traditional
completely differentiated functionally. The result
Belgrade on the right bank of the Sava River.
advantages of corridor concept with the central of such development was the division of the
Nonexistence of necessary historic context in the
core, and with gallery concept of spatial apartment into two functional zones, daily zone
author’s intention of connecting the two city
organization. where enlarged communications living room
parts, excludes this connection from the post-
and dining room comprised separate rooms, and
modernist question of place spirit and keeps it in The advantage of gallery system represents an
night zone bedrooms.
the framework of modernist principles of spatial opportunity to organize comfortable two-side-
context and their re-examination. Connecting oriented, while the disadvantage is inefficiency During the period of socialist modernism,
Block 19a to old Belgrade is a concept of in terms of spatial exploitation and maintaining evaluation of spatial organization of the
illusion, an attempt to seek compromise gallery in the conditions of continental climate. apartment used to be determined through the
between what authors set to cause and what they Gallery system was often used in the period in achieved degree of apartment utility. The term
actually managed to control and perform. between wars as comfortable apartments utility was used to determine the total quality of
Conceptual connection between the two city delivered better apartment exploitation through residential units which meant, besides spatial
parts exists exclusively as a mental extension of obtaining higher rents. In the post war period the organization of the apartment, its usable area,
realistic view, that is, as virtual spatial private property of apartments was annulled so spatial and functional flexibility as well as inner
connection. no property was built for renting, economy of connection among various groups of rooms and
building and maintenance of apartments was of their relation to outer space.
Architectural object primary significance, so during the period of
However, in the mid-eighties of the last century,
socialist modernism no example of gallery
Design of residential complex Block 19a has apartments began to be considered as part of
system is known in the practice.
brought a certain degree of innovation in the spatial, purposeful-functional system which
traditional recipes which had already turned into Dividing the object into two symmetrical tracts shapes it and affirms it by the selection of
practice in the last decade in Belgrade. These provided the possibility to organize comfortable appropriate interior connections and relations
novelties are primarily concerned with apartments two-side-oriented, while organization among rooms. The result of such observation of
dimensions and methods of organization of of residential units around the central core the spatial scheme of the apartment required
activities/functions in residential complex/ instead of along the corridor/gallery, solved the that the apartment, in order to be effective and
block, with solutions for objects and space problem of inefficiency and gallery system modern, should have attributes of free and
between structures, with outlook and functional maintenance. By further connecting several dynamic spatial concept besides great utilitarian
organization of objects and structure of objects to four residential units a larger entirety value. Presenting the character of changes in the
residential units. (Aleksić, 1977) was formed on the principle of spatial concept of apartment organization Branko Aleksić points out
urban structure for the bordering city block, as ‘powerlessness and subordination of one-sided
After performing the analysis of the realized
concept of multi-storied houses in a row, where static dispositions which are created by
novelties in spatial organization of residential
the whole or the row represented macro-form mechanical and technical coupling of parts with
complex Block 19a and their meaning, it is
consisting of fragments in the form of individual specific purposes, mono-functional in relation to
necessary to establish whether there are
multi-storied built-in objects. those which are based on the concept that an
novelties in appearance and functional
apartment is the field onto which numerous
organization of objects and structure of Combination of advantages of corridor concept
various and changeable needs, interests,
residential units and if there are any, to establish with central core and gallery concept of spatial
conditions, and processes linked to family life
their meaning. organization created the scheme of object with
are projected and expressed’ (Aleksić, 1977).
short communication corridors while enabling
The fundamental characteristic of the plan/base The change of spatial organization of an
two-side-orientation of apartments at the same
of the object is two-tract concept of interior apartment, which originated from the need for
time.
organization. The corpus of the object consists greater dynamics of apartment space, marked
of two tracts which are interconnected by the the change of typical model of modern
Spatial scheme of apartment apartments in Belgrade in early seventies of the
core of vertical communications (stairways and
elevators), around which four apartments are Industrialization and technological development last century. (Lujak, 2006)
grouped. Such organization of object unifies the which emerged after World War II enabled the Specific apartment scheme in the early
42 spatium
the creation of new, modern context. playroom or a study.

Competition for Block 3 in its program High degree of element unification of objects in
demanded complementary content of shopping Block 3 in Novi Sad resulted in modest solution
mall, kindergarten, educational and social of shape on the one hand, but also in great
institutions, apart from residential function. speed of construction, extreme efficiency, and
Within the framework of urban scheme of spatial up-to-date scientific and technological solutions
organization in the block objects are evenly achieved through patent system for industrial
distributed throughout the block area, while manufacture of apartments NS-71.
disposition of objects was executed in
Problem of visual monotony and modesty of
orthogonal system placed parallel to main roads.
shape solution, caused by element unification,
In accordance with urban principles of the time
Fig. 5. The scheme of Blok 3 apartments, located in Novi authors would resolve in their design for Block
segregation of functions was strict so that
Sad 19a in New Belgrade.
supplementary functions were resolved as
separate objects, or as annexes to residential
Singular object of architecture – Block
objects. Free green area was located in the quiet
19a
inner zone of the block.
Post-modernism appeared in Europe and
Such spatial organization of the complex was to
America in mid sixties of the last century in the
be completely changed later in Block 19a.
social environment still feeling the
Spatial-functional organization of Block 3 and consequences of World War II and communism,
solution for shapes of objects do not represent a as the result of general disappointment and loss
significant characteristic of this design – it is the of faith in manifestations of modernism. The
organizational scheme of residential units and appearance of post-modernism meant the return
the degree of prefabrication, that is, to concept of architecture as art, where the value
standardization of elements. Conceptual of architecture does not lie in its redemption of
Fig. 6. The scheme of Blok 19a apartments determination for maximum standardization was the social strength any longer, but in its
delivered through the use of singular transformation of productive process and
seventies of the last century was the scheme constructional modular raster for all residential communicational power as an object of culture.
with entry space which was applied in residential objects in the block; through standardization of Pointing out the loss of political power of
objects in Bulevar Jurija Gagarina (Blocks 61 all constructional elements: pillars, stairways, modern architecture Mary McLeod claims that at
and 62) in New Belgrade from 1971 (designed inter-floor ceilings, exterior and interior walls, the time of modernist movement, political role
by architects Milenija and Darko Marušić). windows and façade parapets, and central of architecture was first conceived as an issue of
Apartment scheme applied in Blocks 61 and 62 sanitary unit comprising kitchen and bathroom. process, and only secondary as issue of form,
represents an example of stiff, static apartment and also states that one of the most significant
organization with large communication space It is the spatial-functional apartment organization
changes that post-modernism brought about
comprising entry space and a long hall around that is interesting for this research. It is
was that meaning – not constitutional reform –
which mono-functional and clearly defined night developed around the standardized sanitary
became the objective (McLeod, 1998).
and day zone rooms are grouped. These block formed by kitchen and bathroom.
Nevertheless, the new post-modernism
apartments were significantly less utilitarian as Positioning the sanitary block in the center
movement was soon accepted and, at the time
opposed to dynamic apartments with a quality of created a simple division of the apartment where
of financial recovery in the sixties of the last
varied utility (Aleksić, 1977), as seen in on one side rooms belonging to day zone are
century, it became the new corporate style.
apartments in Blocks 19a from 1975 (designed being developed, and on the other rooms
McLeod points out that ‘if there is any dialectic
after the concept of apartment scheme belonging to night zone. Kitchen is façade
tension with dominant power of structure in post-
developed for the competition in Novi Sad, oriented, while the bathroom is oriented to entry
modernist architecture, it dwells not in
1971) or apartments in Cerak-Vinogradi suburb zone where the possibility of natural airing is
institutions but in the content of architectural
from 1978, designed by architects Milenija and lost. Dining room is positioned in the center of
form’ (McLeod, 1998).
Darko Marušić. the apartment, into separate space which is
integrated with living room space, and During the seventies of the last century a
Taking part in competition by public invitation physically connected to the kitchen. Such significant characteristic in the development of
for the residential complex Block 3 in Novi Sad disposition of apartment rooms enabled circular post-modernism was re-discovery of history as
in 1970, team of authors Lojanica, Cagić, and movement through the apartment which duality of tradition and innovation, which led to
Jovanović for the first time applied solutions subsequently enabled better connectivity of the post-modernism accepting decoration as a
which would later have a significant influence in zones, and reduced the area of rooms intended liberating gesture, after the formal monotony of
development and formulation of spatial for communication purposes only. On the one modernism. Post-modernism was closely
organization of apartments in Block 19a in New hand, the dining room is directly connected to connected to regionalism while reacting to
Belgrade. entry space, and on the other with the kitchen tendency of modernist movement to erase
Location for Block 3 in Novi Sad is similar in and balcony. Utilitarian value and importance of cultural differences, and during the eighties new
space to location of Block 19a, namely location mid area are reflected in its poly-functionality duality of post-modernism appeared: ‘how to
is a free and large piece of land without any since, apart from the function of a kitchen, it can become modern and return to sources’
structures already built and bordered by roads. It be used as an annex to the living room when (McLeod, 1998). However, during the eighties
does not have a formed context which enabled organizing a big gathering, or as children’s of the last century post-modernism changed
spatium 43
radically and from a remarkable movement events in Yugoslavia. After winning social appearance of postmodern art in Western Europe
criticizing esthetic and social parameters, it liberties after the students’ protests in 1968, and America.
became the movement which confirms status Yugoslavia of the seventies of the last century
Bernard Tschumi questions if ‘architects can
quo. McLeod emphasizes this moment as the witnessed the strengthening of local nationalism
reverse events and instead of serving
crucial one for the change in postmodernism in the republics which were its constituent
conservative society which had affected our
and for the appearance of post-structuralism and members. By adopting the Constitution of SFRY
cities, could they make cities influence the
de-constructivism as reactions to conservative in 1974, this reality was accepted and much
society. In other words, can space become a
postmodernism. greater autonomy was granted to republics.
peaceful tool of social transformation, the means
Simultaneously with these events modernism,
This moment was also of crucial importance on of change of an individual’s relation to society
which was the dominant architectural movement
the territory of Yugoslavia. The death of Josip by generating new life style’ (Tschumi, 1996).
in Yugoslavia since World War II, expressed all
Broz Tito (in 1980) marked the beginning of Architectural space by itself implies political
the features of conservatism not accepting the
fragmentation of Yugoslavia which would neutrality, that is ‘asymmetric space is no more
culminate in total collapse of social system of or less revolutionary or progressive that
values and long-term war during the nineties of symmetric one’ (Tschumi, 1996). The thing that
the last century. Modernism lasted in Yugoslavia can give space a political role is not
till the beginning of the eighties when architectural form, be it contextual or modernist,
postmodernism appeared as a reaction to but its purpose and meaning which was added
conservatism of modernism. The weakening of to it.
socialism in Yugoslavia after Tito’s death marked
In light of political events from early seventies of
the conquering of greater social freedom and
the last century in Yugoslavia, the use of
creation of more significant cultural ties to
vernacular architecture in Block 19a can be
Western Europe. Overcoming the economic
understood as adding political meaning to
crisis from the early eighties brought about the
architectural space. However, the way vernacular
formation of economically strong middle class
Fig. 7. The Lateral Façade(The Historical architecture was used in Block 19a indicates that
similar to European ‘technocratic and bourgeois Archives of Belgrade) it had more of importance of style than politics.
society’, which accepted postmodernism.
At the moment of reawakening of national
Robert Stern states in his definition of
identity in republics of Yugoslavia, Lojanica in
postmodernism that: ‘Postmodernism is not
an interview for magazine Communications in
revolutionary in the political or artistic sense;
June issue of 1987, independently from Block
actually it strengthens the effect of technocratic
19a, stresses that during his career:
and bourgeois society we live in’ (McLeod,
1998), indicating the special relationship of He tended to create dialogues with inherited
postmodernism and economically strong closer and farther (above all) national
society. constructional heritage. One line of that dialogue
runs through affirmative relationship, and the
At the end of eighties, which was the beginning
second one through the negative relationship
of postmodernism domination, German
with models. Affirmative line repeatedly
philosopher Jirgen Habermas, in defense to
summarizes well compared patterns and
modernism, indicated that modern art was still
reaffirms models through which elementary
an unfinished project and that the period to
concepts about character and being are
come, namely postmodernism, was a neo- Fig. 8. The Cross section - original designs renewed. These are archetypal forms that act as
conservative reaction to modernism (Šuvaković, (The Historical Archives of Belgrade firm places, strong landmarks, elementary things
1995). English historian Paul Wood indirectly
like, for instance, roof of the house, doors to the
announced the possible guidelines for the
house, windows of the house…these are the
period to follow postmodernism when effects of
things that turn out to be important only when
postmodernism had already been historically
there are not enough of them, with which you
recapitulated in the mid nineties of the last
advocate an ontological level, the newness of
century by saying that ‘eclecticism and
the indispensable inherited being of the house.
decadence of rhetorically constructed
The better you interpret it, the greater the value
postmodernism can only be used to reopen the
of the work. At the same time, the other, negative
difficult issues of modernism itself” (Šuvaković,
1995).
By accepting vernacular architecture authors of
residential complex Block 19a react to
conservatism of modernism and open some
difficult issues.
The moment of adopting the solution (Block
19a) which brought the elements of vernacular
architecture into the modern architecture of New
Fig. 9. The Lateral Façade -the photograph Fig. 10. The View of buildings of Block 19a
Belgrade was preceded by significant political
44 spatium
line is always fighting to overcome and conquer application of vernacular architecture in modern Architecture Theory since 1968. Cambridge,
the model – the existing constructional architecture, and the lack of any dialectic tension Mass.: The MIT Press, 1998, pp. 680-702.
experience, as you do not want to repeat in the content of architectural form, place Block Nensi Dz. Troj, „Cafe L’Aubette”, ed Miloš Perović,
yourself, you would like to improve and, bottom 19a between what was and what is to come. In „ Istorija moderne arhitekture: antologija
line, be different.’ (Lojanica, 1987) this way Block 19a becomes utopian and tekstova. (Kristalizacija modernizma: Knjiga 2A).
destructive, opposes the hegemony of anti- Prevod Jelena Bogdanovic et.al. Beograd:
Introducing vernacular architecture into modern
utopia of the present, tends to destroy the Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu,
architecture and into space of new modern city
present and as such represents discontinuity. 1999, pp. 249-257.
resulted in significant changes in the existing
Inclined on ruining modern architecture, or Tschumi, B. (2004) Arhitektura i disjunkcija.
architectural language and, within it,
rather what it had become, Block 19a tends to Prevod Silva Kalcic. Zageb: AGM.
development of new formal language. These
establish a new system of values anticipating Šuvaković, M. (1995) Postmoderna: (73. pojma).
changes primarily represented the suspicion in
near future. Beograd, Narodna knjiga/Alfa, Biblioteka
the existing several-decades-dominant
Pojmovnik.2
architectural values and did not tend to reject The research proved that residential complex
them or introduce new values, but only to Block 19a in New Belgrade, simultaneously
reexamine them. Reexamination involves inner utopian and destructive, turned to future and
contradictions of modern architecture, namely exclusive representative of the present, and as
two factors: space and its purpose, that is, such it is special/peculiar object, that is, it is
concept of space and experience of space. more of an event than object, thus becoming a
(Tschumi, 1996) singular object of architecture in Serbia.
Vernacular architecture of Block 19a does not
emphasize local/national features originating References
from cultural differences in republics of Aleksić, B. (1977) Prikaz konkursa za urbanisticko
Yugoslavia, but represents universal esthetics of resenje - Bloka 19a u Novom Beogradu.
the past. Its role is the change of paradigm of Arhitektura Urbanizam, br. 78-79, pp. 42-46.
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change of style. Not having socio-political role Objects of Architecture. Minneapolis: University
its significance becomes symbolic and of Minnesota Press.
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tendency to communication. However, this organizacija stana. Beograd. Univerzitet u
communication is not metaphor based, which Beogradu Arhitektonski fakultet.
was specificity of postmodern architecture, but
Blagojević, Lj. (2004) Strategije modernizma u
is exclusively of formal character. It is one-way
planiranju i projektovanju urbane strukture i
directed, reduced to the sign of roof, chimney or arhitekture Novog Beograda: period
window in the traditional house with the single konceptualne faze od 1922. do 1962. godine.
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forms. Arhitektonski fakultet, Beograd.
The result of such work is that Block 19a Djokić, V. and Nikezić, Z. (2007). Political
represents critical practice of modernism, in Circumstances as a Risk Factor in Urban
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turning it into the work of postmodern Kucina, I. (1987) Intervju sa prof. arh. Milanom
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Le Korbizije. Atinska povelja. (1965) Prevod Danilo
CONCLUSIONS Udovicki. Beograd: Klub mladih arhitekata.
Lojanica, M. Lecture held at PhD Studies of
This research into Residential Complex Block
Architectural Faculty University of Belgrade held
19a resolved the current uncertainty or
22.12.2006. g.
ambiguity of the position of the said complex in
the development of modern architecture in Lujak, Mihailo. (2006) The Transformation of
Belgrade’s Apartment: the Search for
Yugoslavia, namely Serbia, which was the prime
(Post)Modern Apartment. Seminar paper at
objective of this paper.
PhD Studies of Architectural Faculty University
The research confirmed that Block 19a, though of Belgrade, professor dr Ljiljana Blagojević.
remaining within the framework of socialist Marić, I., Bogdanov A., Manić B. (2009),
modernism and not representing one of the first Arhitektura vila kao element identiteta Vrnjačke
designs of post modern architecture in Serbia, Banje, Arhitektura Urbanizam, br. 26, pp. 36-
represents terra incognita, that is, a turning point 44.
in modern Serbian architecture. McLeod, M. (1998) ¨Architecture and Politics in 2
the Reagan Era: From Postmodernism to Received March 2010; accepted in revised
Fundamental features of Block 19a, diagonal form September 2010.
Deconstructivism¨, in Hays, K. Michael, ed.
spatial organization of the complex, then
spatium 45
SPATIUM International Review UDC 72.01
No. 23, October 2010, pp.46-55 72 Лаугиер М.
1 72(44)
1 Original scientific paper
1 DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1023046K
MARC-ANTOINE LAUGIER’S AESTHETIC

POSTULATES OF ARCHITECTURAL THEORY
Irena Kuletin Ćulafić1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Views on architecture that hold a significant position in architectural theory are the ones by Marc-Antoine Laugier, a French
theoretician from the 18th century. The research on his architectural theory that have been carried out so far are quite
stereotypical and concern Laugier’s concept of primitive hut as his only significant contribution to architectural theory. It is
well-known that the concept of primitive hut plays an important role in Laugier’s theory and it is what actually maintained his
reputation up to now. However, by singling out this concept as an independent one, one actually neglects all the other aspects
of Laugier’s theory.
The aim of this paper is to present multidimensionality of Laugier’s architectural aesthetics by crossing the borders of
architecture and viewing Laugier’s ideas in cultural, philosophical, religious and historical context, as well as applying the
integrative process and considering the spiritual paths of the enlightenment movement in the mid-18th century.
A special attention is paid to considering the aesthetic aspect which represents the gist and an inevitable part of Laugier’s
architectural theory. His aesthetic theory is important in forming the classicist style, and despite its radical character, it
influenced many architects in France and the rest of Europe. We may see Laugier as one of the first modernists considering his
structuralist logic of the constructive circuit of architecture and aesthetic modesty of decoration. Laugier’s functionalist
attitude that the constructive circuit should at the same time represent a decorative element of architecture confirms the
thesis that modernist approach has its roots in the 18th century.
Keywords: aesthetic rationalism, enlightenment, classicism, syntagm: truthfulness, simplicity and naturality.
Architecture (1753), Laugier was already more of human existence. Using reasonable and
CULTUROLOGICAL CONTEXT OF than forty years old. Until the end of his life, logical viewing, enlighteners initiated a
LAUGIER’S WORK 1 during the next sixteen years, he published revolution in traditional structures that were
Marc-Antoine Laugier, also known as l'Abbé twelve books, as well as a significant number imposed by the Church and the absolute ruler.
Laugier, lived and worked in France during the of articles, translations and short texts. The theological metaphysical learnings were
18th century. As a Jesuit priest, Laugier fulfilled Although he was interested in all other kinds of rejected, while the optimistic faith in human
erudite education that surpassed theological art, writing books on painting and music, advancement through practicing science was
frames. Furthermore, he was a highly gifted architecture was actually his first love. acquired. The new democratic social relations
person, being eloquent, perspicacious and based on the postulates of justice and equality
In the 18th century, Europe was marked by
skillful orator, writer and translator, home de of all the people were demanded. With these
several revolutions that brought a complete
letter that produced significant works in music, goals, enlighteners wanted to form a humanist
change in socials norms and beliefs. Along
architecture, painting, history, diplomacy and society that aims at progress, which is a
with the industrial revolution when it comes to
preaching. During his life, he was very characteristic that is even now one of the main
manufacturing and the French bourgeois
respected by the highest cultural circles in virtues of society (Cassirer, 1951).
revolution in terms of social-political relations,
France and other parts of the world, he was religious enlightenment represents an Laugier’s views on architecture examined the
elected a member of the Academy of Science intellectual and spiritual revolution in terms of whole history and theory of architecture,
in Anger, Lion and Marsey, and his works were philosophical, religious and scientific thinking, starting from Vitruvius. The beliefs that were
translated into the main world languages. while Laugier represents one of the first minds regarded as irrefutable for centuries were
When he wrote his first book Essay on that introduced the revolutionary ideas in the considered wrong and vague by Laugier. The
field of aesthetic viewing of architecture. architecture that was defined by the arranged
cosmic order with numerous symbolic
1
Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia Enlightenment as a spiritual and philosophical
meanings was now deprived of its
[email protected] movement was based on reason as the highest
metaphysical character. Laugier was among
human value and included every single aspect
46 spatium
Kuletin Ćulafić I.: Marc-Antoine Laugier’s aesthetic postulates of architectural theory
hand, the lack of money and the accessibility in the mid-18th century, which confirmed the
of the content that rococo offered made even data that, between 1747 and 1753, over three
the king Louis XV and his nobles become the hundred books, pamphlets and articles in
main protagonists of rococo. Rococo was a magazines that dealt with architecture were
quick escape from the cruel reality into the published, which was more than during the fifty
world of imagination and fantasy. The years before (Hautecoeur, 1943-1957). There
decadence of art represented a reflection of the was a chaotic interlacing of the professional
decadence of the political and social system, and layman thinking in which stable value
the demise of which could be made out under criteria were completely lost. The notion of bon
the bunch of little flowers, sparkle and floral goût (good taste) became problematic, the
and animal motives which were used in values were replaced by anarchy, while
rococo. anarchy, according to some critics, led to
destruction. The spiritual atmosphere of the
While defending the long tradition of the
beginning of the 18th century was marked by
French classicism and the view which claimed
the feeling of fear and believing that art was
that architecture could be beautiful only if it
going in the wrong direction, distancing itself
was simple, symmetrical and harmonic, the
from the concept of perfection and regularity,
academic architectural public harshly judged
thus moving towards demise and deviation.3)
rococo as a source of deviation of the ideal of
beautiful. The academists considered rococo a France as a significant centre of enlightenment
worthless trend that distorted all traditional produced a constellation of prominent thinkers
values. Rococo was compared to barbarian whose ideas influenced reforms of society,
Fig. 1. Marc-Antoine Laugier’s concept of the
elements of gothic style, since their mutual government, religion, science, culture and art.
“primitive hut”. Frontispiece from second edition of
the “Essai sur l’Architecture”, engraved by Charles characteristics were heavy usage of ornaments Architecture represented one of the pivots of
Eisen, 1755. and eccentricities.1) the manifestation of social rebirth, so
searching for a new style was the leading task
the first theoreticians that used constructive Although they rejected rococo in their theories,
in the second half of the 18th century. Voltaire,
logic that was more powerful than the secret the academists of architecture accepted it in
symbolic meaning of numbers and proportions practice. Germain Boffrand, a great advocate of
in architecture. With his radical attitudes he classicism, is the author of the interior
succeeded in starting a reformation of decoration Hôtel de Soubise which is one of
architecture, stressing that renaissance models the most extreme examples of rococo in Paris.
of thinking were long gone and confirming his Jacques-François Blondel thought that, while
modernist views that were led by reason as the decorating smaller spaces, an architect might
main postulate of enlightenment. surrender himself to his lively imagination and
fantasy, claiming that interior design
SEARCHING FOR A PERFECT STYLE demanded less strictness than composition of
exterior (Blondel, 1754). This being said, some
IN ARCHITECTURE
of architectural theoreticians praised rococo
In the beginning of the 18th century, France was due to its qualities of being picturesque, while,
in a bad financial state since the golden age of on the other hand, believed that it didn’t
the country’s advancement under the Sun King contribute to advancement of architecture,
ended. Colossal palaces were no longer built, since it was oriented to interior decoration and
Fig. 2. Germain Boffrand, Hôtel de Soubise, Paris,
as well as the pretentious state buildings and objects that were short-lasting, such as
1735-1740.
magnificent gardens. Architecture was limited clothes, jewelry and furniture. Rococo was
to more modest projects that were fairly considered to be a fashion that wasn’t long- Diderot and Rousseau paved the way for the
different than those in Grand Siecle. The lasting, so it was possible to tolerate its great social and political revolution with their
architects became more of decorators than ornaments in small, intimate salons, and thus, ideas, while the architects and architectural
architectural designers. They started using when it threatened to be included in exterior theoreticians had difficulties adjusting their
cheaper techniques of imitating expensive composition of architecture, it caused a strong attitudes as far as further development of
materials, ceiling plastering was used quite theoretical rebellion. architecture was concerned. It was not easy to
often, as well as painting and colouring the break the one hundred years old tradition of the
The architectural experts found themselves in a
walls into bright pastel colours. There was a French Academy of Architecture that was based
great fear, believing that architecture was
frizzy and frivolous style that emerged between on the Vitruvian theory and forming a style that
threatened by neglecting the rules of good
1730 and 1755 called rococo, which was used was to end rococo’s influence. In this
taste. These reasons caused a sensible and
by many architects, even some of the members atmosphere of hopelessness and searching for
spiritual search for a new style that would save
of the French Academy of Architecture. The a firm basis of architecture, Laugier’s views
the architecture from decadence and decline.
popularity of this style was caused quite a lot caused a big public attention. Based on the
The search for a new style was in a close
by the great demand of it by the newly-formed classicistic theory, Laugier’s radical system of
relationship with striving to reach the
bourgeoise class that strived to approach the rules rejected all the elements of the
perfection in architecture.2)
aristocracy by owning the artistic mani- “confusing and bizarre” (Laugier, 1753), an not
festations of this extravagant style. On the other A rapid discourse in French architecture began only the ones belonging to rococo, but also the
spatium 47
elements that were used in architecture for windows and doors. Laugier approved them The demand for complete integration of
centuries as parts of classical expression, like only because they were necessary due to architectural parts into a unity belongs to the
pilasters, niches and pedestals. Laugier commodité (commodity), but believed that idea of classic. The idea of this connection can
criticized lots of baroque and renaissance they undermined the basic principles of be traced back to Alberti’s definition of
elements, for example spiral columns and primitive hut. beautiful that is basically connected to
atticas. He completely rejected the Roman Vitruvius’ views (Alberti, 1989). However, the
The elements used out of caprice represent
Toscan and Composite architectural order, but renaissance view of integration was then
major errors in architecture. They were utterly
reformed the classic Greek Ionic, Doric and viewed in an aestetically abstract sense. This
useless and redundant and only undermined
Corinthian order. Laugier paved the way for meant that a whole building was pervaded by
the beauty and simplicity of basic elements of
structural classicism (Trachtenberg and decoration, from the smallest ornaments to
architecture, that is, the fundamental principles
Hyman, 1986), seeing the column, the architectural orders, and all of them together
of primitive hut.
entablature and the pediment as the supreme made a unique and coherent unity. During the
elements of architecture and claimed that, By analyzing Laugier’s rationalist aesthetics, age of renaissance there was no word on the
except from their regular forming and we may perceive three significant tendencies constructive role of architectural orders.
distributing, nothing else was needed to add in that are everpresent in his aesthetic concept of Architectural orders were considered the best
order for a building to be perfect. architecture. These are vérité (truthfulness), way of illustrating the mutual connection
simplicité (simplicity) and naturalisme between parts and unity (Kurtović-Folić, 1998).
Laugier’s Essay on Architecture was accepted
(naturality). It was thought that the order reproduced
with great enthusiasm and it caused wide
processes that were present in nature and
reactions in public, it was thoroughly We may conclude that these tendencies make
macrocosmos, according to some claims they
discussed by experienced architects, as well as an entire syntagm that represent the most
were God-made entities, something specific
all the other prominent intellectuals. This big important contribution of Laugier’s which stood in contrast to a building’s unity,
response from the public was quite surprising architectural aesthetics. which was added to it in order to make it pretty
for a book that dealt with the theory of
Truthfulness and adorned. Architectural orders were the
architecture. One of the reasons for this
most important elements in aesthetic
success was the appearance of the interest of Laugier advocated architecture vrai which classification of architecture when it came to
the wider public for art critic, while the simple represented a true, real and sincere architecture. venustas - beauty (Vitruvius, 2003). During
style in which the book was written made the He opposed everything that was false abot renaissance, especially in France, this
abstract theme of architectural theory architecture. His aesthetics of valuing classification was automatically applied. In
understandable to the layman critics architecture established the column, the practise, the oders were often included in
(Herrmann, 1962). The Essay made an excess entablature and the pediment as the most construction of a building, but Laugier was the
in architectural theory (Blagojević, 2009). A important and main constructional elements by first theoretician to express the view that the
great part of The Essay’s significance is found considering the constructive structure of a orders, most of all, had to be constructive, and
in Laugier’s expressing a critical attitude building. Believing that the parts of architectural then decorative elements. With this view,
towards the existing architecture. His views order were, at the same time, parts of a buliding Laugier broke the concept of metaphysical role
caused a series of discussions in public and itself probably originated from aesthetic of the orders and pointed out that their main
directly influenced the forming of classicistic theoreticians Plato and Aristotelous. Laugier role was to be functional. This being said,
style in French architecture.4) paraphrazed Aristotelous’ rule from poetry that Laugier may be seen as one of the pioneers of
claimed that “structural unity of parts should be modernism.
THE PRINCIPLES OF LAUGIER’S constructed in a way in which, if one moved or
RATIONALIST AESTHETICS OF removed any part, the unity would become Simplicity
ARCHITECTURE distorted and disturbed“ (Aristotelous, 1912).
The tendency of simplicité (simplicity) is one
In his system of structuralist aesthetics, of the basic characteristics of French
Laugier established the following elements in architecture and art. When compared to
architecture: les parties essentielles (the European trends, all the French styles fostered
essential elements), les parties introduites par the tendencies towards classicistic tradition,
besoin (the elements introduced out of need) the main characteristic of which was
and les parties ajoutées par caprice (the ѕimplicité. It is well-known that the French
elements used out of caprice). Led by this baroque and rococo were marked by a dose of
division of architecture, Laugier established ѕimplicité - the simplicity which was related to
three levels of aesthetic categories: beautés everything that was related to classicistic
(beauty), licences (necessity or justification) doctrine and opposite to gothic style.
and défauts (errors), which were equivalents to Laugier was criticized for reducing architecture
good, bad and wrong. to utter basics, limiting an artist’s freedom by
The essential elements of architecture leading him to the strict system of rules by
respected the principle of primitive hut and which one should project in order to reach the
consisted of column, entablature and pediment ideal of simplicity. Laugier claimed that only
– they were fundamental and no architectural untalented architect adorned his work
building could be built without them. The excessively, since he was not able to reach
Fig. 3. Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Sainte-Geneviève
elements introduced out of need were walls, Church (Panthéon), Paris, 1755-1792.
simplicity. He did not underestimate the
48 spatium
greatest project of the 18th century France was it was because he wanted to dedicate himself
Laugier’s peer, the architect Jacques-Germain completely to science and art.
Soufflot. Led by Laugier’s ideas, Soufflot
In the mid-18th century an empty space
applied peristyle that alluded to the simplicity
emerged, in which spirituality strived to be
of Greek temples, while he presented free-
inspired by a new inspirational force, thus the
standing columns and flat entablature as the
enlighteners found this force in nature. They
main construction elements, by which he
were assured that, in spite of difference, there
succeeded in producing the lightness effect of
was a mutual basis of the world and religion
gothic cathedrals, releasing the current sacral
which was to be found in “natural religion“ that
architecture of baroque weight. The Sainte-
was present in every man’s heart.
Geneviève Church marked the new way in
which church architecture began to develop in It is important to acknowledge the greatness of
terms of applying the new construction spiritual advancement that the enlightenment
solutions and affirming the new style of movement achieved which was in contrast to
classicism which reached its top level during the reformation and counter-reformation that
the 37 years in which it was built. marked the earlier epoch. The enlightenment
was not exclusive in its work, it pointed out to
Laugier’s ideas strongly influenced the
the new perspectives of development based on
building of Madeleine Church, which is another
humanity and religious and political tolerance.
superb work of art as far as architecture of
The faith in nature was shared by all people, no
classicism is concerned. Pierre Contant d'Ivry,
Fig. 4. Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Interior of Sainte- matter whether they were Christian, Atheists,
Geneviève Church (Panthéon), Paris, 1755-1792. the author of the church, literally applied
French or English, while it represented an
Laugier’s vrais principes de l’architecture that
optimistic choice in search for happiness. Two
importance of talent in creating a work of art. included columns, entablature and pediment
prominent theoretician, each one in his area of
On the contrary, he believed that an architect as the fundamental principles of architectural
interest, Rousseau and Laugier advocated
should be talented and a genius, but, if these composition.
similar principles that urged a man to go back
two were not supported by the rules, the artist
Naturality to his roots, gist and nature as a pure source of
would inevitably fall into licence (justification)
life and creativity. Rousseau did not see the
and caprice (decadence). During the second half of the 18th century, the return to nature only as releasing a man from
Laugier mostly expressed his aesthetics of idea of nature played an important role in social rules and boundaries, but also stressed
reforming in church architecture, which, human interests. The age of enlightenment that, being raised, one becomes sensible, that
according to him, did not yet acquite vrai goût adopted the idea of nature as an expression of is, natural (Rousseau, 1790). He did not rebel
(true taste) of building, and thus he viewed righteousness, sincerety, logic and kindness. against the nobles, but against richness and
French gothic as a style that was most The notion of “natural cognition“ was not only social injustice (Rousseau, 1984). Deep inside
acceptable. General opinion that was present related to the cognition of physical world and he was assured that the source of new moral
during the 17th and 18th century considered things that happened in it, but also the rights, was not to be found in one’s reason, but in
gothic a barbarian style of bad taste which was religion, society, politics and art. Natural one’s heart and conscience. In analogy to
opposed to the beauty of classic architecture cognition was a search for the basic, these social views of Rousseau’s, Laugier
and its canons of symmetry, balanced fundamental truths in all areas of human wanted to clear the architecture of everything
proportions and coherent conception. Laugier existence. This kind of euphoria for the natural that was redundant and non-functional, not
agreed with this and criticized gothic for its did not fail to affect architecture, while only pointing out to excessive usage of
grotesque ornaments, while he appreciated the Laugier’s ideas were based on viewing ornaments that was developed during baroque
awe, magnificence, ligtness and sophistication architecture through natural principles. and rococo, but also to the errors and fallacies
that gothic cathedrals bore (Laugier, 1765). Laugier’s radical and rationalist architectural that were everpresent in the centuries before.
Laugier wanted to adjoin the good aesthetics should be viewed in the context of
characteristics of both gothic and classicism, religious dogmatism. Christianity was the main
primarily wanting to reach the gothic height force of Western civilization for thousands of
and the classicist stability. He proclaimed his years, and then, when the age of enlightenment
idea of a church an absolute bon goût of came, its influenced significantly shrinked
architecture and a building which was (Hadživuković, 2005). Along with free
completely naturel et vrai (natural and true). development of rationalist philosophical and
The design of a church was very simple and scientific thinking, a new view on the world
based on the basic principles of Laugier’s was formed, which was based on reason and
aesthetics with no arcades, pilasters, experience. What was especially prominent in
counterphores, pedestals, transverse ribs, the intellectual circles was deliverance from
statues and everything else which was religious dogma and prejudice, but rarely did
considered kitschy and redundant, since a anyone give up Christianity in favour of
church as a sacral form of architecture was Atheism. Most of the French intellectuals were
supposed to look elegant and supreme. deists. With the permission of the pope, Fig. 5. Pierre Contant D'Ivry, Madeleine Church,
Laugier left his Jesuit order, but it was not Paris,1757-1842.
The author of the Sainte-Geneviève Church, the because he stopped believing in Christianity –
spatium 49
Just like Rousseau saw financial, political and this is what actually gives him such meaning et les fondemens de l'inégalité parmi les
social unequalities as unnatural deviations of and merit. hommes. Paris: Nathan.
the “natural state“, Laugier saw pilasters, Trachtenberg, M., Hyman, I. (2002)
The architecture back then might have been
pedestals, niches and torsion columns as Architecture: From Prehistory to Post-
backward when compared to Diderot’s and
errors and deviations of the three fundamental Modernism: The Western tradition. New York:
D’Alembert’s Encyclopedia, Montesquieu’s
principles of primitive hut which represented Prentice Hall.
Spirit of the Laws and Voltaire’s Name of
the embodiment of quality architecture. Vitruvius, M. P. (2003) Deset knjiga o
Conscience and Reason, but Laugier certainly
Rousseau’s notion of volonté générale (the arhitekturi. Beograd: Građevinska knjiga. 2
managed to defend the philosophical view on
general will) is equivalent to Laugier’s
architecture, breaking up with the stereotypical
tendency to define general and universal
concept of debates that had been written since
principles of good architecture. According to 1) Regarding French architectural theoreticians’ struggle
Vitruvius’ age. Laugier brought out certain against rococo, to see: Hautecoeur, L. (1943-1957)
Rousseau, an individual in a state was
freshness of a rationalist approach in thinking Histoire de l'Architecture classique en France, Vol. IV:
subordinate to general tendencies, while
into a discipline that had become tiresome and Seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle: Le style Louis XVI,
Laugier claimed that an architect was to adjust 1750-1792, Paris: A. & J. Picard, p. 46; Blondel, J.F.
dull. He created the new ways and, due to this,
to the established principles of architecture, (1737) De la distribution des maisons de plaisance et
he is significant as a theoretician of
after which he could feel free to use his talent de la décoration des édifices en général. Paris: C.-A.
architectural aesthetics. He was the first to Jombert, p. 67; Frézier, A. (1738) Dissertation
and imagination.
demand a radical change in architecture. historique et critique sur les ordres d'architecture. Paris:
With the intention to purify, Laugier focused on Classicism that had just emerged back then s.n., p.3; Soufflot, J.G. (1744) Dans l’art de
architecture while Rousseau focused on moral had many sources, one of the most important l’architecture, le goût est-il préférable à la science des
and society. With the tendency of removing ones being Laugier’s thinking. règles ou celle-ci au goût?. Paris: Nouvelles Archives
historiques de Rhone: Biblioteque Nationalle de France,
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were embedded into collective subconscious plans, elevations et profils de quelques-uns des
mind of an 18th century man, as well as the Alberti, L.B. (1989) On the Art of Building in Ten batiments faits en France et dans les Pays Etrangers.
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Slav. Dalm. zemaljska vlada. 2) The concept of bonne architecture (perfect
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roots of our civilization, Laugier with his sadržinske osnove reprezentacije prakse overcoming the architecture of the 17th century golden
primitive hut and Rousseau through his “noble arhitektonsko-urbanističkog projektovanja i age. This concept of bonne architecture establishes
savage“. This was not a step backward that teorije savremene arhitekture, Arhitektura i truthfulness and simplicity as the basic qualities, in
urbanizam, No. 24-25, pp.15-18. contrast to deviant expressions of, so called,
brought humanity back to tribe communities
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3) On pessimism in architecture, to see: Blondel, J.F.
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from civilization’s dirt. Cassirer, E. (1951) The Philosophy of the Briseux, C.E. (1728) Architecture moderne ou L'art de
Enlightenment. Princeton: Princeton University bien bâtir: Pour toutes sortes de personnes, tant pour
THE VALUE AND CONTRIBUTION OF Press. les maisons de particuliers que pour les palais..., II vol.
Paris: C. Jombert, pp. 5-8; Dubos, J.B. (1733)
LAUGIER’S ARCHITECTURAL Hadživuković, S. (2005) Francusko prosve- Reflexions critiques sur la poesie et sur la peinture.
AESTHETICS titeljstvo: Odraz vere u ljudski napredak. Novi Paris : J. Mariette, p. 221; Voltaire, F.M.A. (1752)
Sad: Prometej. Siècle de Louis XIV. Paris: Garnier, p. 522; D’Alamber,
Laugier’s architectural aesthetics was Hautecoeur, L. (1943-1957) Histoire de J.R (1955) Uvodna rasprava u Enciklopediju. Beograd:
extremely modern and progressive when l'Architecture classique en France, Vol. IV: Kultura, p. 168; Helvétius, C. A. (1776) De l'Espirit, I
compared to the processes that happened in vol. Londres: s.n., p. 162
Seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle: Le style Louis
the 18th century. Although considered to be XVI, 1750-1792. Paris: A. & J. Picard. 4) Laugier’s ideas directly influenced the architects of
among the pioneers of classicism, Laugier did French classicism, among which the most prominent
Herrmann, W. (1962) Laugier and Eighteenth were Soufflot and Contant d'Ivry. Laugier was often
not turn to ancient ideals in the same way that Century French Theory. London: A. Zwemmer quoted during the next decades, especially by English
classicistic architectural style did. His major LTD. architects such as John Soane who appreciated him
contribution was establishing the valorization most. When romanticism became dominant in the 18th
Kurtović-Folić, N. (1998) The Cultural and
of a complete work of architecture, on the basis Spiritual Status of The Danube Area in Serbia
and the beginning of the 19th century, Laugier’s name
of which he noticed some errors and drew was almost forgotten. In the beginning of the 20th
and Europe, SPATIUM International Review, century, Le Corbusier renewed Laugier’s idea of
conclusions and directions for bringing No.4, pp. 14-18. primitive hut in which he recognised the supreme
architecture to perfection. Although we may principle of the new modern style.
Laugier, M.A. (1753) Essais sur l'Architecture.
see some of his thoughts as absurd, we shall
Paris: chez Duchesne.
not judge their quality from the practical point
of view. It is important to stress that Laugier Laugier, M.A. (1765) Observations sur
made a progressive excess in architecture l'architecture. Paris: chez Desaint.
which was then between the periods of rococo Rousseau, J.J. (1790) Emile ou de l'Education.
and classicism. Laugier’s ideas have inspired Genève; Paris: Volland.
many architects, theoreticians and thinkers and Rousseau, J.J. (1984) Le Discours sur l'origine Received July 2010; accepted September 2010
50 spatium
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SPATIUM International Review

No. 23, October 2010, Belgrade ISSN 1450-569X

SCOPE AND AIMS

Miodrag Vujošević Editorial

38-45 Mihailo Lujak Spatialization of social process vs singular object of architecture

CURRENT CHALLENGES AND INNOVATIVE

development projects and emerging power life implementation and effectiveness of EU

cohesion in Central and South-Eastern Europe networks/current/bondrg/report-April

DANUBE REGION STRATEGY - ARGUMENTS FOR A

normative sense. Correspondingly, we discuss

BASIC FEATURES OF THE URBAN

The elaboration of characteristics of the urban

The results show that three different groups of

Map 1 shows all potential metropolises with

Thus, there is no common approach in

The existence and development of cities is

potentials into assets. Thus, corresponding gv.at/DocView.axd?CobId=3387 (Stand 9.12.

SELECTED ASPECTS OF TERRITORIAL COHESION

Between Expectations, Disparities and October 2010

COLLAPSE OF STRATEGIC THINKING, RESEARCH

STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE SPATIAL,

institutional block, considered to have a Development Perspective, 1999), TAE

SPATIALIZATION OF SOCIAL PROCESS VS

house by which the author consciously

the creation of new, modern context. playroom or a study.

MARC-ANTOINE LAUGIER’S AESTHETIC

SPATIUM : urban and spatial planning,

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