Spatium 22

SPATIUM International Review
No. 22, July 2010, Belgrade ISSN 1450-569X
SCOPE AND AIMS

The review is concerned with a multi-disciplinary approach to spatial, regional and urban planning and architecture, as well as with various aspects of
land use, including housing, environment and related themes and topics. It attempts to contribute to better theoretical understanding of a new spatial
development processes and to improve the practice in the field.
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
VICE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Jasna Petrić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
SECRETARY
Tamara Maričić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
EDITORIAL BOARD
Branislav Bajat, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Milica Bajić Brković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture,
Belgrade, Serbia; Branko Cavrić, University of Botswana, Faculty of Engineering & Technology – FET, Department of Architecture and Planning – DAP,
Gaborone, Botswana; Tijana Crnčević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews, Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia,
Ljubljana, Slovenia; Zeynep Enlil, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of City and Regional Planning, Istanbul, Turkey; Milorad
Filipović; University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, Serbia; Panagiotis Getimis, Panteion University of Political and Social Sciences, Dept.
Economic and Regional Development, Athens, Greece, and University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany; Grigoris Kafkalas, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, Spatial Development and Research Unit-SDRU, Thessaloniki, Greece; Douglas Kysar, Yale Law School, New Haven, USA; Luigi Mazza,
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Architecture and Planning, Milano, Italy; Nada Milašin, Belgrade, Serbia; Saša Milijić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia;
Bernhard Müller, Leibniz-Institut für ökologische Raumentwicklung, Dresden, Germany; Zorica Nedović-Budić, University College Dublin, School of
Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, Dublin, Ireland; Ksenija Petovar, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture and Faculty of Geography,
Belgrade, Serbia; Vesna Popović, Institute of Agricultural Economics - IAE, Belgrade, Serbia; Mila Pucar, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Karl Peter Schön, Federal
Office for Building and Regional Planning, Bonn, Germany; Wilfried Schönbäck, University of Technology, Department of Spatial Development,
Infrastructure & Environmental Policy, Centre Public Finance and Infrastructure Policy, Vienna, Austria; Paolo Tomasella, Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia
Giulia, Udine, Italy; Dragutin Tošić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Dobrivoje Tošković, Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka
Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia.
PUBLISHING COUNCIL
Mila Pucar, President, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
Jasna Petrić, Vice President, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
Tamara Maričić, Secretary, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia
Branislav Bajat, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Milica Bajić Brković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture,
Belgrade, Serbia; Dragana Bazik, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Branka Dimitrijević, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Glasgow, UK; Milorad Filipović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, Serbia; Igor Marić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Darko Marušić,
Belgrade, Serbia; Nada Milašin, Belgrade, Serbia; Saša Milijić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Zorica Nedović-Budić, University College Dublin, School of
Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, Dublin, Ireland; Marija Nikolić, Belgrade, Serbia; Vladimir Papić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Ratko Ristić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia; Nenad Spasić, Belgrade,
Serbia; Božidar Stojanović, Belgrade, Serbia; Borislav Stojkov, Republic of Serbia Republic Spatial Planning Agency, Belgrade, Serbia; Dragutin Tošić,
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia.
PROOF READING AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION
Chris Prickett, Snježana Mijatović REVIEWERS
Milica Bajić Brković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture,
COMPUTER DESIGN
Belgrade, Serbia; Ljiljana Blagojević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Jelena Živanović Miljković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Nikola Klem, University of Belgrade,
COVER PAGE DESIGN Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia, and Josip Juraj
Ines Maričić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Osijek,
PUBLISHER Croatia; Marija Maksin, University Singidunum, Department of Tourism
Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, IAUS and Hospitality Management, Belgrade, Serbia; Darko Marušić,
Igor Marić, Acting Director Belgrade, Serbia; Miomir Mijić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Marija Obradović, Faculty of Civil
ADDRESS
Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Jasna Petrić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia;
Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, IAUS Rade Ratković, Algonquin – College for Hospitality and Tourism
"Spatium" Management, Sveti Stefan, Miločer, Montenegro; Mirjana Roter
Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, tel: (381 11) 3370-091 Blagojević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade,
fax: (381 11) 3370-203, e-mail: [email protected], web address: www.iaus.ac.rs Serbia; Nan-Ching Tai, University of Washington, Department of
FINANCIAL SUPPORT Architecture, Seattle, USA; Dobrivoje Tošković, Belgrade, Serbia;
Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia Mladen Ulićević, University of Montenegro, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Podgorica, Montenegro; Ljubica Velimirović, University
Printed in Serbia by Planeta print, d.o.o., Belgrade of Niš, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Dept. of Mathematics and
Number of copies: 300 Informatics, Niš, Serbia; and Đorđe Zloković, Belgrade, Serbia
spatium
CONTENTS
No. 22, July 2010, Belgrade
Miodrag Vujošević Editorial

Jasna Petrić
GENERAL STRATEGIC ISSUES
1-10 Luigi Mazza Strategic planning and republicanism
REGIONAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
11-18 Marija Maksin Challenges, responces and partnership for achieving sustainable tourism and
heritage preservation
19-28 Saša Milijić, Approach to identification and development of mountain tourism regions and
Igor Marić, destinations in Serbia with special reference to the Stara planina mountain
Olgica Bakić
29-37 Marijana Pantić, Regional differences between rural areas of Serbia in population aging and
Jelena Živanović Miljković agricultural activities: case studies of the Inđija and Knjaževac
municipalities
URBAN CONSTRUCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
38-46 Đorđe Đorđević, Visual illusion of the change of the size of architectural and urban objects
Gordana Vujić observed upon change of observer’s distance: parameters that influencе it
phenomenologically
47-56 Igor Marić, Transformation of the New Belgrade urban tissue: filling the space instead
Ana Niković, of interpolation
Božidar Manić
57-66 Aleksandra Nenadović Development, characteristics and comparative structural analysis of

tensegrity type cable domes
67-72 Ljiljana Petruševski, Parametric curves and surfaces -MATHEMATICA demonstrations as a tool
Milana Dabić, in exploration of architectural form
Mirjana Devetaković
spatium
Dear readers,
Here is the No. 22 of the International Journal Spatium, which contains eight articles within three thematic groups: General
strategic issues; Regional and rural development; and Urban construction and architectural design.
This is the last issue with predominantly miscellaneous content. Following the earlier announced editorial policy, as from the next
issue Spatium will be predominantly thematic, however, also containing other articles/topics of professional and scientific interest.
The two imminent themes comprise:
- Territorial cohesion in Central and South-Eastern Europe – Challenges ahead for strategic planning and urban-regional
governance; and
- Sustainable spatial (territorial) development.
Editor-in-Chief
spatium
spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 338.481.31
No. 22, July 2010, pp. 1-10 Review paper
STRATEGIC PLANNING AND REPUBLICANISM

Luigi Mazza1, Politecnico di Milano, Department of Architecture and Planning, Milano, Italy
The paper develops two main linked themes: (i) strategic planning reveals in practice limits that are hard to overcome; (ii) a
complete planning system is efficacy only in the framework of a republican political, social and government culture. It is
argued that the growing disappointment associated to strategic planning practices, may be due to excessive expectations, and
the difficulties encountered by strategic planning are traced to three main issues: (a) the relationship between politics and
planning; (b) the relationship between government and governance; and (c) the relationship between space and socio-
economic development. Some authors recently supported an idea of development as consisting in the qualitative evolution of
forms of social rationality and argued that a reflection about the relationships between physical transformations and visions of
development could be a way of testing innovations. But such strong demands might be satisfied only if we manage to make a
«new social and territorial pact for development», recreating a social fabric imbued with shared values. The re-creation of a
social fabric imbued with shared values requires a rich conception of the political community and the possibility that the moral
purposes of the community may be incorporated by the state. All this is missing today. Outside a republican scheme planning
activities are principally instruments for legitimising vested interests and facilitating their investments, and the resolution of
the conflicts that arise between the planning decisions of the various levels of government becomes at least impracticable. A
complete planning system can be practised if can be referred to the authority and syntheses expressed in and by statehood,
which suggests that in a democratic system planning is republican by necessity rather than by choice.
INTRODUCTION12 lending itself to ‘regionalisation’ through the In summary, there are two main ideas that I am
drawing of boundaries – a practice sure to putting to you: (i) in its practical applications
I should begin by telling you about at least two produce political, cultural, social and strategic planning reveals limits that are hard to
limitations of my lecture, one linked to my economic effects and. In short, to produce overcome; (ii) a complete system of planning –
academic and professional background, the different forms of political and social control i.e. the development of national, regional and
other to the peculiarities of the country in through control of space. local planning – is possible only in the framework
which I have always worked. of a political, social and government culture that
Secondly, despite some consultancy work in
is republican. 3
Since I am a planner, and not a regional other countries, my practical experience has been
scientist, my approach is first and foremost gained in Italy and especially the north of Italy. To develop these ideas I examine three questions
normative. Also, as will emerge from what I am Spatial planning is an activity too dependent on that highlight the reasons for the current
about to say, my approach is not the political, cultural and administrative tradition difficulties encountered by strategic planning: the
comprehensive, if by this we mean an attempt of the context, in which it takes place, to think that relationship between politics and planning; the
to consider the economic, social and spatial one country’s planning procedures and methods relationship between government and
aspects of an urban or territorial issue can be transposed to another or even be the governance; and the relationship between space
simultaneously. On the contrary, mine is a subject of easy comparison. Thoughts about a and socio-economic development. I conclude by
selective approach which considers space as planning case in Milan cannot be compared asserting that a republican approach, founded on
the key topic of study, and not as a resource for directly with those about one in Belgrade, Paris or ‘constitutional patriotism’ can restore authority to
vicariously exploring other topics and Berlin. One of the reasons why I am grateful for the state as well as legitimacy and meaning to
resources. And, in terms of the possible the invitation to speak at this conference is to planning.
technical practices, space as particularly understand how far a dialogue between planners
operating in different national contexts is possible
1
Via Ampere, 2 20133 Milano, Italy and useful.
[email protected]
I have mentioned the main limitations of my
I am grateful to Fausto Curti, Daniela De Leo, Luca
lecture to justify its particularly theoretical
2
3
Gaeta and Gabriele Pasqui for their comments on the First version of this paper was prepared for the
first draft of this lecture. I should also add that some of approach and also to stress that despite the International scientific conference Regional
the problems they identified are still, at least in part, theoretical nature of my arguments, they do not development, spatial planning and strategic governance,
unresolved. claim to be universally valid. held in Belgrade 7-8 December 2009
spatium 1
Mazza L.: Strategic Planning and Republicanism
UNCLEAR STRATEGIES: THREE definitions offered in the literature. The range of Patsy Healey, who in the past has used the
interpretations is really far too wide: it sweeps expressions ‘strategic planning’ and ‘strategic
REASONS FOR DIFFICULTIES
from traditional and institutional formulas, linked spatial planning’, now prefers ‘strategy-
The need for overall visions and plans capable to experiences of subregional and structure making’, which she defines as a key activity
of steering local and town planning already planning in the sixties, to dubious transpositions that «focused on urban areas involves creating
exists at the beginning of the twentieth century of business culture to the public sector, not only some conception of an ‘urban region’ and
on both sides of the Atlantic,1 but practices in America. It embraces governance and the forming institutional arenas in which to develop
everywhere see relatively similar forms of design of institutions, or communicative and maintain the strategic focus».9
zoning plans. We must wait until the end of the approaches, without forgetting an emphasis on
Recently, Gabriele Pasqui has traced three
‘60s to have the formal distinction between creativity and strategic imagination.5
different interpretations of strategic planning: «as
structure plan and action plan2 introduced in To get over this difficulty Albrechts has written that an institutionalised instrument of territorial
the British system, and to begin the journey «There is no ‘one way’ or ‘better way’ of strategic government; as a governance device capable of
towards strategic planning. Strategic planning planning» and «strategic planning can be defined integrating networks of players and building
accelerates in the next twenty years when, as a process guided by the public sector, through consent around important development strategies;
especially in the United States, it seems to which a vision, actions, and their means of and as a practice of ‘societal conversation’
provide the answer to the problems created for implementation are formulated, giving a form and capable of selectively activating players and
planning practices by neoliberal culture.3 Such framework to that which a place is and can resources around new or reinterpreted projects».10
was the enthusiasm for strategic planning that become».6 In a more recent essay Albrechts
many were led to believe that this alone was A more selective approach is taken by Friedmann
proposes a normative view of strategic spatial
real planning, and the only form worth who, after acknowledging how strategic planning
planning and indicates its «five main
addressing in the academic and professional has been imported from the business world,
characteristics (selective, relational annex
world.4 argues that it is normally used to refer to the key
inclusive, integrative, visioning, and action
issues of spatial planning over a timescale of 20-
Enthusiasm is on the wane: the numerous orientated)».7 But his conclusions are quite
30 years.11 But he emphasises the controversial
instruments falling under the broad label of general and open-ended: «The normative view
nature of this form of planning and adds: «Some
strategic planning have produced results that in includes a plea for a shift towards a more hybrid
see strategic planning as a way to set out an ideal
too many instances have fallen short of democracy, for a type of planning that expands
vision of the future; others see it as a vehicle for
expectations. After an explosion of ideological practical democratic deliberations rather than
generating technical studies that would otherwise
hostility twenty or thirty years ago, planning now restricts them, and that encourages diverse
not be undertaken; still others see it as a way for
has to consider widespread scepticism about its citizens' voices rather than stifles them; that
substituting technical for political rationality or,
efficacy, and a low level of agreement between directs resources to basic needs rather than to
alternatively, for undergirding and strengthening
planners themselves about the purposes and use narrow private gain; that uses public involvement
political reasons with technical studies; a fourth
of strategic planning. This lack of agreement is to present real political opportunities, learning
group may see it as a way to create a broad
manifest, for example, in the multitude of from action not only what works but also what
conceptual framework for wider public discussion
matters».8
and/or collaborative planning. And undoubtedly
1
Geddes’s vision is regional and involves continuity there are other purposes that may be claimed».12
between large-scale spatial ordering and the design 5
Even a few years ago strategic planning was defined Considering, among other things, the difficulties
detail of public space: note, continuity and not large by John Bryson as «a disciplined effort to produce in drawing up long-term policies and plans,
scale determining small-scale. Olmsted’s idea of a fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide
Friedmann believes that an approach which
general plan focuses particularly on the design of large what an (entity) is, what it does and why it does it».
urban areas and anticipates the pairing of the (Bryson, 2003, cited by Healey, 2007, p. 30; but concentrates on high-priority projects – ‘strategic
comprehensive plan and zoning, where in theory zoning likewise Bryson, 1995, pp. 4-5). A definition so closely focus’ – is more convincing than
should be the detailed and operational translation of the connected with corporate planning as to be of little use comprehensiveness, and suggests how to
general lines proposed by the general plan. in the public sector where profit is not the be all and develop these through studies that go into greater
2
In actual fact the pairing of general plans and detailed end all and where there are a variety of missions often
detail. Strategic focus seems better suited to cope
plans is already witnessed with the Greater London Plan competing with each other. In the public sector strategic
1944 and the City of Manchester Plan 1945; in the planning can produce satisfactory results only if applied with the static nature of traditional planning and to
following years it will be the turn of the first subregional to a specific sector with a well defined and relatively provide a sufficiently rapid response to problems
plans such as the Preliminary Plan for Lancashire 1951. straightforward mission. For the rest, if we exclude that cannot always be predicted.13
The reform introduced by the Town and Country forms of economic planning, such as that seen in
Planning Act 1968 is preceded by lengthy debate: see, France in the 1950s and 1960s, it has not yet been
9
for example, the Royal Town Planning Institute 1976, possible to bring the activities of all sectors of public Healey, 2007, p. 13.
10
Ministry of Housing et al. 1965. For a theoretical administration under the umbrella of overall strategic Pasqui, 2008, p. 53.
11
framework, see Taylor 1988. In Milan, some of the frameworks, capable of increasing the efficiency and And in support he cites Salet and Faludi, 2000;
schemes drawn up by De Finetti and by the AR plan in effectiveness of government and administration. Albrechts et al., 2003.
6 12
the 1940s can be defined as structural schemes, and it Albrechts, 2005, p. 268. Friedmann, 2005, p. 224.
7 13
is singular how the amendment made to the Milan Albrechts, 2006, p. 1149. Albrechts uses “building We ought to ask what the static nature of planning
General Town Plan by Hazon in 1967 appears in blocks from literature (planning and business) and [his] consists in and why it has to be overcome. In the case
substance and also in its graphic expression to be a experience in practice to construct a workable normative of urban planning, its ‘static’ nature, if interpreted and
structure plan. definition of the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of strategic spatial used properly, is its strength, but a footnote can only
3
Kaufman, Jacobs, 1987; Bryson, Roering, 1987. planning”. touch on this theme and certainly not address it
4 8
Faludi, van der Valk, 1994. Albrechts, 2006, p. 1165. properly.
2 spatium
Uncertainty about the meaning of strategic Without claiming in any way to exhaust the cost of the decision.19 In other words, planning
planning is accompanied by an explicit lack of subject, I believe that a critical exploration of knowledge serves to raise ethical as well as
confidence about the possibility of applying it in this situation must begin with careful thought technical questions about decision-making
practice. For example, in his introduction to a about three issues within technical culture: the processes, but certainly not to replace these
research into experience of strategic projects in relationship between planning and politics; the processes by taking the decisions itself, on a
seven European cities, Willem Salet writes that: relationship between government and technocratic basis.
«The evolution of cities is the largely unplanned governance; and the relationship between the
If we believe that it is the task of planning to come
and unintended outcome of more or less physical and socio-economic aspects, i.e.
up with visions and strategies for designing the
deliberate actions by many individuals and between territory and development. Three
future, we are entrusting it with a political role,
dispersed agencies searching to find a way out of issues that seem useful in casting light on the
such as proposing values and objectives, and an
the problems and circumstances they experience. current predicaments of strategic planning.
ideal society or city. From a technical perspective,
As such, urban evolution is consciously man-
Planning and politics this can be an exercise in political philosophy and
made and even policy-made in many respects,
law: to create visions and devise strategies
but it does not unfold harmoniously according to A talk on strategic planning is forced to planning must bring about syntheses that are not
the lines of a strategic plan. There is no complete consider the shifting boundaries between technical, but characteristic of societal
control, not even in countries where powers are planning activities and political activities as conversation and political debate.20 Unless the
shaped to enable hierarchical planning».14 Salet well as the equally shifting boundaries between approach is technocratic, it is inappropriate to
believes, however, that there is a strategic techniques and ethics. To a large degree the entrust technical practice with the task of
dimension of planning practices which lies in «the political nature of spatial planning activities is guiding societal conversation about a design
transcendence of individual horizons in scope and linked to their redistributive character and to for the future without the mediation of those
time»; therefore, he thinks it useful to focus the mechanism of exclusion and inclusion that civil institutions – political parties and clubs,
attention on framing, by which he simply means follows from this. The main effects of planning cultural associations, pressure groups, etc – to
«the different ways in which individual agents can practices are therefore political and social, which this role is assigned. Importantly, when
be held together».15 Salet does not seem to stop rather than economic and spatial. Above all, they seek the contribution of experts these
and consider on what terms and how in the these main effects redesign citizenship,17 to the institutions are not so much interested in the
current situation a perceptible ‘transcendence of extent that the undoubted spatial and economic
individual horizons' could be achieved, with the effects can be correctly defined as resources 19
effort that this would require, or, especially, what One example is the story of the car park built near the
for pursuing the political and social effects, Church of Sant’Ambrogio in Milan. The Church and its
the not inconsiderable political implications of rather than the actual aims of planning. It is surroundings are one of the sites marking the origins of
that transcendence might be, or the necessary these political and social effects that make the the city, and the memories that they guard have been
repercussions that it would have on the design of relationship between technical knowledge and very carefully tended over the last few centuries, as
planning practices and the justification behind ethical principles indissoluble; after all, control expressed by the spatial equilibrium maintained despite
them. the numerous and considerable changes witnessed over
of space has always involved ethical the course of time. One could say that until now the
Even from these few citations, a situation emerges assumptions.18 piazza of Sant’Ambrogio and its surroundings have been
as ramified as it is uncertain; a situation certainly an example of particularly good conservation within a
If we agree that an ethical framework is wider development. The addition of an underground car
explained by a host of reasons, partly inherent to indispensable to the building and application park with entrances in the immediate vicinity of the
technical culture, and partly supplied by the of technical knowledge, this does not mean Church seems an excessive risk that could and should
political and cultural contexts in which planning that planning must be so mixed up with politics have been avoided, especially after various negative
practices are developed. But it is a situation rather that it becomes ‘a form of politics’. The experiences of this kind in the past, such as the ruining
too ramified to be convincing, bringing to mind an of the nearby Piazza dei Borromei. One does not have to
implicit and explicit values and purposes of be a Catholic to recognise that the area of
old essay by Wildavsky, ‘If Planning is Everything, planning knowledge are unrelated to political Sant’Ambrogio is an important monument, to be
Maybe it’s Nothing’, one which is much cited but practices and, precisely for this reason, can respected and saved from excessive modernisation.
which unfortunately has produced no great reveal - because they are in agreement or at Evidently, the local authorities did not believe that the
results.16 variance with them - the values and purposes opening of the car park could result in a ‘disfigurement’
and, without any particular justification, went ahead with
often implicit in decision-making processes as
the decision. This case also shows that only widespread
well as the political and ethical implications of recollection of the past can defend a city from risky or
14
Salet and Gualini, 2007, p. 3. the decisions under discussion. ‘wrong’ developments; the opposition of the
15
The subject of framing is also the focus of a comment neighbourhood itself is rarely sufficient.
offered by Fausto Curti who suggests «creating light For example, the principle of preserving vestiges 20
Luca Gaeta observes that if creating visions and future
frames (whether they are called structural or strategic of the past is based on the ethical value attached strategies is a political task, when undertaken by
plans) capable of having some diagnostic efficacy. to those vestiges; if there is a conflict between this political philosophers and lawyers it cannot become
These frames should especially regard the principle and a decision to redevelop an area, the more of a technical one than it is when undertaken by
infrastructural and environmental matrices (which also arguments that technical culture may use for or planners. While acknowledging the sharpness of this
involve commitments and constraints for the observation, I believe that a difference lies in the fact
administration)». He then suggests «trying to pilot the against conservation serve to highlight the ethical that when philosophers and lawyers design models of
portfolio of possible options, by exploiting incentives, an ideal city, they propose them within the context of
partnerships and competition» (personal philosophical and legal debate as subjects or examples
17
communication). Mazza, 2007. of argument and not as the elements of plans or laws to
16 18
Wildasky, 1973. Mazza, 2009. be actually implemented.
spatium 3
technical merit of their proposals as in the between planning and political activity. As a always aware of doing so. It is possible that the
likely political consequences. To entrust result planning would be completely absorbed planner’s values and aims agree so closely
political tasks to technical practice may seem a by politics, or a situation would arise in which with those of government and the wider
generous decision, showing commitment. But the independent contribution, that techniques common sense that the planner is led to
it is a decision that, on the one hand, is at risk can give to societal conversation and the believe that his action is ethically neutral and
of tumbling into technocratic arrogance and, formation of the decision-making process, that his contribution is solely ‘technical’.
on the other hand, of seeing the technical would disappear.25 The theoretical approach
Planning, since it redistributes rights, is
content - still to be found in even frail practices that considers planning as a ‘form of politics’
nonetheless a process of reform, whether
such as those of planning - evaporating into is the most explicit expression of the confusion
progressive or conservative. Therefore, the
the common sense of what that content should between political decision-making processes
state of unawareness can be read as one of
be.21 and planning practices. And it is also the safest
‘mechanical’ reformism. In the sense of a
way of denying independence and specificity
Just as unconvincing, though widely held, is systematic, if not entirely uncritical,
to planning activities. The confusion between
the idea that the task of planning might be to implementation of values and aims that are
planning and politics often seems to arise from
identify and involve interested parties. To give taken for granted, because they are based on
the fact that many planners are not satisfied
a voice to interested parties and involve them values and aims endorsed by majority consent.
with collaborating in government activities.
in the decision-making process is again a For example, in the last thirty years mechanical
They believe that they should have an
political task. It is part of the game that reformism has been driven by the idea of the
independent role in devising and implementing
politicians are ready to let certain interests ‘market’ and of every type of reform being
public strategies. The suspicion arises that this
have a voice and not others.22 If, for example, conditional on the resources, and not just
may be due, not so much to their irrepressible
politicians do not let weak interests have a financial ones, provided by the ‘market’. In this
public spirit, as to their inability to understand
voice, it is not because they are incapable of case too, the redesign of citizenship brought
the technical problems and work out useful
doing so, but because they are not interested about by planning is following principles but
solutions to the questions on the government
in doing so. And if politicians do not let weak these, paying homage to the ‘value’ of the
agenda. Moreover, it seems to be forgotten that
interests have a voice, this does not mean that market, establish that citizenship should be
politicians’ decision-making responsibilities
planners, merely because they wish to, are ‘contractualised’. Therefore, individual rights
are based on an electoral mandate, which
politically and technically able and are, directly and indirectly, ‘purchased’ on the
planners do not have. And this is probably the
institutionally authorised to do so.23 A planner market, for example through insurance
most embarrassing aspect of the debate about
may act as a political advisor or directly as a schemes and contributions in exchange for
strategic planning.
political activist – this is an important services.26 Moreover, the production of public
commitment assumed by many experts in Not to consider planning as a form of politics goods is conditional on the amount of profits
every disciplinary field. The problem is not to does not mean that we should ignore the that the urban market generates.
expect a commitment, on the part of an political nature of technical planning
Mechanical reformism can be contrasted
individual or a group, to be transformed into knowledge or neglect the issue of how to use
with a critical awareness of the values and
the institutional goal of the technical practices technical knowledge in political dealings, in
aims attributed to planning practices. An
of a professional activity such as planning.24 other words the problem of the shifting
awareness that takes values and aims not as
boundaries between techniques and ethics. In
If designing the future and development of a inalterable givens, but as the products of the
his work, a planner always refers to ethical and
society was the job of planning practices, it would competing action of political and technical
political values and aims, even if he is not
no longer be possible to trace the boundary practices. This state of awareness can be
read as one of moral reformism: in other
21
Above all, the effect of this decision is to water down 25
It must be acknowledged that in some cases, for the words a state in which the expert reflects
the substance of the expected technical contribution, by most varied reasons and more or less explicitly, critically on the principles and values
rendering its political effectiveness inversely political decision-makers delegate certain decision- proposed by societal conversation. To
proportional to its recourse to moral arguments. making powers to experts. And it is not easy to act in
22 reflect critically in this way implies
It is probable that the most poorly represented voices this situation because there is no formal basis for the
are those of the weakest interests, but to give a voice to delegated power, which can thus be withdrawn acceptance by the expert of theories of state
these interests is, once again, a typically political rather unexpectedly and the expert’s decisions overturned; and and citizenship that form the terms of
than technical task. To entrust this task to planning in because the expert often does not have all the necessary reference for the values and aims of
the belief that politicians are unable to carry it out skills and information to handle the situation properly. planning and the ways of pursuing them.27
properly, not only creates a form of unfair competition Moreover, delegated powers are often exercised in
with politicians, but tends to make their unwillingness matters that the political system considers irrelevant,
pass for incompetence. with the result that, whatever the expert’s decision, it is
23 26
In the end, and depending on their beliefs, even those possible that it may never be implemented. In short, See, for example, Somers, 2008.
27
planners who, adhering most strictly to particular only when there is very great trust between decision- For moral reformism, the theories of state and
political decisions, have some political influence on maker and expert can the latter be prompted to accept a citizenship are not easy conditions to fulfil. In the final
their implementation, but this happens because delegated power that tends to confuse their roles and part of this lecture I argue that the intrinsic nature of
everyone, in the course of the work, engages, to some muddy the decision-making process. Acceptance of this spatial planning, an authoritarian instrument of
extent and sometimes unconsciously, in political power provides decision-makers with a form of ‘cover’ governance, reduces the field to republican theory.
activity, and not because they believe themselves to be that can only produce confusion in public debate; Meaning by that a theory in which, also in compliance
institutionally bound to do so. therefore, as a general rule, it should be politely with the principles of devolution and subsidiarity, the
24
Mazza, 1995, 2002. refused. collective interest prevails over individual interests.
4 spatium
To recapitulate. If we assume that planning is inspire him as a citizen. The problem is not so replace or limit and that, on the contrary, are
an instrument of government, when the much of ethical professional practice as reinforced by good governance.
political system and government know how to theoretical: if a political activist and a politician
Some authors seem to believe that with the
express clear values and aims, planners have are entitled to use technical arguments to
appearance of governance the processes of
two alternatives. Either to accept those values support a political idea, a technical expert who
government have changed. Whereas it is
and aims as givens and to work within that does so can convince people that there are
primarily our ways of describing them that have
reference framework, or, if they are unable to decisive technical reasons for deciding on a
changed and with positive effect. The links
share those values and aims, to turn down the public policy, which is almost always false. A
between government and vested interests have
work. The situation is more complicated when public policy can be analysed and evaluated
become more explicit and less confused and
politics and government do not know how to technically if that means exposing the expected
are covered by procedures that tend to render
express clear values and aims. To operate in costs and benefits, but it cannot be judged
them more transparent and more controllable.
this case, the planner is forced to stand in, an technically because the judgment of the costs
This does not mean that governance itself
action which rarely dispels the uncertainty in or benefits varies according to the values and
should be able to «trigger a search for creative
which the government is mired. Moreover, it is aims pursued politically.
solutions differing by territory»,31 unless one
very improbable that it will produce any
Government and governance believes that the ‘creativity’ of a public
significant political results. The government is
decision-making process is proportional to the
very likely to drop the planner’s proposals or In talks about strategic planning the opposition number of interests involved and not to the
only take up those which it thinks will satisfy its between government and governance is almost planning and leadership skills of the manager
immediate requirements, ignoring the general always cited. The opposition emphasises how of the process.
reference framework from which the planner strategic planning no longer refers to a
has drawn inspiration.28 government allocating resources and resolving Governance and institutional planning are
problems, but to governance perceived as the useful instruments within the framework of a
It could be argued that, in actual fact, there is a
ability to trigger a search for creative solutions clear and sound political strategy. While in a
third alternative, seeking to modify the values
by mobilising various players, with different complete turnaround it seems that at times we
and aims expressed by government. Anyone
and even conflicting interests, objectives and expect that strategy can be the product of
who pursues this purpose is engaged in
strategies.29 In other words, a narrowing of the governance and institutional planning. It is
political activity, regardless of his professional
role of the state in favour of greater social possible and desirable for a circular process to
role and possible use of technical arguments.
involvement in the design of collective action. be triggered between the three components but
Once again, it is not a question of preventing
But this is not the only way of understanding the trigger can only be political strategy.
experts from adopting political positions, but of
clarifying that these positions are such governance that we find in the literature, with Development and space
regardless of the technical arguments used. the result that we have another polysemic term
This distinction may appear formalistic, but let tending to create more problems than it Many supporters of strategic planning
us see how it applies in real life. manages to resolve.30 processes identify two dimensions: «One
dimension of this process is the value attached
Let us suppose that an advisor has been The opposition between government and
to the qualities of places and to appreciation of
appointed to collaborate in drawing up housing governance is possible if government is
their diversity; another dimension is the accent
policies only to discover that he does not share caricatured as an autonomous institution cut
on integrated socio-economic approaches,
the government’s aims, which he considers to off from its context, autocratic and totally
which go beyond the mere physical dimension
be too subservient to the vested interests of unapproachable. The opposition between
of traditional planning».32 In the last ten years,
property companies and too insensitive to the government and governance is of analytical
perhaps because of the ever increasing number
issue of social housing. If his attempts to value provided that governance is not
of large-scale town plans, there has been a
convince the administration to change its considered as overtaking government, Because
particular focus on ‘places’, whose qualities
objectives are unsuccessful, all the advisor can governance is, if anything, an instrument of
and differences have been emphasised. Healey
do is to resign and explain why. To make government, which retains powers and
stresses the role of places in connection with
public the reasons for his resignation is a responsibilities that no form of governance can
strategy-making, which she considers to be
legitimate and necessary professional step that «the development and deployment of a
has an evident political value. But if, after 29
Albrechts, 2005, p. 271. strategic imagination about the qualities of the
30
resigning, the advisor begins to campaign For example, governance is now used not only to
places of urban areas».33
against the administration’s policy, his action indicate informal non-vertical ways of organising
decision-making processes, but to indicate new forms The first dimension revisits themes already
is that of a political activist who uses technical of government, so that the distinction between
arguments to support the values and aims that dear to early twentieth century authors, such as
governance and government eventually disappears. To
take account of the different interpretations of Geddes and Unwin, and ever present in Italian
governance Healey resorts to the expression ‘urban culture. In reverting to them now we ought to
28
In brief, if the political system does not provide governance landscapes’ and acknowledges that the be aware that these themes did not become
reference values and goals that the expert considers «new organisational forms for governance activity raise
appropriate, there is no space for his planning activity. difficult questions about how the accountability and
31
This does not mean that other experts, because of their legitimacy of such activity can be established and blur Albrechts, 2005, p. 271
32
beliefs or for gain, may not share those goals and the boundary between the 'public' and 'private' sectors». Albrechts, 2005, p. 269.
33
values that the political system recognises and pursues. Healey, 2007, p. 19. Healey, 2007, p. xi.
spatium 5
less topical due to lack of attention or as well as the difficulty in interpreting and constructed and more persuasive as a result,
knowledge, but because of choices made in managing multi-scale and multi-level dynamic on the other hand it burdens planning activities
the context of modernist poetics and social relationships».35 Pasqui, in particular, with expectations that are too high and
philosophies characterised by egalitarian complains about the excessive number of historically bound to end in disappointment.
welfarism. To consider the quality and diversity instruments used in the last few years and their ‘Societal conversation’ is a political activity
of places is a choice based on values and negative results, and the terms that he uses to that is possible when the relevant players are
objectives. From a technical perspective, to describe these results are ‘failure’ and willing to debate the chosen subject, but this
consider the quality and diversity of places is ‘washout’.36 According to Pasqui, the errors willingness is increasingly rare, especially in
just as valid as not doing so. For example, it can be traced to three factors. First, the large cities. The impression is that many
was not considering − or only very partially inadequacy of the main human and procedural strategic planning approaches refer more to an
considering − them that enabled the components of government processes. imaginary society than real society.
construction of the «autostrada del sole», the Second, the inability of technical cultures to
Does not happen for that in the last few years
‘Motorway to the Sun’ which linked the north acquire a thorough grasp of the nature of
disappointment with general strategies has
and south of Italy for the first time. Therefore it planning topics and their differences in order
resulted in a shift of attention to specific
is incorrect to assume that this dimension is a to handle them properly.37 Third, the idea itself
strategies and especially strategic projects that
technical aspect of strategic processes; rather, of reform, too little attentive to social
attempt to treat an area according to its main
it can be traced to the ‘poetics’ of planning. intelligence, and to the embedding and
functional aspects: activity and mobility.
institutionalisation of development policies.
The second dimension − the accent on Strategic projects very ambitiously present
integrated approaches − was widespread in the Pasqui’s observations are thoroughly themselves as integrated development
early twentieth century among English convincing when they address general projects. Despite citing functional and
planners, even though they had been trained in questions such as those just described, while symbolic values, they actually are above all
the schools of architecture and engineering. It they are a source of perplexity, mainly for the instruments for breeding capital. In the
was then lost before re-emerging in the issues reasons already set out in the section on majority of cases large urban projects, justified
addressed in the British debate, between the ‘politics and planning’, when they address by plans, are strategic above all to their
end of the ‘50s and early ‘60s, about technical questions. If, on the one hand, mixing investors. Even though they have significant
recovering and integrating the socio-economic political and technical themes enriches implications for urban dynamics, in terms of
contents and effects of land-use decisions. political argumentation, which is better public costs rather than benefits. Politically,
This was the debate that would lead to the they use the cover provided by neoliberal
subregional strategic plans of the ‘60s and to culture by the emphasis on partnerships
35
Ivi, p. 109. between the public and private sectors, and by
structure planning. If nowadays we are again 36
Palermo, Pasqui, 2008: «… the consequences of this
addressing the same topics, we have to ask overlapping of instruments which are often very similar,
the processes of subsidiarity and
ourselves why in the span of a century we have but characterised by different sources of financing and modernisation. Rarely they are based on
not made some advances in the process of procedures, have been numerous and almost all overall visions and rarely their possible effects
integrating physical and socio-economic negative. … a factor of uncertainty, instead of a vehicle are evaluated in advance. In the majority of
for collective learning» (pp. 20-21) And with regard to cases in Italy, they are explicit forms of
questions.
new planning and integrated development policies, «the
privatisation of the processes of urban
The associations between the physical and steps taken over the last fifteen years can hardly be
called a success» (p. 25) and on the following page: transformation.
socio-economic dimensions are taken up
«the experience of territorial development policies
within a wider and more problematic If the technical contribution merely recognises
could actually be considered a total wash-out». An
consideration of the associations between the absence of leadership, partnerships incapable of the interdependent aspects of these large urban
processes of developing territory and building coalitions, inadequate project management, projects – economic and social action, spatial
governing territory, the subject of two essays processes of institutionalisation that in certain cases configuration, and institutional agreement – in
by Palermo and Pasqui. Their argument is that become a brake, and unnecessarily complicated and order to handle them more efficiently, it ends
unsatisfactory vertical relationships, are some of the
ways and forms of thinking about possible up in their tow. Therefore, rather than resigning
main reasons behind the regulation mechanism break-
contamination between the two planning logics downs that have represented «factors of uncertainty and and restricting ourselves to mere analysis after
are still very unsatisfactory.34 instability» (p. 30). Pasqui believes that the connection the event, the problem seems to be that of
between territorial development and transformation has identifying what the collective goal of large
For Palermo «the very unsatisfactory results of been largely overlooked and that there has been a urban works might be, so as to base their
integrated territorial development programmes failure to «interpret productively the possible forms of design on this goal and use it as an instrument
in Italy, are over the last ten years perhaps contamination between the two design logics, because
of the limits having to do with institutions and politics;
for evaluating them. I shall return to this point
partly due to certain limitations cited here. On later on.
with interests and with society; and with forms of
the one hand, a certain overestimate of the knowledge and forms of technical rationality» (p. 31).
wealth of identity, and quality and relational 37
«The missing link between analysis and design of
Palermo’s article, though using technical
capability of local systems. On the other hand, policies and substantive interpretation of territorial arguments, is not only a reflection about
the generally artificial and often opportunistic development dynamics, in all their variety and territorial and development policies, but a
nature of networks and contingent coalitions; ramifications and their physical effects on the territory, political essay.38 With reference to Donolo,
is perhaps precisely the area in which we need to
invest, also in terms of qualified personnel and training
34 38
Palermo, Pasqui, 2008, p. 5. strategies» (Ivi, p. 80). Ivi, 2008, pp. 101-134.
6 spatium
Palermo proposes an idea of development without which its power might be delegitimised. finding oneself to be part of a shared history
consisting in the «qualitative evolution of forms of But it is not difficult to discover that, to legitimise and feeling a political obligation to implement
social rationality» and a reflection about «the its action, a democratic secular state demands the constitutional contract. In short, the
relationships between physical transformations values and presuppositions which it cannot republican paradigm is revisited «from two
and visions of development» that could be «a way reproduce and guarantee.42 In their debates, essential angles: redefinition of the nature of
of putting innovations and hopes to the test».39 For political philosophers have held for some time the ties of citizenship and acknowledgement of
Donolo, and for Palermo, reference to the that the non-denominational or secularised state a shared history identified as being the history
principles of economic efficiency and public has therefore a need for «meta-political of a nation».47 A position partly recalling that of
authority (i.e. the traditional roles of the market references, without which its power is at risk of Taylor, who says that patriotism consists in
and state) is not enough. Other «mechanisms of undergoing a delegitimisation process».43 collective identification with a historical
social regulation must be considered, in the community founded on certain values,48 adding
Nowadays this contradiction, which the state
context of reciprocity, and capacity for self- immediately afterwards that the essential
cannot solve on its own, is if possible even more
organisation and networking».40 Lastly, according values of that community must include liberty.
glaring. It reverberates through ideas of
to Palermo, to usher in a new season of In the republican tradition, in the context of the
citizenship, which have always been developed
development policies it is necessary to rule of law, citizenship and liberty are generally
with reference to notions such as political
implement the following principles: «shared considered as equivalent terms, and the law as
community and the common good. Due to a lack
strategic vision, hierarchy and selectivity of a source of liberty.49
of shared value systems, these notions are
investments, subsidiarity of commitments and
nowadays increasingly problematic, with the In referring to Rusconi’s proposal I am
responsibilities, and a federation of sector policies
consequence that planning activities have less attempting to find an answer to the difficulties
on a territorial basis».41 With the warning that such
legitimacy than in the past and have lost their that spatial planning encounters when it tries to
strong demands can be satisfied only if we
basic term of reference: public interest.44 raise itself above the local dimension and to
manage to make a «new social and territorial pact
constitute a system that carries coherent and
for development», and to recreate a social fabric A solution to the internal contradiction between the
cooperative visions and decisions across the
imbued with shared values. need for values to support state action and the
various levels of government.50 Developing
inability of the state to guarantee these necessary
REPUBLICANISM AND PLANNING values, has been sought by resorting to the classic
strategies is very difficult, not to say
impossible, if the state does not retrieve its
SYSTEMS model of “civil religion”.45 Ten years ago Rusconi
authority and commitment to coordinating
proposed that the concepts of republicanism and
However, the re-creation of a social fabric imbued planning functions at all levels. Designing and
civil religion be retrieved, reformulated as «models
with shared values is a purely political theme. It implementing coherent strategies requires a
potentially capable of supplying common motives
requires a rich conception of the political community with common motives, capable of
(‘presupposed values’) for politics, and of
community and the possibility that the moral producing bonds between citizens and limiting
producing ties between citizens that go beyond
purposes of the community may be incorporated as well as providing scope for individual and
their ethical visions. Values that in the language of
by the state. All this is missing today. During the group behaviour.
republicanism are called the virtues of public spirit
last few centuries the state has become a secular and civic integration».46 When one believes that the ultimate, even if
state, a state which no longer has a religious or unconscious, purpose of planning is to
ethical basis. The secularisation process and Underpinning the republican outlook is, instead
redesign citizenship, a republican approach
emancipation of the individual create the need for of civil religion, constitutional patriotism:
seems necessary precisely in order to
a new community and homogeneity of secular rediscover common motives among citizens
values, which, in place of religious ones, may 42 and restore authority to the state. If a new
Bockenforde, 1986, p. 121.
serve as a basis for state action. 43
Rusconi, 1999, p. 40. social contract is required in order to develop
44
Everyday experience shows that even a secular Vujosevic, 2004. The description he gives of the
shortcomings of planning is valid outside the confines
state accepts certain ethical assumptions, and its of Yugoslavia, but one comes away with the impression 47
Rusconi, 1999, p. 26. Rusconi writes of the «politics
citizens participate in public conversations which that the author’s idea of planning is too demanding. of history» … in the sense of «keeping in mind a path
have ethical contents. It has been observed that 45
In the American experience a reply to this need has of history open to conflicting interpretations, but at the
this need for values generates an internal been granted by the classic model of “civil religion”, same time not losing sight of the value of republican
contradiction: to develop its action the state needs which is an official fusion of values and religious democracy as the point of arrival and the criterion for
formulas and of the democratic “faith”. In the French judgment» (p. 96).
to support it with certain ethical assumptions, experience we find a secular republican variant of the 48
Taylor, 1989, cited by Habermas, 2001, p. 116. For a
same reply. Where there was no “civil religion” this comparison between the liberal and republican models,
39
Ivi, pp. 103-104. homogeneity was initially guaranteed by the idea of see also Sandel, 2005 and Vertova, 1999.
40 49
Ivi, p. 106. The market «may not be able to ensure nation; the unity of nation was a substitute for unity Pettit, 1997, pp. 36-39. With the side note that,
sustainable development processes»; it is necessary for based on religion. When the building process of the according to Pettit, republicans are less concerned with
society and politics to come into play. For Donolo, nation-state was concluded, the democratic secular freedom from interference than freedom from dominium
territory is «a matrix and constituent form of social state tried to find in a community of values and beliefs (Dagger, 2002, p. 147).
50
complexity, a heritage of common goods exposed to its basis and legitimisation. In Italy territorial planning is entrenched almost
46
various levels of relationships, a dynamic network of Ivi, p. 7. According to Rusconi «Republicanism and exclusively at local level. There are no forms of national
spatial and temporal flows that requires an ability to civil religion have the same roots. They are two ways of territorial planning, even for those key services that
govern processes» (p. 105). promoting the idea of civic integration and civism» require it, and regional territorial planning is often a
41
Ivi, p. 120. (p. 47). fiction.
spatium 7
planning, and especially to design and Therefore, the multiple meanings of and moral bodies, and he believes that
implement strategies, I believe that the meta- citizenship accompanying the Republican community is probably the most important of
political pre-conditions for this involve the model are no less ambiguous when a the goods that are distributed. But he adds that
creation of a cultural and social context comparison is made with the liberal model. distribution is in the hands of the majority of
typical of the republican tradition; also However, crucial to the republican model is the the citizens of a country and that it would be
because it is this tradition that embraces an theme of self-government, which can unrealistic to think of communities with
idea of citizenship which, more than any constitute a benchmark for evaluating public completely open boundaries.59
other, can be adopted as an analytical and policies, in the sense that it holds out the
Despite these variations and ambiguities, the
normative standard for constructing and option of considering good policies to be those
republican approach is still indispensible to
evaluating planning decisions. functional above all to the development of
thinking about a new social contract in which,
democracy as self-government. For example,
As an alternative to liberal, social democratic, also in line with the principles of devolution
improvement of the population’s living
communitarian and ethical approaches, a and subsidiarity, the collective interest prevails
conditions, as pursued according to the social
republican approach is certainly one possible over the individual interest, and also to thinking
democratic concept of equality, does not in
choice; but even with regard to the mere about a form of planning that is acknowledged
itself ensure self-government.
notion of citizenship, it must be to have the redesign of citizenship as its
acknowledged that a republican approach is In the republican approach, improving living ultimate goal. Outside a republican scheme,
anything but unambiguous in the literature.51 conditions is not considered a pre-condition planning activities are principally instruments
Various authors identify the features of the for exercising political citizenship. Rather for legitimising vested interests and facilitating
republican model and contrast them with the than the objective of social citizenship, as a their investments. And, outside the republican
liberal model. Taylor and Habermas, for pre-condition for exercising political scheme, the resolution of the conflicts that
example, highlight the instrumental nature of citizenship, the objective of the republican arise between the planning decisions of the
institutions in the liberal approach, while in approach is the exercising of an active various levels of government becomes at least
the republican approach participating in political citizenship. The difference is not impracticable.
government is seen as an essential marginal because it is assumed that political
Planning can generally be practised if it is
component of the role of a citizen, as a value citizenship may/must be exercised also in
possible to refer to the authority and
in itself and as the essence of liberty.52 unfavourable economic and social conditions,
syntheses expressed in and by statehood,
and that in any event it must be this that
According to Sandel, the republican idea of which suggests that in a democratic system
produces an improvement in those
liberty consists in participating in self- planning is republican by necessity rather
conditions.56 In the liberal tradition and the
government, an idea that in itself is not than by choice. One could reasonably object
social democratic one, citizenship is often
inconsistent with the liberal idea of freedom.53 that a republican choice is a political choice
reduced to different forms of
Vertova does not hesitate to use the term to which planning can only adapt itself. But
contractualisation linked to the market and the
republican within a liberal approach,54 and cultural processes are not so linear, even if
state, while in the republican model
Dagger coins a sort of oxymoron, republican technical culture takes part in the societal
citizenship involves substantive participation
liberalism, based on the common conversation that chooses the political
in the community.57
commitment by both theories to the rule of models of living.60
law. But Dagger is forced to conclude that The theme of self-government does not conflict
I believe it is legitimate to argue that there are
republican liberalism cannot be a satisfactory with constitutional patriotism because the
no stand-alone principles of planning, and
form of liberalism, since it involves a vision, republican idea of citizenship cannot be
that any general principle can only be worked
even if perfectible, of a good society.55 separated from the idea of being a member of a
out in terms of political philosophy and
nation. And especially because obligations
metaphysics. One can consider a planning
play a role in the public life of the community,
system to be efficient if it facilitates the
alongside and before the rights of citizens.58
operations of the urban market, or one can
But active conceptions of citizenship may not
51
See Bobbio, Viroli, 2003. consider it to be efficient if it favours
52
In contrast with an individualistic and instrumentalist be distinguishable from ethical and
transparent forms of self-government. One
concept of the role of citizen, characteristic of the liberal communitarian conceptions, and the risk of
can consider expropriation to be a violent
model, there is a communitarian and ethical concept over-estimating the dimension of local
typical of the republican model; whereas for liberals form of state intervention that disrupts the
community is ever present. For example,
political citizenship is a form of membership on which market and damages ownership rights, or one
Walzer, following a long-standing tradition, has
the citizen’s legal position is founded, for republicans it can consider expropriation, when properly
is membership of an ethical and cultural community
proposed recognising neighbourhood, district
compensated, to be an input towards the
which is self-determined. «The reference point for the and ethnic communities as effective political
production of the goods and rights that
republican concept is the problem of self-organisation
56
of society, once it has been admitted that the substance This theme is developed by Brandeis and Croly, the
59
of the concept of citizenship should be sought in the two advisors to Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Walzer, 1983, p. 39.
60
political rights of participation and communication» Roosevelt during the presidential race in 1912; their For example, even recently in Italy, many difficulties
(Habermas, 2001, pp. 113-125). common concern was what type of citizens the were encountered during an attempt to draw up a ‘law
53
Sandel, 2005, p. 10. organisation of the economy would have generated. setting out the principles for governing the territory’,
54 57
Vertova, 1999. Delanty, 2000, p. 9. because of the difficulty in identifying convincing
55 58
Dagger, 1997. Hindess, 1993, pp. 26-28; Bellamy, 1993, p. 71. planning principles.
8 spatium
nourish citizenship.61 One can consider town government authority planning may be only a Sector’, Journal of American Planning
planning to be instrumental to the functional more or less convincing propaganda. Focusing Association, 53, 1, 9-22.
transformation of space and particularly on ambitious development and spatial policies Dagger R. (1997) Civic Virtues. Rights,
attractive aesthetic results. Or one can consider planners may forget that actual planning Citizenship, and Republican Liberalism, Oxford
town planning to be instrumental to the actions are a political choice the government U.P., Oxford.
reinforcement of constitutional patriotism, by may or may not take. Planning is not a Dagger R. (2002) ‘Republican Citizenship’, Isin
respecting the traces left by history in the governments’ compulsory task, and E.F. and Turner B.S., eds., Handbook of
urban form and, for example, by making governments often use planning as a ‘window Citizenship Studies, Sage, London, pp. 145-
changes in the form conditional upon dressing’ to introduce and cover their real 158.
functional and symbolic values held to be policies. What governments cannot escape is Delanty G. (2000) Citizenship in a Global Age.
important in terms of self-government.62 land use control which is an indispensable Society, Culture, Politics, Open U.P.,
component of national and local geopolitics, Buckingham.
Even if it is not the task of planning to
but the need of property defence and territorial
contribute directly to the political debate on the Faludi A., van der Valk A. (1994) Rule and Order.
control are not sufficient to support a complete
approaches that must form the reference Dutch Planning Doctrine in the Twentieth
planning system. Local spatial planning is Century, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
framework for the action of government,
somewhat necessary, but the development and Dordrecht.
technical planning culture has a responsibility
implementation of consistent national,
to clarify which theoretical approaches should Friedmann J. (2005) Globalization and the
regional, and local policies and the solution of
underpin the principles on which techniques Emerging Culture of Planning, Elsevier, Oxford.
inevitable conflicts within the government tiers,
base the models for possible planning systems Habermas J. (2001) Morale, diritto, politica,
demands a shared idea of public interest,
and which principles these models wish to Comunità, Turin.
which only a republican culture can provide.
follow.63 Healey P. (2007) Urban Complexity and Spatial
BIBLIOGRAPHY Strategies, Routledge, London.
CONCLUSIONS
Hindess B. (1993) ‘Citizenship in the modern
Albrechts L. (2005) ‘Alcune riflessioni sul cosa e
The paper argues that the difficulties sul come della pianificazione strategica’,
West’, in Turner B.S., ed., Citizenship and
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64 Received December 2009; accepted in revised form

May 2010
10 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 338.484:502.131.1
No. 22, July 2010, pp. 11-18 005:338.48
Review paper
CHALLENGES, RESPONSES AND PARTNERSHIP

FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION
Marija Maksin1, University Singidunum, Faculty of tourism and hospitality management, Belgrade, Serbia
The process of globalization has created the situation where the expectations of tourists are the same both with respect to the
quality of services in all destinations and with respect to the authencity based on local attractions and experiences, which
should be unique and different for each destination. The key element in maintaining destination attractiveness is the
protection and presentation of natural and cultural heritage and its sustainable utilization for tourism development. The
sustainability concept is of equal importance for long-term tourism development, destination competitivness and heritage
protection. The paper deals with the main challenges to achieving sustainable tourism and points to some key responses to
them. Participation, cooperation and partnership should be a vital prerequisite for the implementation and performance of
sustainable tourism and heritage protection. This attitude has been tested on several examples of good practice in heritage
protection and the sustainable development of tourism destinations in Serbia.
Key words: authenticity of tourism destination, sustainable tourism, protection of natural and cultural heritage, challenges,
responses, partnership for sustainability.
fact, it is the question of the concept being of concept of sustainable development and
INTRODUCTION1 equal significance and interest both for long- heritage protection. This has been tested on
The authenticity/uniqueness of a tourism term tourism development, competitiveness several examples of good practice in the
destination is based on the existing and and sustainability of tourism destinations, and protection and sustainable utilization of cultural
potential natural and cultural attractiveness of for the protection of heritage as the basic heritage, and in tourism development in
space and created activities. Space tourism resource. Serbia.
attractiveness for tourism development is The paper deals with the main challanges to
evaluated both on the basis of the sustainable tourism development, which are of THE ROLE OF ATTRACTIVENESS IN
attractiveness of tourism resources and on the significance for the protection and sustainable TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
basis of the quality of spatial accessibility and utilization of natural and cultural heritage, such
arrangement. According to Keller (2002), the process of
as: dynamic growth management, climate globalization has created the situation where
The basis for creating a tourism product and change, poverty reduction and support to the expectations of potential tourists are the
developing a tourism destination is provided heritage protection. The responses to these same with respect to their comfort and quality
by the cultural and natural heritage and socio- challenges should rely on the basic principles of services for all destinations, on one side,
cultural specifics of local communities. and approaches concerning the development and with respect to authenticity based on local
Therefore, one can speak about and implementation of sustainable tourism. attractions and experiences that are unique and
complementarity and interdependence along The paper analyzes only several most typical for different destinations, on the other.
the following lines: tourism development, significant responses that are of common
protection and presentation of cultural and interest for sustainable tourism development The authenticity of a tourism destination is
natural heritage, preservation of the authentic and heritage protection – the observance of decisive for satisfying the human needs to
culture and identity of local communities. sustainable development boundaries, change the routine and experience a new and
promotion of sustainable consumption and different environment and way of life. The
The basic tendency is to have entire tourism climate change adaptations. authenticity/uniqueness of a tourism
becoming sustainable as integrated sector. In destination, understood as its difference from
It is held that participation, cooperation and other destinations, is based on existing natural
1
Danijelova 29, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia partnership among key actors are a and cultural attractiveness and created
[email protected] prerequisite for the implementation of the
spatium 11
Maksin M.: Challenges, responses and partnership for achieving sustainable tourism and heritage preservation
tourism-related (and recreational) global industry. It designates tourism which is In essence, planning and achieving sustainable
attractiveness. The more significant the based on the aims and principles of tourism consist in supporting positive regional
attractiveness of a destination – the greater the sustainable development. development tendencies, while at the same
potentials for its development (ibid.). Weaver time reversing negative ones.
Underneath this notion is the aim to have
(2006) argues that there is no consensus on
tourism as a whole become sustainable, The implementation of the concept of
the definition of tourism attractions and space
regardless of the form of tourism. It is held that sustainable tourism implies the minimization of
attractiveness. However, their central role in
every form of tourism is sustainable should it the negative impacts of tourism on the
tourism development is indisputable.
continuously contribute to the environmental environment and available resources and the
Space attractiveness for tourism development improvement, social well-being, economic maximization of the positive ones. The key
is evaluated both with respect to the prosperity, preservation of natural and cultural issues of concern are the identification,
attractiveness of tourism resources and with heritage and resources, cultural values and monitoring, assessment and management of
respect to the quality of spatial accessibility identity of a local community. In fact, it is the the impacts of tourism on the environment,
and arrangement. From the aspect of tourism question of the concept of equal significance values and resources.
development potentials, space is more and interest for tourism development,
The essence of sustainability lies in finding a
attractive and more significant if it is located in competitiveness and sustainability of tourism
proper measure, that is, a balance between the
the vicinity of attractive cultural and natural destination, as well as for the protection of
development of tourism and tourist regions, on
heritage; if it has more locations that meet the heritage as the basic tourism resource.
one side, and the protection and preservation
basic spatial arrangement criteria and if it
The concept of sustainable tourism of the environment, resources and values of
enables the conceptualization, evaluation and
development and its application are not regions and local communities, on the other
selection of the option for organizing the
unambiguous. (for more detail see: Swarbrooke, 2005). This
facilities of tourism-related demand in space
also implies supporting the view that
and for sustainable destination development. There appear more flexible (loose) and more
sustainable tourism can be achieved only as an
From a tourist’s viewpoint, space is more restrictive (strong) interpretations of the
integral part of sustainable regional
attractive if it is arranged, has aesthetic concept in accordance with the specific
development.
qualities and enables freedom in selecting features, significance and vulnerability of
activities and experiences in the creation of the available resources and goods, space The World Tourism Organization (WTO) set out
tourism product. In this connection, one must attractiveness for tourism and socio-cultural twelve aims for sustainable tourism.
bear in mind that the attractiveness of a specifics of local communities. A more Proceeding on the topic of this paper, we
tourism destination reflects one’s beliefs, restrictive sustainable tourism strategy is single out several aims for sustainable tourism.
feelings and attitudes concerning the spatial applied in planning and managing the
The preservation and observance of cultural
potentials for satisfying his/her tourism-related development of regions with relatively
diversity represent one of the key sustainable
needs. preserved and vulnerable natural and cultural
development principles. Tourism must
heritage and significant or limited natural
In any case, the basis for creating a tourism contribute to the protection, understanding and
resources with the aim to prevent their
product and tourism destination development observance of cultural heritage, authentic local
destruction due to the negative impacts of
is provided by the cultural and natural heritage culture, traditions and specifics of local
more intensive tourism development. A more
and socio-cultural specifics of local communities. Tourism must provide support to
flexible sustainable tourism strategy is applied
communities. Therefore, one can speak about the efficient management and protection of
in planning and managing the development of
complementarity and interdependence along cultural heritage, primarily by ensuring the
regions which have been distinctly modified by
the following lines: tourism development, cautious management of tourists and the
anthropogenic impacts, such as central urban
protection and presentation of cultural and provision of financial support to heritage
zones, urban and industrial centres, built
natural heritage, as well as the preservation of protection based on earned revenues. It is
tourism-related attractions, rural areas and
the authentic culture and identity of local necessary to maintain cooperation with local
settlements in the zone of influence of
communities (Maksin-Mićić, 2003). Roter- communities in order to ensure the adequate
infrastructure corridors and exploitation of
Blagojević et al. (2009) notifies the need for presentation of authentic local culture,
mineral raw materials and the like.
maintaining authenticity and traditional values carefully conceived interaction between the
of historic sites, their architectural and Achieving sustainable development is a population and tourists, formation of tourist
intangible heritage, as well as modern continuous process of tourism planning, experiences and overcoming of cultural
understanding of the role and utilization of management and improvement, which implies: differences.
protected historical sites as basic part of
• Participation and consensus of all actors; Spatial integrity, significant for destination
integral sustainable development of the region.
attractiveness, is achieved by planned spatial
• Significant involvement of public
arrangement, preservation and improvement of
INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN authorities at all levels, and
the aesthetics of regions and built spaces, and
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND • Monitoring if the environmental impact of the prevention of spatial degradation. Planned
HERITAGE PROTECTION tourism and undertaking of necessary spatial utilization and arrangement ensure the
preventive or corrective measures (WTO, harmonization of tourism development with the
The notion of sustainable tourism appeared in UNEP, 2005). potentials and restrictions of space utilization,
the early 1990s, when tourism became a big
local resources, heritage and local
12 spatium
communities. Necessary support is provided tourism and heritage protection, and with was collected. The fee is also paid by cruise
by using different codes (for the utilization of government bodies. ship passengers, but it is lower than that
vulnerable and tourist attractive spaces, spatial charged to stationary tourists by 20%. The
The Lascaux Cave can serve as an example of
arrangement and the like), monitoring and recreation permit fee and concession fee for
the sustainable protection and presentation of
control system, as well as the activities related protected areas are also charged. Grants from
cultural heritage. The Lascaux Cave is a
to the arrangement and maintenance of open corporations and individuals represent a
complex of caves which consists of six rooms
spaces, areas and structures. significant source of finance. The Trust
and several connecting corridors. On the cave
finances different projects, especially those
Local control implies inclusion, capacity walls and ceilings there are 2000 paintings and
which are launched by local medium and
building and assigning competences to local 900 can be identified as depicting animals.
small-sized enterprises with the aim to
communities in tourism planning, decision
After the Second World War, the cave was improve the quality of life of local population
making and development management, in
open to the public, but in 1955 already there and heritage and resources protection
consultation with key sectoral actors. It is
appeared the traces of degradation on its (www.pactbelize.org).
proceeded on the fundamental principle of
paintings caused by the concentration of
sustainable development that people should
carbon dioxide emitted by 1,200 visitors per THE MAIN CHALLENGES TO
assume the responsibility and control over
day. In 1963, the French authorities closed the ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
their lives. Second, tourism destinations that
cave to the public in order to restore the
include local communities in the planning and AND HERITAGE PROTECTION
paintings. Their restoration was completed in
implementation of tourism-related projects are
1973, but the cave has remained accessible According to the World Tourism Organization
much more successful in ensuring sustainable
only to research and conservation/restoration (WTO, UNEP, 2005), the main challenges to
development and gains for the local
teams to the present day. achieving sustainable tourism are: dynamic
population. In order to have local authorities,
growth management, climate change, poverty
local stakeholders and local population take an In 1983, due to the great interest taken by
reduction and support to heritage protection.
active part in tourism development and visitors, an exact replica of the Great Hall of the
decision making, it is necessary to ensure their Bulls and the Painted Gallery, known as Dynamic Growth Management
training, the raising of their awareness of the Lascaux II, was opened to the public in a cave
values of heritage and other regional resources in the village of Montignac. The expected growth of tourism over the next
and the impacts of tourism on the local 15-20 years imposes significant pressure on
In this way, cultural heritage is protected for all resources on which tourism development is
community and timely provision of information
future generations, while the created attraction based.
to the public.
is open to visitors. In 2000 and 2008, due to
The complementarity and interdependence the appearance of fungi, the Lascaux Cave had It is necessary to ensure the responsible
between sustainable tourism development and to be completely closed and restored once management of tourism development in order
sustainable natural and cultural heritage and again. to avoid serious disturbances and destructions
landscape protection has been addressed by of tourism destinations. This requires a very
On both occasions, apart from the competent careful planning of the new development of
International Organizations such as: UNESCO
government bodies, French tour operators also tourism in space, better management of
(World Heritage Convention, 1992; Managing
took part in the rescue mission, including the environmental quality and greater influence on
Tourism at World Heritage Sites, Manual No. 1,
visit to Lascaux II in their package tours as the the consumer habits of tourists.
2002; Operational Guidelines for the
main attraction (www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/
implementation of World Heritage Convention, The areas most vulnerable to tourism pressure
dp/arheo)
2008, World Heritage Cultural Landscape, are:
Paper No. 26, 2009, etc), UNWTO (Agenda 21 Another example is the imposition of the
for the Travel&Tourism Industry, 1996; Making conservation fee in Belize, a country in Central • Maritime ecosystems – natural habitats and
Tourism More Sustainable, 2005, etc), WCPA, America, where 42% of the territory is under the heritage of acquatic and coastal ecosystems
IUCN, UNEP, ICOMOS and other organizations. some form of protection, due to its rich natural are especially vulnerable to errors in locating
The scope of activities has been even wider at heritage (the world’s second largest coral reef, tourism-related facilities and contents, excessive
EU level, from European Charter for rain forests, the largest cave system in Central concentration of tourists and inadequate or non-
Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (1995) America, the world's only jaguar preserve, 500 existent wastewater treatment systems in tourist
to Agenda for a sustainable and competitive protected species, several national parks) and complexes and on board cruise ships;
European tourism (2007), from European cultural heritage (numerous archaeological • Biodiversity of the most vulnerable
Cultural Convention (1954) to European sites of the Maya culture). In 1996, the ecosystems – endangered by tourist visits and
Landscape Convention (2000) and Draft Protected Areas Conservation Trust (PACT) was movements (mountain regions, protected natural
Framework Convention of the Council of formed with a view to providing funds for the resources, etc.);
Europe on the value of cultural heritage for protection, sustainable development and
society (2005). • Historic cities and attractive cultural heritage
management of natural resources and
sites – especially vulnerable to the excessive
protected areas in Belize. The conservation fee
All these activities and support for concentration of tourists and traffic congestion,
implementing the concept of sustainable of $7.5 is paid by tourists at the point of entry
which also affect the quality of life of local
development steered the conections and into the country. During the period 1997-2004,
population.
thanks to this fee, the amount of $1.7 million
coordination among different stakeholders in
spatium 13
One of the best known examples of tourism nucleus and discouraging increased real estate distribution of tourist receipts and finding the
pressure on heritage and a local community is demand. Thus, the most attractive part of way to allot one part of tourism consumption to
the city of Venice. Dubrovnik has almost remained without its poor community members.
permanent residents (1902 inhabitants 2006 in
Proceeding on the vulnerability of the historic Another challenge is to reverse the tendencies
comparation to 5439 inh. 1961) and has been
city of Venice and popularity of this in the quality of tourism-related activities,
losing its authenticity. Without the culture of
destination, the spatial marginal capacity was especially for the local population by providing
life, social mileu, specific dialect and other
determined on a number of occasions. adequately paid jobs and career advancement
characteristics of the local population, the
According to the analyses made in 1991, the prospects for employees.
protection and presentation of cultural heritage
carrying capacity of Venice should be 25,000
and tourism are suffering a great loss. Support to Heritage Protection
tourists per day. In August of the same year,
Dubrovnik will also be faced very soon with the
Venice was visited by about 38,000 tourists The world is faced with the problem of
problem of maintaining the buildings that are
and excursionists per day. At that time already, ensuring adequate financial resources for the
seasonally used, usually once a year, and the
the estimated capacity was exceeded every protection of natural and cultural heritage.
degradation of the cultural heritage of the
second day of the year, showing an upward Financial support to the protection of natural
historic city nucleus will begin (Đukić,
tendency in excessive frequency and volume. and cultural heritage is partially provided from
Jerković, 2008).
Local and national authorities have not taken countries' public revenues. Developing
As for the vulnerable areas exposed to constant countries earmark less than 30% of funds
any steps to direct and manage the volume and
tourism pressure, some authors (Weaver, required for heritage protection, while some
intensity of tourism in this city. The adverse
2006) advocate the differentiation of spaces countries reduced these funds by nearly 50%
impacts of mass tourism, especially
and activities into entities/zones for: during the past decade.
excursionist one, have contributed to the
movement of the local population out of the • More intensive tourism development, so- So far, tourism has mostly indirectly
historic nucleus and disruption of urban called “front-stage" zones; contributed to heritage protection, primarily by
identity (Picture 1), as well as the lowering of increasing the income of the regions with
• Residential zones and resident population
the quality of urban life and tourist experience protected heritage with the funds coming from:
settlements, so-called “back-stage" zones;
(Swarbrooke, 2005). charging entrance fees for protected heritage,
• Protective belts between these
fees for the utilization of protected heritage and
zones/entities, so-called “buffer" zones.
resources, building permits, concessions and
This approach is unavoidable in the case of the like. This form of tourism contribution can
cultural heritage in Giza. The attractive cultural be increased.
heritage area in Giza is a typical example of
mixed functions and activities, high Charging entrance fees for the most valuable
concentration and pressures of different users natural and immovable cultural heritage is most
on this heritage and its environment. This often practiced as an instrument to control the
causes discontent among foreign tourists, number of visitors and their impact on the
because their experience of cultural environment and heritage, in accordance with the
monuments is impaired. This also resulted in carrying capacity of protected space and tourism
increased intolerance between the local destination. Their use can be differentiated,
Picture 1: Degradation of the historic nucleus of Venice population that provides tourism services and depending on the vulnerability of heritage to
the residents of Cairo who regard the area as tourism pressure during the year and on the
Source: Maksin et al. (2009), p. 74
an urban park for rest and recreation. The local socio-economic characteristics of visitors in order
Dubrovnik is faced with a similar problem. The and urban populations hold that the problem to prevent the economic discrimination of tourists.
high concentration of tourists in the historic would be solved by space zoning according to The purpose of the funds so collected is also
city nucleus is further increased by cruise ship the type of visitors (Weaver, 2006). important when determining the prices of
excursionists. This impairs the tourist entrance fees and other charges. It is held that the
experience and affects the way of life and Poverty Reduction higher price of an entrance fee or charge is
survival of the local population. Local justified when the funds are invested in heritage
inhabitants have launched an initiative with the The millennium aim of the United Nations is to protection and spatial arrangement, or are used to
reduce the world’s poverty by half until 2015. support local communities.
local and national authorities for the
introduction of the time zoning of visits to the The contribution of tourism towards achieving The City of Zagreb introduced a monument
historic city nucleus. Another problem is posed this aim is based on the use of comparative annuity, which represents a share of earned
by the impact of several factors. The real estate advantages of poor countries with the income or profits from the specific benefits of
prices in Dubrovnik are the highest in Croatia. preserved national and cultural resources and utilizing cultural heritage. The monument annuity
The attractiveness of the historic city nucleus heritage. As a labour-intensive industry with is paid by income or profit tax payers who perform
induced a great number of foreign tourists to low entry barriers, tourism is making the their business activities within cultural sites. The
buy flats for second homes and other facilities greatest contribution to rural areas, which amount of such an annuity depends on the
in it. The city authorities did not conduct an account for about two-thirds of the poor. significance of cultural site and the size of
adequate policy, thus encouraging the local
The challenge lies in a more equitable business space (www.zagreb.hr).
population to remain in the historic city
14 spatium
Insofar as tourist fees (for the benefits of bank erosion, flooding, impaired landscape THE RESPONSES AND
utilizing tourism space) and taxes are asethetics and other changes will have a great ADJUSTMENTS TO THE
concerned, the following questions are impact on tourism.
CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE
significant from the aspect of sustainable
tourism: (i) are they specifically imposed for
Mountain, coastal and insular destinations, TOURISM AND HERITAGE
where tourism is based on natural tourism PROTECTION
sustainable destination development; (ii) who
resources, are distinctly vulnerable to
will pay them – tourists or the tourism industry; The responses to the challenges are based on
environmental change caused by climate
(iii) are they equally or evenly applied to all the basic principles and approaches
change.
subsectors of the tourism industry; (iv) are the concerning the development and
amount and purpose of the fee or tax supported In its 2005 report, the World Heritage Centre implementation of sustainable tourism,
by all those concerned; (v) are the collected (UNESCO WHC) points out that the climate including specifically the establishment of a
funds distributed to the local community; (vi) change impacts on natural and cultural strategic sustainability framework, achieving
are the funds used to financially support heritage will affect nature-based tourism, the sustainability of tourism destinations and
destination management, environmental ecotourism, cultural tourism, safari tourism products, as well as achieving and monitoring
protection and the social aspects of destination and other tourism products. continuous progress towards sustainable
development; (vii) is the use of funds development.
The UNESCO WHC (2007) has identified
transparent and public, and the like (WTO,
several items from the World Cultural and The establishment of a strategic sustainability
UNEP, 2005).
Natural Heritage List as critical tourism framework includes the application of the
The challenge is to increase the direct destinations that will be endangered by climate following sustainability approaches and
contribution of tourism to the protection of change, including: principles: a holistic approach, inclusion and
heritage and sustainable utilization of protected mutual cooperation of key actors/stakeholders,
areas by: investing in heritage protection, • Venice, due to increased sea level; during
the past decade, it was under water about 100 long-term strategic planning, overcoming of
environmental protection and spatial global and local impacts, promotion of
arrangement; by providing an additional or days per year (Picture 2);
sustainable consumption and the equalization
alternative source of income to rural • Great Barrier Reef, Australia, due to coral of sustainability with quality. Achieving the
households and local communities utilizing bleaching and dying; sustainability of tourism destinations and
natural resources in a sustainable way (organic • Glacier-Waterton International Peace Park, products includes the application of the
production, rationalization of water USA, due to thawing glaciers; following sustainability approaches and
consumption, use of new and renewable principles: the “polluter pays“ principle,
sources of energy) and the like (ibid.). • Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania, due to
prevention principle, product life cycle,
the dramatic shrinking of its snow cap (half a
Climate Change consideration and evaluation of several options
metre per year) and its loss within the next 15
for the development of destinations, products
years;
Climate change poses the main challenge to and/or services, as well as the observance of
long-term tourism sustainability. It is the • Chan Chan Archaeological Zone, Peru, due sustainable development boundaries.
question of mutual impact – climate change to soil instability arising from flooding and
will influence tourism development, while erosion caused by the El Niño phenomenon; The continuous performance and monitoring of
tourism will contribute to climate change. the process of sustainable development
• Monuments in the centre of London include the implementation of the following
The contribution of tourism to total emissions (Westiminster Palace, Westminster Abbey and sustainability approaches and principles:
of greenhouse gases is estimated at 5.3%, the Tower of London), due to increased sea adaptation to changes and indicator-based
whereby transport accounts for about 75% and Thames water levels. monitoring of the process (WTO, UNEP, 2005).
(WTO, UNEP, 2008).
The application of the mentioned principles
Direct climate impacts on tourism will be and approaches to the development and
manifested in two forms – a change in the implementation of sustainable tourism will
length and quality of the tourist season and an have a significant impact on the protection of
increase in the costs and disturbances of cultural and natural heritage. This paper points
tourism-related activities. Direct climate out only several most significant responses of
impacts on heritage will have an indirect common interest to sustainable tourism
impact on tourism. They will be reflected in development and heritage protection – the
environmental and heritage disturbances observance of sustainable development
caused by climate change, which can have boundaries, promotion of sustinable
significant effects on tourism development in consumption and adaptations to climate
some regions and destinations. change.
Changes in the quantity and quality of available Picture 2: Venice under water The observance of sustainable development
water and snow resources, loss of biodiversity, Source: Maksin et al. (2009), p. 81 boundaries implies the readiness and
endangered agricultural production (e.g. wine capability to restrict tourism development or
tourism), higher risks of natural catastrophes, the volume of tourist movements within a
spatium 15
destination in accordance with the respectively. Annual savings (measured in archaeological structures and entities by using
sustainability requirements, that is, the terms of fuel consumption, reduction of traditional materials and skills in order to
destination carryng capacity, especially when emissions, etc.) amounted to €140 million preserve their aesthetic values and
the regions vulnerable to tourism pressure are (EEA, 2008). attractiveness, in combination with modern
in question. engineering and technologies, thus ensuring
All destinations will have to adapt to climate
the long-term effects of undertaken protective
In spatial planning and sustainable change to a greater or lesser degree. The
measures;
development management, spatial capacity is tourism sector is developing various modalities
equated with the carrying capacity of a (tourist) and combinations of destination adaptations to • The relocation and introduction of
region, settlement or centre. climate change in the fields of technology, endangered species in other habitats, or
destination management, coordination of keeping genes and seeds on ice;
To avoid the consequences of unplanned
different policies, researches and monitoring of • Increasing the adaptive capacity of local
tourism development, the public authorities in
changes in the endangered regions and authorities and improving destination and
Malta set the marginal spatial capacity at about
appearance of risks, education of the protected heritage management;
41,000 one-time tourists and formulated a
employed, tourists and the public, etc.
tourism development strategy and policy. This • Education and strengthening awareness
is a prerequisite for the use of the resources of As for the most vulnerable regions, all forms of about the minimization of stresses caused by
the European Structural Fund intended for the adaptation to climate change are adjusted to climate change;
improvement of the quality of tourism supply the crucial problems related to the protection
• Improving the mangement of tourist
and the protection of the natural and cultural of resources and heritage, preservation of
movement patterns and traffic congestion – in
heritage of the island (WTO, UNEP, 2005). attractiveness, sustainability and
order to prevent pressure and threats to
competitiveness of destinations. This refers,
The promotion of sustainable consumption is heritage;
above all, to mountain and winter destinations,
primarily aimed at influencing the volume and • Ensuring the active participation of local
insular, coastal and natural and cultural
kind of tourism demand with respect to the communities in policy formulation and the
heritage destinations.
choice of the tourism product and mode of management of destination adaptations, etc.
transport. Priority is given to the development The adaptation of natural and cultural heritage (WTO, UNEP, 2008).
of environmentally sustainable modes of destinations to climate change is based on the
transport and the reduction of traffic combination of different approaches and One example of the responses to such
congestion. measures, such as: challenges is the MOSE Project intended for
Venice flood control (MOSE – acronym for
A radical example is the City of San Marino • The implementation of plans for adaptation Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico – in
where the movement of motor vehicles is or responses to climate change – for water English, Experimental Electromechanical
banned. The City of San Marino is situated on supply in arrid destinations, seawater Module; the name MOSE is also a play on the
top of Mont Titano (749 m) and fortified by desalination (the case of Mallorca), Italian name of Moses – Mosè). The realization
triple walls. Within its walls there are narrow assessment of risks and responses to natural of the MOSE Project worth about €4.5 billion
cobbled streets with medieval and renaissance catastrophes (beach and mountain soil started in 2003 and it should be completed in
buildings, many of which have been restored erosion, avalanches, winds, etc.), development 2012.
and reconstructed. The City of San Marino can of early warning systems (for floods, winds,
be reached directly from the town of Borgo etc.); The project intended to protect the city from
Maggiore by cable car with two passenger flooding consists of 79 mobile gates (barriers),
• The implementation of the research and erected under the water at three lagoon inlets
cabins. Tourist buses and other motor vehicles
monitoring programme relating to changes in and along Lido. They will be raised whenever
are parked at the foot of Mont Titano, or in front
ecosystems and cultural heritage, and the the sea level increases by 110 cm. The gates
of the city walls. Tourists take a sightseeing
undertaking of appropriate measures for will be about 30 m high and about 20 m wide
tour by coach or on foot (ibid).
biodiversity and heritage protection; (www2.comune.venezia.it).
The centre of London is a good example of • The diversifaction of the destination product
implementing efficient measures for traffic in order to reduce pressure on heritage – new PARTNERSHIP FOR
congestion and pollution reduction. In the micro destinations and attractions for SUSTAINABILITY
designated zone the charge for the use of disburdening the most popular and most
individual cars is paid from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. vulnerable natural and cultural heritage sites; In the “Agenda for a sustainable and
(Monday through Friday). The groups of competitive European tourism“ (2007) it is
motorists and subsidized vehicles using hybrid • Redefining the scope and regime of emphasized that to achieve the aims and deal
fuels are exempt from the charge. The protection and the utilization of protected space with the challenges, it is necessary to take
implementation of this measure is controlled – expansion of the scope of protected space, coherent action, supported by the sustainable
by the camera network. In addition, all modes differentiation of zones with different space management of destinations, integration of
of public transport in London have been protection and utilization regimes, formation of sustainability into the process of decision-
improved. Within three years, the number of ecological corridors for the migration of making and management of tourist enterprises,
individual cars dropped by 19%, while different species, etc. (Maksin-Mićić, 2003); as well as raising both public awareness and
emissions of carbon dioxide and other harmful • The reconstruction and stabilization of awareness among tourists about the
gases were reduced by 16% and 7-14% cultural heritage, especially architectural and significance of the sustainability concept.
16 spatium
Among other things, the European Commission As for Lepenski Vir, one of the most significant important Roman military camps on the
promotes sustainable destinations by archaeological sites in this part of Europe, nothing Danube and, for some time, the capital of the
implementing the pilot project “European has been done over the past 30 years or, more Roman province of Upper Moesia, is its
Destinations of Excellence“ (EDEN) with the precisely, since its relocation due to the conflict with lignite open-pit mining and
aim to apply their experiences to other construction of the Djerdap Dam and formation of processing (Drmno Thermal Power Plant,
European destinations. At the same time, the a storage lake, except for the erection of a Picture 4).
European Commission invited International temporary protective wooden structure.
However, it is possible to convert this conflict
Organizations (UNWTO, UNEP, UNESCO, etc)
The elaboration of the plan and designs into a compromise and winning combination
to contribute by identifying synergies between
concerning the protection, arrangement and for heritage protection and tourism
their field of activities and the European
presentation of the Lepenski Vir archaeological development through cooperation among key
Agenda.
site started at the end of 2006 (Picture 3). The key actors.
We are convinced that participation, partners in the elaboration and realization of the
This is proved by the exploration, protection
cooperation and partnership among key actors project are the Tourist Organization of Majdanpek
and arrangement of Viminacium site and tourist
and the visionariness and enthusiasm of Municipality (having its seat in Donji Milanovac),
turnover (50,000 visitors in 2007 and 2008).
individuals are a prerequisite for the Republican Institute for the Protection of Cultural
implementation of the sustainable development Monuments from Belgrade and the ministry in The key partners are: the Archaeological
concept and tourism complementarity and charge of tourism. The funding is provided under Institute of the Serbian Academy od Sciences
synergies with heritage protection. the National Investment Plan. and Arts, Ministry of Culture and Public
Enterprise “Electric Power Industry of Serbia“.
Are there such examples in Serbia? The persons responsible for the realization of the
project are: Vesna Vandić, Director of the Tourist Visitors are greeted by professional guides
Gradac Monastery is a women’s monastery
Organization of Majdanpek Municipality, and the dressed in Roman togas and tunics, who will
having the most educated sorority (with
authors of the project Marija Jovin and Siniša take them to three sites (Picture 5): Porta
university education) in Serbia. Within its
Temerinski from the Republican Institute for the Praetoria (the northern gate of the camp,
compound there are the icon painting,
Protection of Cultural Monuments. history of the Roman camp and town), Termae
weaving, embroidery and packaging
(thermal baths, the centre of social life in
workshops. The nuns are also engaged in The detailed regulation plan covers the riparian
ancient Rome) and Imperial Mausoleum
painting churches in Trebinje and Dalmatia. belt with the surroundings of the Lepenski Vir site,
(Roman beliefs and customs concerning the
which extends over an area of about 55 ha, in
Gradac Monastery is a women’s monastery afterlife and the elements of Roman sacral
order to enable the planned arrangement and
having the most educated sorority (with architecture).
presentation of the protected archaeological site
university education) in Serbia. Within its
and natural heritage of the Djerdap National Park The visitors can experience ride by Roman
compound there are the icon painting,
and reception of visitors from the Danube chariot and taste Roman dishes and beverages
weaving, embroidery and packaging
(docking point) and mainland in the visitor centre. from the replicas of antique cups and plates.
workshops. The nuns are also engaged in
painting churches in Trebinje and Dalmatia.
It is planned to open a girls’ boarding high school
within the monastery where, apart from the
classical subjects, church history, singing and the
Church Slavonic language would also be taught. It
is also planned to organize small icon and fresco
painting schools so as to acquaint visitors with the
basic painting techniques and the Orthodox
approach to them. Father Vitalije, a graduate
electrical engineer, develops computer programs.
He has also made an Orthodox ABC book for the Picture 3: The protection and presentation plan of the Lepenski Vir archaeological site
first grade of elementary school. Source: www.temerinski.com
For four years already, Gradac Monastery has The basic assumption of the project for the
been the venue of the cultural event entitled “The Lepenski Vir Museum is to preserve the
Days of Helen of Anjou“. One part of the atmosphere of an open-air prehistoric
programme is devoted to the life and work of settlement. Therefore, it is anticipated to
Helen of Anjou, that is, nun Jelisaveta, while the dematerialize the structural members and roof
other part includes various cultural contents. The and to retain the view of the Danube under full
theme of the event organized on 10 May 2009 daylight (www. temerinski.com).
was chivalry, which had to reflect the spirit of this
Serbian queen. It was organized by the chivalry The key problem concerning the protection and
association SVIBOR (Politika, 15th May 2009). presentation of Viminacium near Stari
Kostolac, in the vicinity of Požarevac, the
archaeological site of one of the most Picture 4: Viminacium and lignite open-pit mining site
Source: Maksin et al. (2009), p. 138
spatium 17
sectoral tourism plans with the spatial ones heritage protection, sustainable tourism and
and planning of environmental and heritage complementary activities, which is confirmed
protection. by the nuns of Gradac Monastery and the
employed in the Majdanpek Tourist
This is also a precondition for achieving
Organization and Viminacium Centre for New
coordination and cooperation among key
Technologies.
actors concerning heritage protection and
sustainable utilization for tourism development.
References
In this connection, the role of national level
government is especially significant in Beoković D.: Sećanje na kraljicu Jelenu Anžujsku,
15th May 2009, Politika
formulating the modalities for making public-
private arrangements and mechanisms for Đukić A., Jerković S. (2008) Utjecaj turista s
encouraging the participation (investment) of brodova na kružnim putovanjima u povijesnoj jezgri
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to speak about the establishment of efficient EEA (2008) Technical Report, No 2/2008
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development of Serbia as a sustainable and COM (2007) 621
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European surroundings. pregled, No. 2, pp. 6-13.
Although the above mentioned preconditions Maksin-Mićić M. (2003) Some problems of
Picture 5: The presentation of Viminacium have not been fulfilled, the paper points to the integrating the landscape planning into the spatial
Source: Maksin et al. (2009), p. 140 examples of good practice in the sustainable and environmental planning in Serbia, SPATIUM
development of tourism and cultural activities, International Review, No. 9, pp. 28-33.
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the research centre, laboratory, library, based on the protection, presentation and Maksin M., Pucar M., Korać M., Milijić S. (2009)
multimedia centre, exhibit gallery and storage, interpretation of our cultural heritage. The key Menadžment prirodnih i kulturnih resursa u
is nearing completion. problem, which should be relatively easily turizmu, Univerzitet Singidunum, str. 74-140.
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within the event entitled “Roman Night“. It is Serbia. Another problem is posed by Review, No. 20, pp. 35-40.
planned to organize theatre performances, film insufficient human resources investments and Swarbrooke, J. (2005) Sustainable Tourism
showing, fashion shows, exhibitions and the the relatively low cultural capital of the greatest Management, CABI Publishing
like at the same site (www.viminacium.org.rs). part of the territory, with the exception of UNESCO WHC (2007) Climate Change and World
The project is realized by the multidisciplinary several largest urban and university centres. Heritage, World Heritage Reports, No. 22
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Archaeological Institute of the Serbian of the population and individuals to take a Practice, Elsevier Ltd.
Academy of Sciences and Arts. proactive part in new tourism development
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initiatives and adequately evaluate, protect and
Sustainable – A Guide for Policy Makers
CONCLUSION present heritage and cultural values.
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What are the preconditions and possibilities for To overcome this problem, it is necessary to Responding to Global Challenges
heritage protection and the development of ensure continuous incentives at all levels of www2.comune.venezia.it, accessed 15th September
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competitive tourism destination? concerning the provision of quality human
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resources and the strengthening of the cultural
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planning basis for the implementation of the natural and cultural heritage and, in particular, www.temerinski.com, accessed 23rd March 2010
sustainable development concept and, within the possibilities for the acquisition of new www.viminacium.org.rs, accessed 23rd March 2010
its scope, sustainable tourism. Among other knowledge on the part of the local population, www.zagreb.hr, accessed 19th July 20082
things, this implies the adjustment of the legal entrepreneuers and employed in local self-
basis with the set of environmental protection government units concerning the activities
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April 2010
18 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 338.48-44(23.0)(4:497.11)
APPROACH TO IDENTIFICATION
AND DEVELOPMENT OF MOUNTAIN TOURISM
REGIONS AND DESTINATIONS IN SERBIA
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE STARA
PLANINA MOUNTAIN
Saša Milijić1, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Igor Marić, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Olgica Bakić, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
This papers deals with theoretical-methodological issues of tourism offer planning and regulation of settlements in mountain
destinations. The basic determinants of the development of mountain tourist regions destinations in EU countries, in which
respectable development results have been achieved, first of all in terms of income, together with appropriately adjusted
development and environmental management system, have been emphasized. The ongoing transition and structural processes
in Serbia will have an impact on application of these experiences. At the same time, a basis for competitiveness of mountain
regions will not be determined only by spatial capacity and geological location, but also by creative-innovative developing
environment. Taking into account the spatial-functional criteria and criteria for the development and protection, the possible
spatial definition of mountain tourist regions/destinations in Serbia are presented. The justifiability and positioning of tourism
development projects are analyzed aiming at uniform regional development, where two segments of demand are of particularly
importance, i.e. demand for mountain tourism services and for real estates in mountain centers. Furthermore, holders of
tourism offer will be analyzed through a contemporary approach which may be defined as the development and non-
commercial and market and commercial one. International criteria which are evaluated while selecting city/mountain
destination for Winter Olympic Games are particularly analyzed. Considering experience of countries with higher level of
development of mountain regions, the main starting point for positioning projects for sustainable development of tourist
destinations are defined by specifying them according to specific local and regional conditions. A rational model for spatial
organization of tourism offer is shown on the example of the Stara Planina tourist region.
Key words: regulation of settlements, tourism offer, tourist region, sustainable development
INTRODUCTION 1 destinations cannot be considered only as spaces centers/resorts, and towards the places of less
for rest and recreation, but also as "economic intensive tourism offer, i.e. towards traditional or
Mountain regions consist of various regional enterprises" which function organizedly as, more new settlements in mountain regions.
entities, sub-entities and parts which need to or less, spatial entities, and which require Urbanization of mountain regions may be
be physically and functionally organized and appropriate urbanization that would direct concentrated or dispersive one, each having
regulated with the aim to preserve natural development towards creation of authentic certain limitations. Concentrated development
values, develop and regulate system of tourist ambience, use of local materials, energy influences creation of large urbanized areas which
centers and settlements and tourist- efficiency and, in certain sense, typizations in may have an impact on natural balance and
recreational infrastructure. Mountain terms of urban planning, architecture and requires a long realization period, as well as an
development (Marić, 2002). Urbanization is, as a impact of works on the nature; danger due to non-
1 rule, directed in two directions, towards the points functioning of sewage system, etc. Dispersive
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd
[email protected] of intensive tourism offer, such as mountain development has the following deficiencies:
spatium 19
Milijić et al.: Approach to identification and development of mountain tourism regions and destinations in Serbia
greater soil erosion and cost of the provision of identification of tourist regions as the most development of mountain regions and their
infrastructure; greater number of polluters during appropriate functional spatial parts for hierarchical-functional rating, thus finally
the heating season; greater number of waste stabilization and acceleration of a mountain enabling planning, regulation and development
disposal locations and waste collection problem, region with tourism as a key driving force. of mountain destinations.
occupation of greater land areas, etc. Possible Determining priorities according to the goals
Starting from the goals for integral
solution may be found in limiting the urbanization for the development of mountain regions is
development, the regional differentiation of
in the most attractive parts of altitude zones conditioned by the scope and structure of
mountain regions lies in a criterion for
according to the capacity of space and nature available natural, human and capital resources,
determining the level at which they are
protection regime, as well as in activation of as well as economic, social and ecological
integrated into national economy. By applying
several smaller localities in lower parts and sub- effects of the realized and current development
this criterion, they are classified in three
mountain villages by including local population in processes. Availability and structure of
groups: integrated mountain regions – with
tourism development. In cases where there are development resources, and particularly
growing population and employment, due to
several mountain tourist centers and settlements realization of socio-economic effects
realization of projects for tourism and
in a mountain region, regulation includes expressed through overall national income, in
complementary activity development, as well
infrastructure linkage, linkage of tangent particular by the level of national income per
as due to established image of a destination
facilities of tourism offer in the area, capita, which is dynamically conditioned by
with developed tourism market; insufficiently
connectivity between the protected areas, greater capital investments and realized
integrated mountain regions – with population
development of public services adjusted to the employment rate, markedly vary from mountain
stagnation and prevailing sources of income
needs of tourists, local population and region to mountain region in Serbia. Some
coming from agricultural production, which are
functions of settlements, etc. parts of mountain regions, spatially limited, but
relatively remote from urban centers and
naturally predetermined for contemporary
Integral development of mountain regions is without developed tourist capacities and
economic activities, primarily tourism related
based on several strategic goals (ESDP, 1999; tourism market; and neglected mountain
activities, have far greater chances for the
Zanetti, 2000; Ravbar, 2003): integral and regions – with lowest population density and
development compared to other mountain
sustainable spatial development; balanced and income, worst qualitative and quantitative
regions which are, otherwise, underdeveloped
polycentric development of metropolitan population structure, economic activities and
in Serbia (Milijić, 2005). The choice and
regions with functional zones of sustainable road network. Support from the EU structural
determination of priorities in interwoven
and dynamic functional integrations and funds is directed based on the level of
development, spatial and ecological contexts is
partnerships between urban, rural and development, i.e. on the level of mountain
conditioned by existence of a limited number
mountain regions, thus enabling the region integration. At the same time, there are
of mountain complexes with opportunity for
strengthening of economic competitiveness of certain differences which are dependent on
faster development based on tourism as a
mountain regions; resolving the problem of whether greater attention is paid to
major driving force. To assess, analyze and
development in scarcely inhabited mountain development of tourism, agriculture and
determine these priorities, it is necessary to
areas by creating conditions for population to diversification of activities in order to provide
make regionalization of mountain regions,
stay and return and conditions for rest and additional sources of income, or to renewal of
however, less by principles of homogeneity, as
recreation of urban population; development of settlements and infrastructure, provision of
the regional geography does, but more by
infrastructure, better access to traffic and higher level of public services and other
principles of development and ecological
improvement of access to information; services and improvement of quality of life in
(protection) functionality. At the same time,
development of mountain tourist centers/ mountain regions and their immediate
spatial and environmental planning should
resorts according to natural conditions and environment.
have an important role both in identification of
standards of planning, regulation and
mountain tourist space and in coordination and
development by forming organized and APPROACH TO IDENTIFICATION OF
integration of various fields of planning in
compact clusters thus enabling greater MOUNTAIN TOURIST REGIONS IN
achieving a sustainable regional development
competitiveness; greater authenticity and better
(Maksin-Mićić et al., 2009). Regionalization of SERBIA
image both through integration with local
mountain regions according to indicators of
cultural and natural environment and through Regionalization of mountain regions in Serbia
and criteria for development-ecological
application of spatial and urban planning into tourist regions does not follow steps, but
functionality requires the tourism, as a driving
standards by investors, promoters, developers rather regionalization processes based on
force with reciprocal effects of the
and operators in tourism. analytical manifold identification of natural and
development and connections and
relationships which may be ecologically created potentials and disparity as key dynamic
Defining the strategic development goals is
controlled, to be spatially defined and and not static physical indicators and criteria
only an initial phase in determining strategies
for designating the regions as developmental
for a long-term development of mountain designated by the system for identification of
spatial entities and subjects. However,
regions in Serbia. The goals are conditioned, tourist regions and destinations. In this way,
designating mountain regions as tourist
just like the development itself, by the need to including analytical deliberations and
comparisons, one gets an insight in diverse regions leaves large parts of these regions
make selection and choice of priorities in the
possibilities for their development and outside development impetus, thus widening
development of mountain regions. However,
the problem of non-uniform regional
this is not possible unless prior regionalization ecological protection, which is a basis for the
development. This problem arises in a wider
of these regions is done and, within it, also choice and determination of priorities for the
context of an approach to the development of
20 spatium
mountain regions, but in the context of the connections and integration of offer into according to the Decision on Nomenclature of
objectively considered and checked environment), and Stara Planina (development Territorial Units for Statistics and the Law on
development possibilities susceptible to of tourist places, places for rest and ski Regional Development. Thus, the territory of
interaction between time and space, i.e. centers) associated with an attempt to maintain Serbia has indicatively been divided in five
certainty and uncertainty in the sense of the status of natural resources. tourist clusters, as there are "statistical
fluctuation, cycles, rise and fall, and regions" (Vojvodina, Belgrade, Southeast
However, previous criteria must be fitted into
particularly non-uniformity. What the Serbia, Central and Western Serbia, and
procedure for regionalization of mountain
regionalization of mountain regions proves is Kosovo and Metohija). Tourist clusters, as a
regions in Serbia given that selecting priority
that the development in space is not uniform resource basis and basic areas of tourism
mountain entity is conditioned and
and that there are many procedures for defining development, should represent spatial
predetermined by this. A comprehensive and
regions, depending on the final goal, demands functional entities of unified tourism offer,
detailed regionalization of mountain regions in
and expectations. Regionalization of mountain including tourist destinations/regions of related
Serbia directed towards development and
regions in Serbia for the purpose of characteristics, city tourist centers and places,
protection has not been made to date, and
determining development priorities requires spa tourist centers and places, as well as
such approach has not been applied in
identification of tourist regions and segments of circular and linear tourist
professional practice either. However, partial
destinations, which further requires application directions, etc. Given that they should be
and mutually uncoordinated identification and
of a specific procedure. This may be realized based on economic footholds for the further
delimitation, i.e. selection of homogeneous
by using rich scientific professional and development, the market will have an impact
mountain regions, have been carried out based
practical experience of western developed on final formation of clusters. Therefore, such
on (Tošić and Krunić, 2002): physical
countries. division of tourist spaces in Serbia, in the
geographical, primarily morphological and
process of implementing spatial plans should
The selection of primary mountain destinations ecological climatic characteristics, which have
not be considered as strictly physical division,
and choice of development priorities of been identified with mountain systems; socio-
but as partly statistical and progressively
mountain regions in Serbia has been made economic impacts in transformation of
functional one, since tourist spaces
based on analytical deliberations and checking mountain landscapes which relied on cultural
(destinations / regions) most often encompass
of data and information on differentiation of social constants established by Jovan Cvijić,
the territory of two or more adjoining
these spaces relative to the existence of and which have today been reduced to giving
municipalities, and not rarely the territory of
specific development potentials, and, in doing attributes to certain functions which a mountain
more than one region, which means that a
so, the following criteria were applied: region has (tourist and forest functions,
tourist space and/or its parts may be located
evaluation of natural and anthropogenic factors function of cattle breeding, etc.); and
within one or more administratively competent
of development; evaluation of capacity of conditionally integral approach based on
territorial entities. This has been proven in
space; possibility for overcoming limitations; complex indicators of geographic, socio-
practice of the developed Western European
and complementarity between the development economic and functional parameters used for
countries indicating that, in the spatial
concept and natural resources in environment the needs of selecting tourist regions in the
functional context, the development and
and nature protection. Primary mountain tourist Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia (PPRS
protection of priority mountain regions are
destinations as regional entities of integrated 1996).
directed by designating and spatially defining
offer within tourist clusters have been identified
Mountain regions, from the geo-spatial aspect, tourist regions and destinations on the basis of
by criteria for participation of a year-round
may be considered at macro, mezzo and micro the following criteria: presence, quality,
tourist season in: 1) mountain destinations with
levels. At the macro level, mountain regions equality, attractiveness and uniqueness of
smaller participation in year-round offer –
are presented as mountain, mountain ravine natural and created potentials for tourism
Šumadija mountains and Kučaj Mountains; 2)
and mountain valley systems, at the mezzo development; possibility of using potentials in
mountain destinations with considerable
level as mountain area, and at the micro level the function of contemporary, complex, integral
participation of year-round offer - Valjevo-
as inner-mountain landscape entities. Although and year-round tourism offer; geographical
Podrinje mountains; Drina-Tara-Zlatibor; and
they are characterized by individuality and position and access to traffic in tourist regions
Zlatar-Pešter, and 3) mountain destinations
integrality, the structure of mountain regions is with relation to the existing and potential
with a complete year-round offer - Stara
most often heterogeneous according to markets; possibility of extending tourist season
planina, Vlasina-Krajište, Kopaonik, Golija,
tectonic geological, morphological, climatic, to the maximum and secure higher occupancy
Prokletije with Mokra Gora, and Šar Planina
ecological and socio-economic rate of capacities; the existing and possible
mountains (Dabić et al., 2009). Starting from
characteristics. There is no uniform typology of rank of protection and regime of the use of
the possibility for applying experiences of
mountain regions in regional geography, natural and cultural values of tourist regions;
European mountain tourist centers, it has been
regional sciences and spatial planning, but and the role of tourism as an agent for
estimated that, under assumption of improving
there are different approaches to their developing complementary activities,
the management system, a sustainable and
identification and spatial selection. particularly in insufficiently developed regions.
competitive development of mountain
Important segments of tourist regions/
destinations in Serbia may be realized on a In the Draft Plan of the Republic of Serbia
destinations are tourist localities, facilities,
long-term basis, the priorities being High (Nacrt PPRS 2010), regionalization of tourist
places and centers, which have to be unified in
mountain region of Kopaonik (modernization of spaces in Serbia, amongst which also of
a functional and development sense for the
ski infrastructure, development of tourist mountain regions, is identified with tourist
purpose of joint appearance on both
places and places for rest, completing, traffic clusters in Serbia, which are selected
spatium 21
international and home market (Mitrović et al., Depending on dominant economic activities problem of regionalization of mountain tourist
2002), which is well laid out in the following and their trends, a spectrum of development regions arises in situations when tourism
scheme (Figure 1). processes is created, as well as tendencies to overlaps with nature protection or other
polarize functions. In this sense, spatial and functions of general social interest. In such
In order to more comprehensively consider and
socio-economic categories represent situations, the region is made conditional upon
understand activities and functioning of a
development poles which are found in parts or being semi-functional region consisting of
tourist region and its abovementioned
surrounding of mountain tourist regions as nature protected areas with tourism as one of
segments, it is necessary to point out that it
centers which have capital for activating the specific functions, and which is managed
establishes business connections based on:
development of mountain regions or as centers in environmentally appropriate way. This has
complex tourism product, i.e. income; unified
attracting capital, and whose offer is in demand been proven in practice of regulating the
appearance on market; coordination of
on market. It has been concluded that tourism national and regional parks in most parts of
functions for improving the development by
is a dominant economic activity in mountain Alpine regions.
continually investment; and by coordinating the
regions since it has a capacity for initiating
protection of space through appropriate
innovative activities, i.e. a capacity for initiating APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT OF
systems of developing, regulating and using
a whole spectrum of complementary activities MOUNTAIN TOURIST REGIONS
the covered space (Figure 2).
which have a reciprocal impact on formation
For more complete analysis of possibilities for
uniform development of mountain destinations,
Tourist localities: Tourist facilities: it is necessary to analyze basic elements of
mountain itineraries, lakes, caves, waterfalls, hotels, mountain homes, hunter houses, justifiability and spatial positioning of specific
wells, canyons, belvedere, ethno villages, water boarding houses, apartments, rest houses, projects. For the mountain tourism
mills, churches, monasteries, etc. summer houses, ski centers, etc. development project, two segments of home
TOURIST REGION and particularly foreign demand market are
Tourist places: Tourist centers: important, i.e. the demand for: (1) services in
Group of the tourist and other facilities, not Group of the tourist and other facilities mountain tourism; and (2) real estates in
necessarily connected in business contractually connected in business, thus mountain centers and settlements. Also,
functioning as a unified tourism offer for projects for development, regulation and
Figure 1: Segments of tourist regions protection of priority mountain regions in
Serbia, it is necessary to critically consider
experiences of countries with higher level of
Complex year-round tourism product including Unified appearance on market and unified the development of mountain regions,
all those involved in tourism offer of a region selling of services specifying them according to specific local and
TOURIST REGION regional conditions.
Coordination of functions for improving the Coordination of the development, Mountain tourism, primarily winter tourism,
development, investment activities and regulation and protection of space within
is one of the fastest growing market segments
exploitation which a tourism offer is made
of tourism as a result of tourists coming from
Figure 2: Business connections of a tourist region the widest layers of the population, particularly
young people who are interested in this form of
To illustrate, but also for comparison sake, we and development (Derić, 2001). Tourism is a rest and recreation. After many years of lower
present the number of mountain tourist regions in generator of development which has a capacity demand for mountain tourism, a growing demand
Alpine countries: Germany 8, Austria 6, to transfer the innovations to agriculture and has been recorded in Europe, which is evident from
Switzerland 6, France 5, and Italy 3. In these other industries supplying it with various the data showing that today over 50% of income
mountain tourist regions, where several hundred products, semi-products and services, which from inland tourism comes from mountain regions.
mountain centers have been developed, may be considered as being crucial for Until today, over 600 mountain centers have
respectable development results have been prosperity of mountain regions. Besides, been developed in European mountain regions,
achieved, primarily in terms of income, along with tourism has an innovative capacity oriented out of which 70% in Alpine countries, which
appropriate ecologically adjusted nature and towards markets outside the competitive are visited by 60 to 80 million annualy tourists.
environmental protection system. Also, taking into mountain region, which will depend on its Great number of tourists visiting mountain
account the spatial functional and protection competitiveness related to demand for a regions has put greater pressure on the
criteria and criteria for development, the possible specific tourism product, i.e. image of environment, but also an increased pressure on job
designation and definition of six mountain tourist mountain regions. creation which has prevented migrations from
regions in Serbia have been shown, and they are mountain regions and has brought about positive
Regardless of spatial coverage size, national
the following: 1. Stari Ras (Kopaonik and Golija changes in demographic trends. It is anticipated
and regional development documents take into
mountains); 2. Stari Vlah (Tara, Zlatibor, Zlatar, that in coming years the demand for mountain
account territories, potentials and contents of
Pešter mountains); 3. Stara Planina and Vlasina tourism will be doubled, which particularly
tourism offer which include tourist image and
with Krajište; 4. Prokletije and Šar Planina; refers to the South Eastern European countries.
preferably the administrative boundaries of
5. Valjevo-Podrinje; and 6. Kučaj-Homolje The development of mountain tourist centers
administrative competence of authorities which
mountain regions. must be integral, with particular reference to
make decisions on planning. A particular
22 spatium
Table 1: Example of referent mountain destinations

economic constraints, regarding financial
Country Name of mountain Number of Number of No. of ski Max. altitude Ratings of ski
support, and natural limitations, regarding center – m a.s.l. beds inhabitants lifts/ of ski trails - trails in %
climatic conditions. In coming decades, global trails - km m easy-interm.-
warming could lead to reduction in number of difficult
mountain centers with dominantly winter offer, SAD Sun Valley- 1753 6 000 1654 19/150 1036 36-42-22
particularly those whose locations and ski CAN Whistler (3 nas.)- 680 40 000 10000 31/200 1609 20-55-25
centers are in lower altitude zones. It has been CAN Sun Peaks- 1255 2 500 250 6/61 900 15-60-25
CH Crans-Montana- 1500 37 317 7000 28/140 1500 38-50-12
estimated that two-degree rise in average
CH Davos- 1560 23 824 13000 57/305 2034 20-44-39
temperature would lead to reduction of 40%, CH Verbier- 1500 15 200 2500 36/190 1830 33-42-25
while rise in temperature for four degrees CH St. Moritz- 1856 13 200 5589 56/350 1553 20-70-10
(expected to occur by the end of this century) CH Zermatt- 1620 12 653 5634 63/313 2260 22-60-18
would influence the reduction in number of CH Saas Fee- 1800 7 090 1672 22/145 1800 25-50-25
mountain centers with the possibility for CH Wengen- 1274 5 278 1405 44/110 1125 20-60-20
providing winter offer to about 200 centres CH Gstaad-1050 3 190 7199 21/90 1100 20-50-30
(Milijić et al., 2006). These changes will CH Arolla- 2000 1 864 50 6/47 1000 25-50-25
CH Evelone- 1380 983 950 8/42 1273 60-30-10
influence re-planning of existing and
BUG Bansko- 925 15 000 9000 11/65 1675 35-40-25
development of new generation of mountain BUG Borovec- 1300-1600 10 000 1500 9/40 1210 30-60-10
centers, i.e. a reduction in the number and F Tignes-1600-2100 9 000 2000 43/150 1810 10-65-25
change in specialization of high mountain F Chamonix- 1042 6 100 5900 46/157 2800 20-67-13
destinations with dominantly winter offer and A Saalbach- 1095 17 500 3000 55/200 1003 46-49-5
consequently an increase in the number of A Kitzbuhel- 800 8700 8600 56/168 1200 30-40-30
mountain centers with dominantly summer A Schladming -749 3500 4800 81/175 1243 28-61-11
offer. A Bad Kleinkirchheim-1100 7200 2000 26/100 1364 11-78-11
Sources: City of Sun Valley; Borovets Ski and Snowboard Mountain Resort in Bulgaria; Ski Independence, Ski resort
In contemporary approach to development of reviews, off piste and après ski and travel guides; British Columbia Travel Guide; Destinations, Resorts, Cities , Holiday
mountain regions, the holders of tourism offer destinations in Switzerland; The Blue Book of European Ski Resorts; Property & Business Directory, Real Estate Services &
are present in two categories: development- Information.
commercial and market-commercial one
(Dabić, 1995). The development-commercial destinations (Table 1) indicate that interest of Real estate market in mountain destinations
conditions of the development are provided by international tourism market depends on the is, besides tourist infrastructure and year-round
the national, state and regional, and image and offer of a destination in winter and offer, an important investment lever for the
somewhere, local administration system, and summer season; overall impression of the development. Such approach to development has
include investment in basic infrastructure quality of tourist destination management and been proven by various experiences in realization
development and development of non- feeling of security; availability of snow (natural of traditional and new mountain centers in Alpine
commercial public facilities of tourist or artificial) for winter skiing for at least 100 countries in Europe, as well as mountain regions
destinations. The non-commercial bearers of days, and particularly for summer skiing on of America and Canada where 70% of investment
development may initiate, by various glaciers; ski lifts with overall capacity of for the past two decades relates to certain types of
simulative policies, and sometimes also by minimum 6 to 8 thousand people investments in real estates. A precondition for the
direct investments, some commercial contents simultaneously, altitude difference and great development of real estate market is in the
crucial for overall development and for getting variety of ski trails; at the distance within planned infrastructure provision on building land
large commercial holders of tourism offer maximum 4 to 5 hours drive or maximum flight and for public facilities in tourist settlements.
interested primarily in opening ski centers journey time up to 2 hours; quality of hotels Various forms of real estate management are
through construction of the first ski lift, etc. and apartments (capacity 2,000-4,000 beds in directed towards regulating the use of capacities
Commercial holders of tourism offer, as its smaller centers, 4,000-8,000 beds in medium- and are aimed at revival of mountain centers and
major investors, come mainly from wider sized centers, which are considered as being profitable commercial real estate business all year
regional environments and partly from local optimal, 10,000-15,000 beds in large centers, round. Due to differences in regional specificities
communities (particularly land owners). and over 15,000 beds in mega-centers or of countries and approaches to planning, the so
Commercial holders of tourism offer are resorts); possibility for infrastructure provision; far urban structure development in mountain
interested in directly profitable facilities (tourist etc. (Maksin et al., 2009). Locations of destinations has been based on various concepts.
accommodation, hotels, restaurants and alike, mountain tourist centers and settlements are In Alpine countries, the concept of tourism
recreational sports facilities, etc.). Commercial defined on the following basis: distribution of development has changed over time and has been
business activities in tourist destinations imply tourism offer and capacity of winter and adjusted to market demands and specific natural
promotion, marketing, accommodation summer offer in the area (primarily the system conditions. The first phase of the development of
management and public infrastructure of alpine ski centers), evaluation of the terrain mountain destinations, which took place by the
facilities, recreation, sports, as well as favorability for the development at the lowest end of 19th century and at the beginning of 20th
coordination between these functions within part of the ski resort, as well as the possibility century and derived from traditional rural and
various services, institutions, clubs, etc. for easy access to traffic, rational water supply mixed settlements at the foot of the Alps, in which
Examples of the development of mountain and channeling waste waters. the transformation of rural economy into tourism
economy took place (e.g. Courmayeur in Italy,
spatium 23
Chamonix, La Clusaz, Megeve in France, etc.), towards the real estate development, which has much greater than the capacity of centers due to
was not initially based on real estate market. been, in majority of cases, based on experiences great number of daily visitors coming from urban
However, in later phases of the development of of Alpine countries, and due to considerably more areas in vicinity of ski resorts (e.g. several tens of
mountain centers, the Alpine countries have, to liberal approach to the real estate development centers near Vancouver, Toronto, Calgary, etc.).
greater or smaller extent, also opened their and disregard of local and regional specificities,
Depending on the type in which the realization
mountain centers for the real estate development, which has resulted in a decrease in activities and
and image of mountain destinations/centers are
but with much greater external control of the lessening of the image of mountain centers (IAUS,
planned, and particularly on the type of the real
development. First, between 40-ties and 70-ties 2008).
estate market management, the degree of their
of 20th century, by the real estate development in
The development concept for mountain tourism in economic utilization varies, while their prices
uninhabited mountain terrains above traditional
the USA and Canada was different. It was not range from 1,000 to 10,000 euro per m2. Today,
settlements on locations at an altitude from 1,200
initiated and conditioned by a traditional mountain in successful and competitive mountain centers,
to 1,500 m a.s.l. (e.g. Sestriere in Italy,
settlements and could be realized in the space as a rule, the price of real estates is not below
Coursheval in France, etc.), and later, between
where the area of mountain region is much greater 3,000 to 3,500 euro per m2, while in the most
70-ties and 80-ties of 20th century, by real estate
than in Europe, which enabled conditioned luxurious ones, such as those in Crans-Montana
development on locations at an altitude from
separation of those mountain regions in which the or St. Moritz, the price of real estates is above
1,500 to 2,000 m a.s.l. (e.g. Tignes, Flaine, Les
concept of protection and presentation of the 10,000 euro per m2. Less successful mountain
Arcs, La Plagne, Avoriaz and Izola in France,
nature, i.e. parts of mountain regions with centers record prices of quality apartments of
Kopaonik mountain in Serbia, etc.), and from the
intensive development in which tourists centers approximately 800 to 1,500 euro per m2 (e.g.
mid 80-ties of 20th century, by renewing the trend
are located, was thoroughly dominant. The Bansko), which are mostly influenced by
of the real estate development in lower locations
protection of nature was also an important excessive concentration of accommodation and
and sub-mountain villages at an altitude of
dimension in the development of these regions, limited ski lift capacity.
approximately 1,000 m a.s.l. along with adequate
but not a crucial one for decision-making on
connections with ski centers/altitude zones of the In developing and regulating mountain centers
initiating the development, particularly for
mountain through vertical transport systems (e.g. of Alpine countries, uniform standards for
implementation, which, in principle, relied more
Pila, San Sicairo, Bielmonte in Italy, etc.), as well planning specific tourist and recreational
on economic criteria. The protection was given
as by the beginning of 20th century by modifying facilities and recreational-sports infrastructure
more attention only after the centers were realized,
mountain ski centers at altitudes above 1,600 m are applied. According to their purpose, they
while, at the same time, the nature was
a.s.l., as a consequence of climatic changes and are classified into standards for (Baud-Bovy,
undergoing notable transformation and
decisions on the way of directing investments Lavson, 1977; Mitrović, 1983, Milijić S.,
particularly in terms of planning urban structure of
towards the mountain regions. Activation of the 2005): mountain center location, mountain
mountain centers and ski trails, based on the
development in the Alps resulted in the center size and capacity, alpine skiing, ski
criterion for optimal protection of forest areas.
development of complex and, by offer, highly trails, vertical transport of skiers/tourists, other
Regardless of whether the tourist centers are
attractive tourist centers within traditional facilities and areas of mountain centers, etc.
planned on the state or private property, the laws
settlements or connected to them, in higher Besides, there are specific standards for spatial
and plans which regulate the construction and
mountain regions, with infrastructure developed to organization of tourist settlements and for
zoning activities are applied. In the USA,
the highest standards, strictly taking into account competition ski trails which are applied in
management system is stricter regarding the
the capacity of the region and environmental planning and development of top mountain
construction on the state-owned land due to
protection, since the majority of mountain centers destinations and regions. According to the
particular competence of the US Forestry Service
are located within the boundaries of protected International Olympic Committee (IOC, 2007),
(USFS), US Bureau of Land Management
natural resources. In the European mountain the basic criteria which are evaluated when
(USBLM), US National Park Service (NPS), as
regions, the medium and small sized centers selecting the candidate cities/regions for the
well as some other agencies. In Canada, the
dominate and account for about 80% on market Winter Olympic Games are the following:
development of mountain regions is regulated by
demand for mountain tourism (e.g. Wengen,
Integrated Resource Management (IRM) Strategy • Bus journey average time from the candidate city
Switzerland, with 5,278 beds and 1,405
based on which the Integrated Resource Plans and settlement (official bed and tourist
inhabitants; Chamonix, France, with 6,100 beds
(IRP) are made. One example is the IRM of accommodation) and from Olympic village
and 5,900 inhabitants; and in Austria, Kitzbuhel
Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains (accommodation for sportsmen/sportswomen) to
with 8,700 beds and 8,600 inhabitants and
comprising an area of about 90,000 km2 within Olympic competition ski trails;
Schladming with 3,500 beds and 4,800
which several tens of mountain centers are
inhabitants), while there are only several big • Guarantee of accommodation capacity in radius
situated (Belyea, 2002). In mountain regions of
centers and, as a rule, in highly developed of 50 km from Olympic competition ski trails,
North America, medium and small sized centers
countries (e.g. in Switzerland in Cras-Montana uniformly distributed in tourist centers and
dominate (e.g. Sun Valley, USA, with 6,000 beds
with 37,317 beds and 7,000 inhabitants; Davos settlements and the candidate city, i.e. in various
and 1,654 inhabitants; Sun Peaks, Canada, with
with 23,824 beds and 13,000 inhabitants, Verbier locations of tourist region, with the following
2500 beds and 250 inhabitants, etc.), while there
with 15,200 beds and 2,500 inhabitants,), and capacity: 40,000 – 90,000 beds for the needs of
are only several big centers (e.g. the Whistler
rarely new destinations (e.g. Bansko in Bulgaria tourists, and 22,800 beds/rooms of various
resort, Canada, where three settlements are
with approximately 15,000 beds and 9,000 categories for official needs (a total of 60,000-
situated with 40,000 beds and 10,000
inhabitants). New winter destinations in South 110,000), Table 2 and Figure 3;
inhabitants). The ski lift capacity in bigger centers
Eastern and Eastern Europe are also oriented
is not proportional to stationary capacity, i.e. it is
24 spatium
Table 2: Overview of some characteristics of the candidate for the Olympic Games 2014 mountain one. The mountain zone
City/region Beds in radius of 50 km Capacity of Olympic Village
encompasses higher mountain belt with a
dominant mountain tourism offer in the region
Sochi-Russia 94.000 5,600 (3,000 in Sochi and 2,600 in snow zone,
distance between them being 63 km) and new tourist accommodation facilities
directly related to this offer (at the entrance to
Salzburg-Austria 81.700 6,150 (3,000 u Salzburgu and 3,150 in snow zone,
distance between them being 68 km) alpine and Nordic ski resort from the ski lift
departure points, points of departure of
Pueong Chang-Korea 44.780 6,150 (on two locations, distance between them being
37 km) mountain walking and mountain excursion
routes, and other mountain facilities within the
offer in this space). Sub-mountain zone
encompasses lower foot of the mountain and
its wider surrounding, with hilly and lowland
contents of tourism offer and accommodation
in the existing rural and mixed settlements and
urban centers. The architecture of the planned
facilities and micro-ambience of interiors will
be functionally realized by taking into account
good models of mountain tourist centers, and
designed according to motifs of ethno-
architecture of Stara Planina.
Planning criteria and determination for
realization of commercial mountain tourist
facilities on Stara Planina are the following:
• Achievement of high standard tourism offer in
Figure 3: Examples of spatial organization of tourist regions of Salzburg and Sochi in radius of 50 km this space (contemporary alpine / snowboard
and Nordic ski trails, summer recreational and
• Guarantee of the accommodation capacities for MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT sports polygons, excursion and mountain
the needs of sportsmen/ sportswomen, within one AND SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF tourist routes, etc.), which will be at the same
or more Olympic villages, in favorable locations THE STARA PLANINA TOURIST time in the function of tourism development
between the candidate city and the snow zone, at and in the function of presentating the Natural
the contact of the best ski resorts, of capacity of
REGION
Park;
approximately 3,000 beds (a total of about 6,000); Stara Planina is a high mountain region with
• Organization of activities and lnadscaping of
• Planned budget for organization of Olympic functions of a natural park and a tourist region of
the Natural Park space for specific types of
games, expressed in USD and local currency, for priority importance for the Republic of Serbia.
offer related to ecology, ethno-culture and
the candidacy and in the year of holding the According to natural potentials of the Natural Park heritage in this space (ecological and ethno-
Olympic Games (according to current statistics of and tourist region, the dominant form of tourism investigation points, thematic excursion routes
the World Bank); will be stationary and excursion mountain tourism, – mountain walking, heritage routes along
• Security and preventive measures (which are not with main activities related to winter sports and ethnic lines, historic heritage routes, etc.);
evaluated but mandatory); recreation – alpine skiing and activities in other • Determination for dispersive distribution of
winter sports. Considering that dealing profitably tourist accommodation in tourist centers of
• Environmental impact assessment and
with tourism in mountains implies a year-round “Golema Reka”, “Topli Do”, “Mramor” and
assessment methods (location, altitude above sea
utilization of capacity, for which this region has “Senokos” and several mountain settlements
level, snow cover, artificial snow, water resources,
enough potential, different other forms of tourism (with the exception of the concentrated tourist
energy production, hazards, etc.);
in summer season are also anticipated such as resort of Jabučko ravnište – Figure 4)
• Functional testing of Olympic competition ski water sports and recreation, on mountain depending on availability of space for
trails by organizing international competitions; localities and excursion and mountain itineraries, developing facilities directly related to tourism
• Survey on public opinion of the candidate city and partly using mountain lifts. The following forms of offer in the mountain zone (particularly ski
country on organization of Olympic games in % tourism are also envisaged mostly during summer resort); regime of the Natural Park protection;
(gradation: extremely supports, supports, it does not and partly during winter period: cultural tourism, possibility for water supply and channeling
matter, does not support, does not support at all); rural tourism, hunting tourism, health tourism, and waste waters, and possibility for rational
in Pirot and partly in Knjaževac, the city and transit access to traffic; tourist centers are envisaged
• Attitudes of representative entities for the tourism as well.
organization of the Games (per all levels and in all as polyvalent mountain centers focused on
fields); The tourist, recreational and sports facilities in the exclusive, highly commercial tourism;
National Park and tourist region of Stara • Rising the standard of existing
• Plans, also showing regions, of the candidate city,
Planina have been zoned and organized in two accommodation and developing new tourist
tourist settlements, Olympic village, Olympic
major altitude zones: the mountain and sub- high standard accommodation;
competition ski trails; etc.
spatium 25
by creative innovative development

environment including the following: products
and service activities, technology transfer and,
particularly, exchange of information and
cooperation between home and foreign experts;
regional identity; high level of quality of living
and environmental protection; organizational
development management forms and
adjustment of local competencies,
Figure 4: Tourist resort Jabučko ravnište on Stara Planina – the first phase
harmonization of system laws, and
coordination between policies and activities,
• Development of new high standard recreation days of skiing annually, which is much greater which are still lacking and adjusted to regional
and sports facilities, public services and other compared to the capacity of home mountain and local conditions and demand, etc.
services within a year-round offer of the tourist tourism offer and which, today, accounts for about
The starting points for positioning the
resort, tourist centers and settlements which 15 % of expected demand, and may satisfy
development projects for Stara Planina as a
are at the same time of importance for tourism, international market demand (primarily in Alpine
tourist region will be based on the following:
functioning of the Natural Park and mountain countries, Bulgaria and Republic of Srpska);
villages; considering their potentials, the mountain regions • Uniform and polycentric development of several
of Serbia cannot achieve the level of development tourist centers (in the category of small world
• Realization of rational utilization of tourist
of Alpine countries, but may definitely become centers with 2,000-4,000 beds) and settlements in
capacity at annual level (at least 240 days and
closer to them regarding the level of services, immediate vicinity, with functional directions of
60% occupancy), by providing a variety of
tourism offer in space in several top high-mountain sustainable and dynamic integrations towards
tourism offer and conducting intensive market
tourist destinations, primarily Kopaonik and Stara municipal centers of Knjaževac, Pirot and
research on demand;
Planina mountains as leaders of mountain tourism Dimitrovgrad, urban regions and traditional
• Traffic and functional connectivity of tourism in Serbia which should have higher rating, oriented settlements, as well as towards possible realization
offer for the mountain zone with emitting areas towards international and quality home market. of tourist resort (Figure 5);
and tourism offer for the sub-mountain tourist
Commencement of the Stara Planina • Respect of basic sustainable development
zone; and
development project realization will principles as follows; ecological acceptability, in
• Education of all space users on the considerably contribute to materialization of a terms of tourism development and development of
sustainable development, protection and use of part of tourist potential of mountain regions in complementary activities, which may be realized in
the Natural Park and tourist region, i.e. raising Serbia. Knowledge of methodology from regions with exceptional natural values; cost-
awareness of both local inhabitants and visitors foreign sources and foreign experience in effectiveness, in terms of investments and active
on the tourist development and other resources developing mountain regions with relation to protection of mountain region from a part of income
and values of the region. different socio-economic systems, coming from tourism development; and social
Taking into account experiences of countries organization, cultural patterns, and alike, must acceptability, in terms of protection of local
with higher level of the development of be subjected to careful deliberation in order to interests, improvement of living and working
mountain regions, the economic and profit- select procedures which will meet the conditions, creation of conditions for stay and return
making interest of tourism market in conditions in Serbia, assuming that these of population, active inclusion of local population in
destinations on Stara Planina will be aroused conditions will be, in near future, generally tourism offer and protection of nature;
based on the following: adjusted to EU general principles and
• Development of a tourist resort which may be
conditions for organization. The ongoing
• International demand for mountain tourism, which included in big, organized and compact clusters
transition process and structural changes in
will grow faster than tourism offer, due to full thus enabling greater competitiveness (marketing
Serbia will have an impact on implementation
occupancy of traditional mountain destinations, first and development of products), lower operating
of these projects. At the same time,
of all in Alps; in European southeastern regions, the costs, possibility for developing appropriate
competitiveness of mountain regions in Serbia
demand also exceeds tourism offer, and after an capacities – products for the purpose of risk
will not be determined only by spatial
inflow of 6 to 7 thousand euros of average local management;
capacities and geo-political position, but also
GDP per capita will cross the limit the demand will
grow considerably; and
• Home demand for mountain tourism, which is
several times greater than tourism offer, both due to
full occupancy of capacities on Mt. Kopaonik and
impossibility of going to Brezovica on the Šar
Planina mountain, and due to the fact that
development potentials of other mountains have not
been activated. It is estimated that, in the next 15 to
20 years, the market for mountain destinations in
Serbia will generate demand for about 3 million
Figure 5: Balanced and polycentric development of the Stara Planina tourist region and Natural Park
26 spatium
• Greater sophisticity of the development concept, context of regulation but also in the context of economy and ecology, i.e. realization of
thus enabling greater environmental control and the development of tourism offer. Definition of economic and social justifiability, as well as
protection, creating greater number of services with priorities in the development of mountain protection and preservation of natural
various participants and gaining more experience in regions requires prior regionalization of these recourses and values, but also an alternative
the development of tourism products; regions and, within it, identification of tourist existence or complete depopulation of this
areas - regions and destinations as the most region. Positioning of the Stara Planina
• Greater authenticity, thus enabling integration into
favorable functional spatial entities for development project should be based on
local cultural and natural environment and local
stabilizing and accelerating the development of balanced and polycentric development of
social community;
tourism and complementary activities. several tourist centers (Golema reka, Topli Do,
• Greater diversity of tourism offer by providing Regulation of mountain regions requires both Mramor, Senokos, and Jabučko Ravnište in the
different types of accommodation, diverse prices the development and the protection to be category of small world centers with 2,000-
and structure of guests; physically and functionally organized in order 4,000 beds, mostly found in the Alps, and
• Application of high technologies in tourism to preserve natural values and cultural heritage, acceptable for specific conditions and
development, terrain design, maintenance, and also organized in functional system of potentials of Stara Planina in Serbia) and
operational use, offer of entertainment facilities and tourist centers and settlements. It also requires settlements in immediate vicinity, with
animation; the development of rational and adjusted functional directions of sustainable and
infrastructure, without greater ecological dynamic integrations towards municipal
• Establishment of cooperation and unions with consequences. Only a small part of available centers of Knjaževac, Pirot and Dimitrovgrad,
investors, promoters, developers and operators in
tourist resources of mountain regions in Serbia urban regions and traditional settlements.
tourism; has been activated. The major problem of
• Development of an attractive destination which tourism and overall development in mountain REFERENCES
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tourism in the function of sustainable broj 7, pp. 26-34.
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2
July 2010
28 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 314.117:631(497.11)"1981/2002";
No. 22, July 2010, pp. 29-37 314.113(497.11)"1981/2002"
Professional paper
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AREAS

OF SERBIA IN POPULATION AGING
AND AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES:
CASE STUDIES OF THE IN Đ IJA AND KNJA Ž EVAC
MUNICIPALITIES
Marijana Pantić1, Dresden Leibnitz Graduate School-IÖR, Germany
Jelena Živanović Miljković, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
As one of the signs of demographic change, population aging influences various spatial categories: economic activities, social
features, land-use, perspectives for future development and more. Even though the process is indicative on a national level,
there are significant differences among geographically and functionally distinctive regions. Based on considerable regional
differences in the development of Serbia, this paper analyses the key problems of rural areas related to the interdependences
of population aging and agricultural activities. Research on aging processes, changes in agricultural activities and their
features is based here on the examples of two case studies. The Inđija and Knjaževac Municipalities have been chosen to
represent geographically different regions – lowland and mountainous. This study uses both quantitative and qualitative
approaches in order to achieve a better understanding of the situation. Statistical data were used to illustrate processes of
aging and agriculture where data from two census years indicate a trend of changes. Interviews conducted with
representatives of local government, entrepreneurs and local citizens from the villages are the source of information for
quantitative analysis. Population aging and agriculture are examined separately, followed by an illustration of their
interdependences.
Key words: rural areas, demographic change, population aging, agricultural activity, land-use change
POPULATION AGING IN RURAL countries in Europe, America and Oceania are The causes and consequences of agricultural
AREAS 1 more involved in aging process and face more activities and the aging process are deeply
problems in this area than the rest of the world interconnected and their interdependences are
Changes in Population Aging in Rural (Stloukal, 2001). not easy to detect. The kinds of agricultural
Areas activities and their productivity depend on
It is a fact that the population aging process is
natural factors (climate, physical
Many countries in the world have noted a more than just a demographic change. It
characteristics, precipitation, soil quality, etc.)
median age increase in rural areas. influences a whole range of social and natural
as well as on social ones.
Additionally, this process in developing spheres and therefore requires the attention of
countries has increased more sharply among thorough studies regarding agricultural and Older farmers are not necessarily less
rural populations than in urban ones (Stloukal, rural development as well. In the course of productive. The level of their efficiency
2001). Census data from poor countries testify finding appropriate measures to “fight” against depends not only on age, but on external
that the rural population is older than the urban aging, an acknowledgment and deeper circumstances such as the level of
population (Marocoux, 1994; Martin and understanding of the relationship between the technological development (Stloukal, 2000). In
Kinsella, 1994). Overall, the most developed aging process on the one side and the social, general, developed countries of the world have
economic and natural changes on the other to deal with more serious aging issues than do
1
side are of great relevance, particularly in the developing countries. Namely, among the
Weberplatz 1, D-01217 Dresden, Germany
rural context (ibid.). world’s countries listed by median age, mainly
[email protected]
spatium 29
Pantić M., Živanović Miljković J.: Regional differences between rural areas of Serbia in population aging and agricultural activities
developed European countries show a medium included analyses of the aging of rural and Causes for Population Aging in Rural
age over 40, e.g. Belgium - 41.7; Austria – urban populations (Rančić et al., 1990), using Areas
42.2; Finland – 42.1; Italy - 43.3; Germany – a socio-demographic approach. Malobabić and
Population aging is only one dimension within
43.8; and Monaco - 45.7 (Central Intelligence Bakić (2003) argue that the aging process in
the complexity of demographic change. Rural
Agency, 2009). In contrast, developing mountainous areas of Serbia indicates an
and urban areas possess their own unique
countries in Asia, South America and Africa increasing share of elders in the total
features of demographic transition. However,
have very young populations measured by population. Nikolić (2003) suggests a problem
the causes of population aging in rural areas
median age: Afghanistan – 17.6; Algeria – of depopulation from mountain municipalities,
could be natural (biological), social or both
26.6; Bolivia – 21.9; China 34.1, etc. (ibid.). particularly characterised by an outflow of the
natural and social at the same time.
Lately, however, aging is becoming a focal young population. Additionally, this author
point in developing countries too. Thus, Croatia mentions parallels between lowlands and Referring solely to the second half of the 20th
(41.0), Ukraine (39.5), Bosnia and Herzegovina mountainous areas in Serbia, but rather century, life expectancy at birth has increased
(39.8) and other developing countries have concerning the number of members within a (Peters, 2008) thus effecting the overall
aging populations (ibid.). Serbia, with a household and the structure of agricultural population age structure, in rural areas as well.
median age of 41.0, belongs to this group, too. land. Therefore, it appears that, even though Fertility and birth-rate decrease are biological
rural aging and agricultural potentials have factors that also contribute to population aging
It has been noted that the types of agricultural
been analysed in general, the particular focus in villages. As is common in demographic
activities (intensive, extensive, live stocking,
on the relationship between the aging process transition, mortality rates have also decreased,
cropping, fruits growing etc.) depend on
and agricultural production has not been simultaneously with the above-mentioned
geographic location while population outflow
analysed in parallel. In addition, administrative processes; thus providing an increase of the
from rural to urban areas depends on type of
units (autonomous regions and municipalities) aged population (Stloukal, 2000).
agricultural activity. Thus geographic location
were used for comparison, without the
influences demographic structures. The Another overall demographic process is the
geographic context of lowlands and mountains.
chances of finding the same aging process in decrease of the mortality rate. The process
geographically different regions are least likely. Aging indicators such as the number and among the rural population is the same as in
Therefore, in order to understand different percentage of aged (over 65) in the total urban areas in some ways, but unique in
aging structures, it is important to analyse their population, the old-age-dependency ratio and others. Namely, the aging of farmers is more
spatially differentiated contexts. aging index, based on a set of data from intensive than in other occupations in spite of
Census 1981 and 2002 (SORS, 1981 and the fact that the mortality caused by the nature
Regions differ by socio-geographical
2002), show that the population is getting of agricultural activities (external reasons) is
characteristics: social organisation, cultural
older. In 2002, all lowland municipalities in much higher (NIOSH, 2004). This is a
patterns, strength of economic cooperation and
Serbia had an aging index under 200, while consequence of the fact that there is no age
practices of agricultural production. It is well
eight municipalities in mountainous areas limit for farmers to be retired, and they are
known how much priorities and efficiency in
significantly surpassed this value. engaged in agricultural activities as long as
state policy implementation influence
they are fit for any kind of physical activity;
migration. In American society, for example,
therefore, the risk of injuries and death at work
poverty differences between classes,
is higher than in other professions (Fullerton,
nationalities and races are obvious (Tarman,
Toossi, 2001).
2009). Some regions prosper successfully
owing to cooperation with other regions, while Beyond the natural (biological) causes such as
others economically degrade because of an increased life expectancy and a mortality
closed economies, and accomplishments in decrease, it is considered that the dynamical
agriculture depend on the farmer’s openness component (migration) is the greatest reason
towards innovation. Obviously, ethno- for aging within the rural population. The
geographic characteristics play a part in the number of young people remaining in villages
creation of differences between regions and decreases, and those who are eager to come
the behaviour of the people living there. back are few; therefore, the increase in the
aged population is mainly not a consequence
Serbia is among the ten countries in the world
of an increase in older farmers but of the
with the oldest citizens, and it is currently the
younger generations going away (ANRA,
state with the highest number of refugees in
2008). Migrations, or more precisely –
Europe, taking the 13th place in the world
emigrations, are principally a one-direction
(Vujošević et al., 2009). In the 90s,
process: village – city. Young people are
demographic analyses by all criteria of aging Graph 1: Age and gender structure – leaving, thus “shortening” the base and the
showed that the population of Serbia is in the Serbia without Kosovo and Metohija, 1991 and 2002
middle of the population pyramid. At the same
process of aging (Penev, 1999). These Source: UNECE, 2007 time, in most mountainous areas in Europe
analyses were based on a comparison of
those who return are mainly old people,
regions (Vojvodina; Central Serbia; and
already retired in the city (European
Kosovo and Metohija) and/or municipalities
Environmental Agency, 1999; Stloukal, 2000).
(Rančić et al., 1990; Penev, 1999). This
30 spatium
Expected earnings and quality of life, as social implemented and caused a marginalisation of shortage of finances that are not likely to pay
causes, influence both the emigration of young rural areas and agricultural activity, off. In the end, conducting agriculture is an
generations from rural areas and the return to destroying the economic independence of expensive investment with low benefits.
the villages of nearly only those who have rural dwellers, eliminating agricultural Therefore, the issue of land ownership for
already finished their careers. cooperatives, and limiting a farmsteads future generations is certainly a challenge
maximum3. (UDAF, 2000). Looking further into the next
Such demographic change carries substantial
decades at the increased number of aged
effects on future social demands on
POPULATION AGING IMPACTS ON farmers (over 65) leads to the conclusion that
agricultural landscape use and thus on rural
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN the land will be left without anybody to take
areas. Thereby, it is defined as both the
RURAL AREAS proper care of it (Stloukal, 2000).
decrease of the population and the shift in the
age distribution (“aging”) and in the spatial The consequences of population aging can be What happens with agricultural land after its
distribution (“outflow from rural areas” various: economic, social, social-economic, owners come to an age when they are not able
particularly of young people) (Müller et al., natural etc. Nevertheless, it is always useful to to cultivate it anymore? There are only few
2008). keep in mind that population aging can also be basic possibilities: the land will remain with its
a consequence. While most consequences original owners, starting a degradation
While the impact on the social security
bring negative impacts, it is very important to process; the land will remain with its original
systems and related issues are central in the
locate any positive implications, if possible. owners but its use will change (e.g. forested);
research interests of demographic change,
the land will be sold to an owner with no
only a few scientists have actually looked at its The first implication, most often, is a decrease interest in keeping it for agricultural activity
consequences on the demands on agricultural of flexibility in the agricultural labour market. (followed by land-use change); or the land will
landscape use (Kujath, Schmidt, 2007 Additionally, there is an expectation that older be sold to an owner who is not interested in
according to Müller et al., 2008). Three farmers are less motivated to invest in changes in land use and will continue its
dimensions of relations between demographic innovation because of the shorter amortisation cultivation.
change and agricultural activities are apparent period left in their lives to experience full
in Serbia: advantage of it. In another words, serious One of the socio-economic issues is a lack of
changes in the characteristics of agricultural working places when there is no need for new
• population aging: in Serbia as a whole, the
activities are expected to be influenced by the employees. The increase of the aged
young population (0-14 years) share
population aging (Stloukal, 2000). population in villages increases needs for a
decreased from 20.2% in 1981 to 15.9% in
new work force, particularly those who are
2002, while the old population share A median age increase does not necessarily specialised in taking care of the elderly
increased from 10.3% to 16.4%. In the have to come with an increase of the older (Stloukal, 2000). Nursing homes, health
lowlands, during the time between the two population. As example from Australia shows, services, the strengthening of mobility and
censuses, the share of young people the median age increases even if the number of accessibility, etc; all of these require a range of
decreased from 19.9% to 15.4% and the older farmers (over 50) is more or less the new positions in the work force – from low-
share of old people increased from 10.3% to same as it used to be a few decades ago. The qualified to high-qualified.
17%. The same trend is apparent in cause, in fact, is that the number of younger
mountainous areas of Serbia where the share farmers (15-50 years old) has decreased
of young people decreased from 20.7% to PROBLEMS OF RURAL AREAS IN
rapidly (ANRA, 2008).
16.6% and the share of old people increased SERBIA
from 10.4% to 17.3%; The population aging process depends on
Rural areas in Serbia cover about 85 % of its
certain factors as well: population density, the
• population decline: between the two territory, in which more than half of its
age and professional population distribution
censuses, the total population share population live (Table 1). Unfortunately, the
within different economic activities, economic
decreased by 0.6% in lowlands and 3.7% in currently achieved socio-economic
productivity, accessibility of new technologies,
mountainous areas2; development in Serbia has not resulted in a
innovations, and social and economic policies,
consistent and long-term rural development
• migration: although a significant and too (Stloukal, 2001).
policy.
evident phenomenon, Serbian statistics do
not measure it sufficiently. Social causes are The older a farmer is, the probability of being
Part of the planning solutions for further
crucial to this phenomenon. After World War open to investments and innovations
regional development in Serbia is based on
II, the Serbian government and the governments diminishes (Stloukal, 2000). Often, there is no
economic prosperity, development and
of ex-Yugoslavian federal republics intensively perception of possible innovations, and even if
improved living conditions in rural areas, the
favoured industrialisation, which caused these farmers follow contemporary trends that
maintenance and promotion of rural values, a
accelerated urbanization. Investment in favour of lead to greater effectiveness in production, they
strengthening of the the economic position of
cities, in other words an urban-centric policy do not consider themselves as investors. That
agriculture and agricultural producers,
(Petovar, 2003), was systematically is due to short amortisation time and an overall
developing infrastructure and raising utility and
public standards in villages. Agriculture,
2
It is also apparent that the number of mountanious 3
Agrarian reform (1945 and 1953) aimed to eliminate depending on the availability of agricultural
settlement with 100 dwellers has multiplied 11 times in large farmsteads and at first appointed a farmstead funds, with the traditional dependency of local
the span of 40 years (see more in: Malobabić, Maričić, maximum of 35 hectares, and then of 10 hectares per population on agriculture as an economic
2004). agricultural producer.
spatium 31
Table 1. The main characteristics of rural areas in Serbia compared with urban areas
The average age distribution in Census 2002
Serbia Urban Rural % of rural areas EU 25
Indicators (SORS, 2003), adjusted to average values of
total areas areas in Serbia rural areas
lowlands and mountainous areas, testifies
Total area ( km2) 77508 11556 65952 85.1 56.2 considerably that population the aging process
of the population has developed further in
No. of settlement 4715 811 3904 82.8 higher altitudes: 40.6 in lowlands and 41.5 in
Population in 1991 7576837 3257374 4319463 57.0 16.6 mountains (Table 3).
Population in 2002 7498001 3336341 4161660 55.5 A United Nations organisation is conducting an
38.5
Population density 2002 96 288 63 agricultural census, recognizing its relevance
Changes in population in gathering data and following the connections
number (1991-2002 ) in % -1.04 2..42 -3.65 between aging and agricultural activities
(Stloukal, 2000). Based on those data, the
Aging structure conclusion is that the type of agricultural
16.6 activity depends greatly on the age distribution
65+(%) 16,5 15,4 17,5
17.6 of farmers. Namely, farmers are almost
Below 15 (%) 15,7 15,1 16,2 inevitably divided so that the younger ones
Employment in sectors prefer live stocking and fruit-growing while the
Primary (%) 23,36 11,26 32,98 13.2 older ones are oriented towards crop farming
Secondary (%) 30,08 29,32 30,69 28.7 and vegetable-growing but are also mainly
Tertiary (%) 43,74 56,74 33,44 58.1
active in mountain areas (ibid.). The question,
-
therefore, is whether the population aging
Unknown 2,80 2,69 2,89
process is more serious in the mountains than
Source: MAFWM (2009), Strategy of rural development - draft version in the low-lands?
branch and development of agri-industrial processes caused by man and nature;
capacities, represents one of the most therefore, the problem of rural CASE STUDIES
important developmental resources (Maksin- development needs to be stressed as a
The Inđija and Knjaževac Municipalities have
Mićić et al., 2009). matter of losing a main resource -
been chosen to show relations between
agricultural land.
Nevertheless, rural areas in Serbia are geographically different regions in Serbia’s
characterized by several crucial features: Depending on regional differences in lowlands and mountains (Map 1). The
geographical and social means, the aging process essential difference between the cases chosen
- negative demographical trends: rural areas can be distinguished. A comparison of aging for this paper is topography. The Inđija
before the 1990s were characterized by indicators for lowlands and mountains shows that Municipality is located in the flat area of the
strong emigration trends caused by the values for higher altitudes are higher than Pannonia plane, while the Knjaževac
agrarian exodus, as was the case in other those in altitudes closer to sea level. The Table 2 Municipality belongs to mountainous Serbia
European countries in the 1950s. In the presents a distribution of those indicators within and embraces the eastern parts of Stara
same period, rapid growth and the span of approximately 20 years. Planina Mountain. Owing to different
development of other commercial sectors
occurred. During the 1990s rural Table 2: Aging Indicators in Lowlands and Mountainous Areas of Serbia
population outflow, mostly from
Lowlands Mountainous Areas
mountainous areas, continued, but at the
1981 2002 1981 2002
same time, a large displaced population (a
65+ 459,961 698,277 347,533 534,893
consequence of the wars in Croatia, Bosnia
65+ (%) 10.3 17.1 10.4 17.3
and Kosovo) arrived and settled there.
Old-age-
- high employment in the primary sector – 14.9 23.0 15.5 26.0
dependency ration
about 1/3 of the active population is Age index 51.8 102.6 50.4 104.0
employed in the agricultural sector, which Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002)
points out the great importance of
agriculture in the national economy and to Table 3: Indicators related to agricultural activities in Lowlands and Mountainous Areas of Serbia
the low degree of diversification of Lowlands Mountainous Areas
commercial activities in the rural areas of 1981 2002 1981 2002
Serbia. Agriculture is the main activity in Average population 138.1 136.3 73.9 68.5
most rural areas and is characterised by density
small agricultural farms, a low productivity Agricultural 16.4 9.2 32,5 13,1
rate and low income per farm. population (%)
Agricultural area 82.3 79,5 57,3 55,9
- decrease of arable land: mostly a
(%)
consequence of extensive utilization of
agricultural land and various degradation Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002)
32 spatium
the participation of older segment has increased With regard to the future, it is necessary to “read”
in Knjaževac Municipality even more. This is a the aging index, which explains how many
result of the higher increase in population in the individuals in the younger generations will replace
Inđija Municipality which shows an increase in the old in five decades. When just the intensity of
the number of elderly as well (Graph 3). change is compared, the index increases twice as
much in Knjaževac than in the Inđija Municipality.
The percentage of elderly (65+) in total
Additionally, the aging index values shows that the
population increased by 8% in Knjaževac and by
number of old is twice that of the young (0-14) in
6% in Inđija Municipality; however, considering
the mountainous municipality, while the lowland
the value of elderly participation (not the intensity
municipality still has more young inhabitants than
of its change within the span of 20 years), the
old.
situation in the mountainous municipality is
much more serious. In 2002, the percentage of In terms of economic activity, the (dis)balance
the older populatin in Knjaževac Municipality was between the old and working populations (15-64)
almost double than of the Inđija Municipality. has also changed contrary to what is auspicious.
Increasing process of population aging and Again, the facts show a much more serious
almost one third of the population in the elder situation in Knjaževac Municipality: an increase of
age are genuine concern and challenge for the old in total population in percentages is twice as
future (Table 4). high in 2002 than in 1981 and the share of the old
population is twice higher than that of the working
population, too.
Map 1: Study Areas and Case Study Municipalities –
Inđija and Knjaževac
* Serbia is shown without Kosovo and Metohija
topographical conditions, but also to different

historical and ethnic surroundings,
considerable dissimilarities emerged in the
sphere of demographic structures and
agricultural production. Knjaževac Municipality
covers an area of 1,202 km² and its
countryside is mostly hilly and mountainous.
Inđija Municipality covers an area of 384 km²
and its relief is characterized by the slopes of
Graph 2: Change in Total Population Number
Fruška Gora Mountain in the north and fertile
plains in the southern part of the territory. Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002)
Demographic Analysis
Analysing demographic indicators related to
the aging population, differences between the
chosen case studies are obvious. The first and
very characteristic difference is a trend in total
population which has decreased within the
span of 20 years (1981-2002) in Knjaževac
Municipality and increased in Inđija
Municipality. At the beginning of the 1980’s,
Knjaževac Municipality was populated by
48.789 inhabitants, which was approximately Graph 3: Change in Old-Age-Dependency Ratio
the number of inhabitants in Inđija Municipality Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002)
two decades later (Graph 2).
Table 3: Aging Indicators in Knjaževac and Inđija Municipality (1981, 2002)
As expected, Knjaževac Municipality
Knjaževac Municipality Inđjija Municipality
depopulation indicates an aging process too,
1981 2002 1981 2002
not only a decrease of population. Namely, the Total population 48.789 37.172 44.151 49.609
old-age-dependency ratio and aging index in 65+ 9.631 10.248 4.134 7.729
both municipalities has increased, but more so 65+ (%) 19.7 27.6 9.4 15.6
in the mountainous municipality. The number of Old-age-dependency 29.7 45.4 13.5 22.9
inhabitants over 65 has increased more in the ratio
Inđija Municipality, but if shown in percentages, Age index 146.1 253.8 43.7 99.2
Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002)
spatium 33
Agricultural Activity Analysis Relation between Population Aging and regard to its functional relations to centres of
Agricultural Activity FUA. In contrast, Inđija is located in
When indicators related to agricultural
overlapping areas of the two biggest FUA –
activities for both municipalities are compared, In addition to the quantitative analysis, a
Belgrade and Novi Sad (MESP and RASP,
different conclusions can be reached. Although qualitative analysis for both case studies was
2009). Another contrast between case studies
both municipalities, according to OECD criteria conducted, too. A questionnaire, conducted in
is the population decrease in all settlements of
on population density, are rural, the difference July 2009, contained open-question structure
Knjaževac and only one settlement in the Inđija
between population densities of the two and was divided into the following three topics:
Municipality (SORS, 2004). Also, Knjaževac is
municipalities is significant; the lowland awareness of local government of population
one of the municipalities in this mountain area
municipality is over four times more populated. aging in the decision-making process; impact
with the oldest population (average age 47.3),
That presence is not related only to the of population aging on changes in economic
while Inđija instead belongs to a group of
immigration process into the Inđija and agricultural activities; and the impact of
“younger municipalities” in the lowlands
municipality, although after the turbulent population aging on land-use change. The
(average age 39.7) (SORS, 2003).
processes in the ex-Yugoslavian region in the case studies were chosen based on following
1990’s, the Inđija municipality has been criteria: Additional criterion in case study choice was
populated by a lot of refugees4. good information accessibility, more precisely
• Opposite cases with regard to:
interviewees open to providing relevant
Although there was not a large change in the - Geographic location and characteristics; information. Due to the projects and plans
total agricultural area in the period between the - Spatial relation to functional urban areas developed for area of Stara Planina Mountain
two censuses (Graf 4 and Table 4), the (FUA) defined in the Spatial Development by IAUS since 1974, stable and open
situation within the agricultural population is Strategy of the Republic of Serbia (2009); cooperation with local government and project
remarkable. While the share of agricultural - Trend in population increase; associates was significant in the choice of
population in 2002 in the Inđija Municipality
interviewees for this paper. As Inđija is lately
decreased by 7.1 % compared to 1981, in the • Similar cases with regard to:
one of the most successful municipalities with
Knjaževac Municipality that share decreased - Good information accessibility; regard to development in Serbia, chiefs of
more than seven times. - Areas of strategic importance. several departments were also highly
motivated to share information on the
demographic and economic changes they had
been through. Finally, both Knjaževac and
Inđija Municipalities are of strategic
importance in the further spatial development
of Serbia. Knjaževac is included within the
Stara Planina Spatial Plan for Areas of Special
Purposes (IAUS, 2009) and in the Master Plan
of Tourism Development on Stara Planina
(Horwath Consulting, 2008). The successful
development of Inđija and its location within
two FUA makes it an example of good practice
and a potentially very prosperous area in
Graph 4: Change in Agricultural Population and Agricultural area Serbia.
Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002) Interviews in the Knjaževac Municipality were
Table 4: Indicators related to agricultural activities for Knjaževac and Inđija Municipality (1981, 2002)
conducted with the chief of the Department for
Urban Planning, Communal Services and
Knjaževac Municipality Inđija Municipality Inspection and two associates on the Stara
1981 2002 1981 2002 Planina projects. In Inđija, interviewees were
Average population from Municipality Governance - Department for
density 41 31 115 129
Urban Planning, Communal-Housing Services
Agricultural
and Environmental Protection (1); Department
population (%) 40.3 6 16 8,9
for Economy and Local Economy Development
Agricultural area
(3); and from the Agency for Rural
(%) 58.3 57.6 86.2 85.7
Development (1).
Source: Calculated from Statistics (SORS 1981, 2002)
In the planning process, both case studies treat
Namely, as was previously mentioned, the
population issue in a similar way. Plans and
Knjaževac Municipality is located in a
strategies put economic development in first
mountainous area – Stara Planina, while Inđija
4
According to the Republic of Serbia Commissariat for place and consider that these kinds of
geographically belongs to Pannonia Plain.
refugees Census, in 2001 the Inđija Municipality improvements stimulate people to stay or even
refugee status showed 10,113 persons; after the refugee According to analysed daily migration of
come back, indirectly influencing population
status revisal (2005), the Inđija Municipality had 4,321 labour, Knjaževac has an isolated position with
aging. Also, both Municipalities are aware that
internally displaced persons (Source: LAP, 2009)
34 spatium
population aging is a consequence of long- changes in land ownership influences the left repercussions on land-use. A significant
term emigrations within young generations demographic structure. This is because the number of agricultural parcels have become
where losses are especially reflected on human new owners are mostly people who come from meadows, brushwoods or woods. In the
capital. However, the Knjaževac Municipality other regions and municipalities. lowland case study, intensive agricultural
perceives aging as a more relevant issue than activity prevented land from being deserted; in
The process of parcel fragmentation is directly
depopulation, while in the Inđija Municipality the Inđija Municipality, the conversion
related to population aging. Inherited land is
the reverse is true. tendency is from agricultural parcels to
usually divided between children after parents
building-land.
In both case studies it is evident that die or even before. In any case, that land is not
population aging influences economic used for traditional agricultural production or The paradox is that the mountainous example
activities to decrease rather than to shift to nor used at all and yet is divided into smaller shows the greater level of decreased
another activity that is less labour intensive. areas. This process is common in both the autochthon activity, while, at the same time,
Nevertheless, in agriculture, considered a Knjaževac and Inđija Municipalities. investors from other regions and municipalities
primary activity in both the Knjaževac and Nevertheless, the increase of non-functional are the most interested in buying this land. In
Inđija Municipalities, there is selection and farms in the Knjaževac Municipality is greater any case, this land will not be used for
certain types of cultivation where the physical than the increase of changes in land-use, agricultural production anymore.
requirements are higher are avoided. It is clear wherever population aging is the main factor.
Unfavourable relations between population
that the reasons for this lie in the aged
aging and agricultural activities are more
population structure. CONCLUSIONS pronounced in the mountainous than in the
On the one hand, the negative impacts of After an increase induced by immigration lowland case study. Namely, more intense
population aging are recognised in the during the 90s (following intense migration of aging and worse geographical conditions for
Knjaževac Municipality because they have led refugees from the former Yugoslavia), the agricultural development brings about that
to shortages in the working population Inđija Municipality has mainly considered process where parcels become smaller by
(labour). On the other hand, refugees, which depopulation as an aspect of demographic inheritance; therefore, this process is much
have assimilated with the autochthon change. The situation in the Knjaževac more intense in the Knjaževac Municipality,
population and are now a part of the working Municipality has been different, and the more while a reverse process of parcel enlargement
population, stimulate agricultural production in relevant issue regarding demography is is occurring in the Inđija Municipality.
the Inđija Municipality, which could be population aging. In order to avoid irreversible consequences of
considered a positive impact. Still, in this
Economic activities, especially in the short aging, it is essential to maintain the necessary
lowland case study, villages with no
term, have been shown to change mainly when access to information and awareness of the
tendencies to become urbanised or to increase
stimulated by policies and programs of the relationships between population aging and
agricultural production have seriously fallen
State Government and spatial plans. Change in social, economic and natural development. In
into the aging process. Local attitudes (ethno-
the case of the Inđija Municipality relates to the order to move from knowledge to concrete
geography) are named as a main reason.
type of agricultural activity (e.g. a shift from actions, providing objective scientific
Regarding changes in land-use, both fruit production to live stocking), while the information about the specifics of the aging
similarities and differences between Knjaževac Municipality streams towards process specifics to decision-makers is of
mountainous area and lowlands have been tourism. However, those changes have little to exquisite relevance (Stloukal, 2001). When
identified. Namely, one similarity is that do with population aging. Population aging acknowledgment and information already exist
processes of resizing parcels of land to be affects intensity of agricultural activity. and especially if previous opinion articulated
larger or smaller are running parallel, but with an opposite view, it is extremely recommended
different intensity depending on the Measures and policies with regard to to work to change attitudes about measures
municipality. The enlargement of parcels is population aging in rural areas could be and instruments. Encouraging the acceptance
more common for the Inđija Municipality initiated in more fields of action. In the same of innovations, new agricultural technologies
because agricultural production is higher and way, measures and instruments to lessen and practices are also essential.
the type of agriculture (cropping) yields better negative consequences of aging, as well as
prevention from aging, suggest various actions, Regarding measures and instruments that are
results if cultivation occurs in a larger area. It
if practically implemented. the responsibility of government, legislation is
appears that seeding structure has changed,
one of the options. Laws may regulate the
too. While there is an increase in vegetable and Agricultural activity was the primary activity in flexibility of farmers to arrange their own
industrial plants production, corns are less Knjaževac Municipality, but population aging activities, regulate the level of benefits they
present. In the Knjaževac Municipality, the caused a decrease of the work force. When might gain, but define responsibilities that
redemption and renting of land is not there are not enough people to conduct this diminish village-city migrations, too.
significant, but even when it occurs, the reason activity, agriculture lose the importance it used
is not linked to traditional agricultural to have. In the Inđija Municipality, agricultural It is of extreme relevance to be aware that both
production but with the aim to use that land for production has been maintained at a high interviews in the Knjaževac and Inđija
tourism activities. Many parcels of this kind scale. Municipalities have shown that when the local
have still not achieved its purpose. It does not population is not informed about possible
appear that population aging is causing this In the case study of the mountainous area, subventions, credits and programs or they are
parcel enlargement, but one is certain: aging caused a decline of the work force that not informed in an effective way, governmental
spatium 35
subsidies are not being used and fail as a tool The Poverty Reduction Strategy Horwath Consulting (2008): Master Plan of
to discourage emigration from rural areas. Implementation Team has recognized the Tourism Development on Stara Planina,
significance of rural development for poverty Ministry for Economics and Regional
Finally, the following action fields were
reduction. Analysing budgetary support to Development of the Republic of Serbia,
identified as those where measures, Belgrade.
agriculture and rural areas in Serbia over the
instruments and policies dealing with
period of 2004-2008 it is evident that the main Lokalni akcioni plan za unapređenje položaja
population aging are relevant:
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spatium 37
SPATIUM International Review UDC 72.012
No. 22, July 2010, pp. 38-46 Scientific analysis or debate
VISUAL ILLUSION OF THE CHANGE OF THE SIZE

OF ARCHITECTURAL AND URBAN OBJECTS
OBSERVED UPON A CHANGE OF THE OBSERVER’S
DISTANCE: PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE IT
PHENOMENOLOGICALLY
Đorđe Đorđević1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Gordana Vujić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
This paper explores the visual phenomena of a seeming change of the target-object’s size (as a focus of concrete visual
perception) in the function of an observer’s motion so that it “seems” contrary to the law of linear perspective (in the sense of
an expected increase of the target volume/monumentality – by getting closer or a decrease - by getting farther away).
This phenomenon is described in a geometrical and perceptual aspect; the result of this comprehensive approach led to
identify parameters that determine it phenomenologically. It was established that the explored visual phenomenon is a specific
“size illusion”, i.e. an “angular size illusion” that occurs when influenced by factors of the perceptual kind - activated by a
specific dynamic relationship (on a visual plan) between the target object and its surrounding competitive objects, as an
observer moves. By understanding the character of this phenomenon (both in a geometrical and perceptual sense), it is
possible to apply the acquired knowledge in practice – in programming the visual effects to be obtained (such as to visually
optimize or minimize the monumentality of targeted objects) in all architectural and urban fields (planning, designing and
reconstruction).
Key words: perspective, visual-direction perception, size-distance illusion, angular size illusion, new Size-Distance Invariance
Hypothesis (SDIH)
requirements points out the undeniable geometrical organization of physical structure of

INTRODUCTION1 importance to appropriately model space on immediate/farther setting – required to realize a
various levels, highlighting the role of complex visual interaction with the observer,
Objective geometrical and complementary visual based on visual illusions. Consequently, with an
The complex structure of constructed setting perception parameters, especially those appropriate design of the morphological structure
(urban and contemporary rural), requires referring to morphological space of the urban matrix and taking into account the
planning, designing, analysis and evaluation in characteristics, particularly in the function of motion parameter (motion/time), it is possible to
term of numerous architectural and urban visibility and recognizability (Đokić, 2003, program visual phenomena/illusions that some
aspects (such as engineering, functional, 2007). matrix constituents will make even more
socio-psychological, ecological, economic, monumental (or purposefully degraded) – by
Recognizability also refers to the existence of
aesthetic, etc). Each determines specific terms meeting preconditions that enable the impression
dominants and accents in architectural and urban
of its own phenomenology. In that sense, the of their volume increase (i.e. of decrease), by
spaces/scenes. In this matter, it is important to
need to simultaneously meet all possible increasing (i.e. decreasing) the distance of the
note that they are not a sole product of relevant
observer (Zdravković-Jovanović et al., 1995)
dimensioning, materialization and/or colorist
which, as regards phenomenology, is contrary to
1
Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia processing of individual constituent elements (or
the laws on linear perspective (Zdravković-
[email protected] compositions) that need to be visually
Jovanović, 1995).
highlighted, but also a product of an appropriate
spatium 38
Đorđević Đ., Vujić G: Visual illusion of the change of the size of architectural and urban objects observed upon a change of the observer’s distance
Relevance Since the perception of these “linear/distance illusions” in architecture and urbanism, in the
sizes”, except for monocular and binocular form of a visual phenomenon related to the
In view of the importance of the application of
facts, is influenced by numerous contextual impression of an increase of the perceived
visual illusion in architectural and urban
surrounding signals (such as distance/depth architectural and urban object that occurs as
planning, design and reconstruction, this paper
cues) that determine the perception of these the observer moves farther away, was
represents an attempt at scientifically
visual angles (Rock and McDermott, 1964; conducted on the example of St. Mark’s
identifying the determinants of the
Angular Size-Contras Theory - Restle, 1970), a Church in Belgrade, Serbia (Zdravković-
phenomenology, which, according to the
more comprehensive explanation of this inter- Jovanović et al., 1995).
author, are essential for its utility and simple
dependence was given by: Baird et al. (1990),
applicability in contemporary architectural That paper underlined that “one of the most
McCready (1963, 1965, 1983, 1985, 1986,
practice. striking phenomena related to the perception of
1994) and Ross and Plug (2002) – with an
architectural and urban compositions, is the
Because visual illusion has not been studied in altered (“perceptual”) view that is the origin of
illusion of an increase of the dominant’s
architecture and urbanism in this manner, this the so-called “new” SDIH hypothesis (“New”
dimension with regard to the marker, with the
paper represents a specific scientific Perceptual Size-Distance Invariance
increase of the observer’s distance from which
contribution to the research of its vital Hypothesis: McCready, 1963, 1965, 1983,
he perceives them”. Here the term “dominant”
determinants. 1985, 1986, 1994; Ross and Plug, 2002).
implies “the perceived object” and the term
The new approach is that the target’s visual “marker“ all surrounding elements whose
PREVIOUS RESEARCH angle is its perceived visual angle “V`”3 dimensions were “memorized” from “previous
The aim of the phenomena of visual illusion is (Baird, 1970), i.e. that space perception visual experiences”.
to divert the system of visual perception with implies a simultaneous perception of visual
However, in line with the chosen approach, this
respect to a correct reading of its actual angles “V`” and perception of linear sizes “S”
paper interprets this visual phenomenon only
characteristics (foremost size/volume, but also and “D” (perceived linear sizes) (Joynson,
from the aspect of descriptive geometry: laws
the shape, color and location/distance) of 1949; Komoda and Ono, 1974; Gogel and Eby,
on perspective space perception were used to
perceived entities (disposed in plane and 1997; Higashiyama and Shimono, 1994;
explain this phenomenon. They are graphically
space), which makes them particularly McCready, 1985, 1994), under the influence of
interpreted by constructive procedures
attractive for many studies in optics, distance/depth cues as imminent factors that
intended at presenting 3D space in the central
neurophysiology and psychology. (dictating changes in dimensions “L” of the
projection (in that sense, the phenomenon
percept’s retinal image) cause changes in the
Given that these visual illusions are based on a itself was considered on an abstract model
size of the actual/physical visual angle “V” (in
visual perception whose outcome is whose marker was one of the vertical edges of
the sense of a certain correction (V`=V±Δº))
characterized by a paradoxal perceptive the object (the closest to the observed
and henceforth, in the size of the “read ” size
evaluation of these features (which is why they dominant), while a vertical plane placed
“S” (neurophysiologic explanation: Murray et
are called size illusions2), most attempts at parallel to the dominant’s main front façade
al., 2006).
defining them were, essentially, based on the was used for the drawing plane. Consequently,
implementation of the so-called “Apparent Given that the “size illusion” phenomenon is this “engineering approach,” on the one hand,
Distance Theory”, i.e. of the “classic” SDIH the result of a diversion of the visual did not make it possible to entirely perceive
hypothesis (Size-Distance Invariance perception system by contextual information of the analyzed phenomenon (from the
Hypothesis - Kilpatrick and Ittelson, 1953). In spatial and visual character, its presence (in psychological/perceptual point of view) that is
terms of phenomenology, the hypothesis refers terms of phenomenology) refers to issues otherwise necessary to adopt comprehensive
to issues of visual perception in the studied pertaining to a certain dimension correction conclusions. On the other hand, the
field. However, the results of the research that (increase/decrease) “L” of the retinal image of phenomenon description based solely on the
used these postulates were not scientifically the percept’s linear sizes “S” i.e. of the used model (without any reference to the
satisfying, because for a specific percept’s perceived visual angles “V`(S),” which actual situation in a non-abstract setting), left
constant linear size “S” and its fixed distance confirms here too the importance of angle open the issue of a broad applicability of the
“D” from an observer, the actual/physical “V`” (and not the importance of the adopted conclusions in professional practice
visual angle “V(S)” of this size (which in fact actual/physical visual angle “V”).4 (and in morphologically different contexts).
identifies a functional relationship between On the other hand, the study of “visual size That is why the authors of this paper wished to
sizes “S” and “D” in the form of: tgV(S) =S/D) conduct a more comprehensive research of the
is not an invariant (supported by the SDIH 3
The target’s perception of visual angles “V`” implies essential aspects of this visual illusion:
hypothesis!). perception of angles defined by pairs of eye-rays especially of the facts that determine its origin
corresponding to ends of perceived linear sizes and the parameters that describe the principal
(“direction perception,” “egocentric distance-signal
2
Typical representatives of this type of visual illusions perception” – Foley, 1980).
phenomenology (bearing in mind the influence
are: Moon illusion, Oculomotor micropsia/macropsia, 4
According to the aforementioned, “Size illusions” are, of the ever-present contextual surrounding
Ebbinghaus illusion, Herring illusion, Ponzo illusion, in fact, “Visual angle illusions”/“Angular size illusions” signals as the fundamental determinants of
Muiler-Lyer illusion, Spiral after/effect, Orbison illusion, (Baird, 1970; Komoda and Ono, 1974; Roscoe, 1984; perceptual kind).
Jastrow illusion, Wundt illusion, Meyer wallpaper Gogel and Eby, 1997; Higashiyama, 1992 Higashiyama
illusion and Curvature of the apparent fronto-parallel and Shimono, 1994; McCready, 1985, 1986, 1994;
plane (AFPP) (remark by the author). Murray at al., 2006).
spatium 39
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3:

Focus of interest (St. Sava’s Temple in Belgrade, Serbia) Focus of interest (St. Mark’s Church in Belgrade, Serbia) Focus of interest
with surrounding objects as main segments with the surrounding vegetation and objects with the surrounding vegetation as the only element
of “its” marker volume as elements of “its” marker volume of “its” marker volume
elements or their parts: (i) objects that are visually or without head or eyelense motion), under the
STARTING CONSIDERATIONS competitive with respect to the focus of interest influence of visual, selective and controlled
(figure 1), (ii) vegetation visually competitive with attention mechanisms. (Milošević, 2002).
Definition of terms respect to the focus of interest (figure 2) and (iii) Since this information contains descriptors that
In line with the concept of this paper, the main combined - “competitive” objects and vegetation generate constituent elements of this setting
categories and subjects of this research are (figure 3). and its compositions (architectural objects,
formulated as follows: elements of urban equipment, including
Geometry of the marker volume
vegetation, etc.), as the observer moves
(1) focus of interest “F” (hereinafter “focus”) is Depending on the geometry of elements through this setting, the imminent feature of
an architectural and urban object (or its part) constituting the marker volume, the marker line the visual perception is an uninterrupted
that represents the observer’s primary subject consists of parts of straight lines and/or curves - change of the visual field (i.e. perceived space
of interest. It is located in the central zone of 2D lines and/or 3D lines, that represent the facts), the result of which are structural
the visual field (field of sharp vision); it contours of these elements (in the function of the changes in the perceived marker volume and
consists of: (i) focus volume: the composition actual observers’ position) and it is visible as a consequently its marker line (some of its
of all visible focus mass, (ii) the focus contour seemingly continuous line – in the form of elements gradually disappear from the visual
line (marked with “k (F)” on graphic “outlines” of the marker volume (figures 4 and 5). field leaving place for new ones) (figure 6 / (a),
illustrations: the contour of the perceptible (b) and (c)).
A realistic 3D setting is characterized by a
(visible) focus volume in the function of a
large amount of spatial and visual information
specific observer’s position and (iii) the Defining the starting hypothesis
– located in different space depth planes (at
composition-related focus elements
different distances from the observer). The Given that, as underlined at the beginning of
(secondary mass and elements of the façade
informative quality of such spaces imminently this paper, this visual phenomenon - in this
decoration), and
leads to changes of the subject of interest - context and the way suggested here, was not
(2) visual marker “R” (hereafter “marker”) is a from closer to information located farther away studied, it was necessary for the following
variable category in the function of the from the observer (with smaller or larger starting hypothesis to be defined.
observer’s motion, called so because it is reorientation of the perception direction – with
assumed here that in a competitive relation
with respect to the focus of interest (in the
visual sense), it makes the analyzed
phenomenon possible; the marker consists of:
(i) the marker volume: part of a closer or
farther architectural/urban setting of the focus
that is partially or completely an integral part of
the acquired visual field and (ii) the marker
line: the contour of the perceived marker
volume (marked with “k(R)” on graphic
illustrations) that, in a visual sense, partially or
completely “frames” the focus of interest.
Typology of the marker volumes
Figure 4: Focus of interest Figure 5: Focus of interest
With respect to this wording, the marker volume and a seemingly continuous marker line of “its” marker volume and the seemingly continuous marker line of “its” marker volume
consists of one or more architectural and urban perceived from a given eye point as a series of straight lines perceived from a given eye point as a series of curves
and curves
40 spatium
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6: Gradual change of the marker volume (and the marker line in the form of its contour) as a result of continuous motion: (a) the observer is the closest to the focus of
interest; (b) and (c) the following positions of the observer, defined as he moves farther away from the focus of interest
The visual phenomenon referring to a seeming as possible (to the limit to which the perception is existing between the marker rectangles
change of the focus volume in the function of possible in accordance with the criteria (positioned in the “back” depth-plane); it is
the observer’s motion in a manner that described); and positioned so as to lie on a horizontal route
“appears” to be contrary to the law of linear plane, so that one of the pairs of its opposite
(2) bearing in mind the hypothesis that the
perspective (in the sense of an expected vertical sides is parallel to the plane of the
analyzed phenomenon is the result of a dynamic
volume/monumentality increase – by getting marker rectangles and the plane of their
relation existing between the focus and its
closer i.e. its decrease – by getting farther symmetry is identical to the said marker
competitive setting (in a visual sense), as well as
away), is the result of a dynamic relation (in structure symmetry plane.
the fact that the marker/marker volume is a part of
the visual sense) existing between that focus
such setting, it is necessary for the marker also to Therefore, it is necessary to note that: (i) the
and surrounding objects visually competitive
be present in the visual field i.e. visible from all adoption of a “constant” marker (invariable in
with respect to it. For this dynamic relation to
potential positions on the route – so as to meet the function of the observer’s motion) and
exist, the focus and the marker cannot belong
the afore mentioned requirements5. presented in a simplified manner as described,
to the same depth-plane.
and (ii) the choice of a straight line route of
Defining the geometry of the used model horizontal direction, are the consequence of
Defining the conditions required to
of the setting the fact that this paper represents an initial
analyze this visual phenomenon
study, aimed at identifying the core of this
To explain the essence of this phenomenon in a phenomenon (in terms of phenomenology),
Since the studied visual occurrence is a
concise but comprehensive way and for the
phenomenon that belongs to the field of visual which can be done by using a model of
purpose of this study a simplified model of the 3D
perception, it will occur provided the observer elementary composition-related structures
setting with the following geometrical features
consistently completes the process of visual (geometrically speaking) – with a minimum
was defined: number of variable parameters. In addition, the
illusion of a specific context. This implies the
perception of the focus and its setting (henceforth, (1) the marker “R” is represented with two positioning of the marker between the observer
the marker), in a manner that will meet the mutually spaced out identical vertical rectangles and the focus (in a depth-plane “closer” to the
following requirements: located on the same plane, with the upper edges observer), is the result of a desire to define a
horizontal and at the same height; the marker is model of the setting that is
(1) as the subject of the analyzed visual conceptually/structurally in accordance with
constant (it does not change with the change of
occurrence (henceforth, the perception) is the the realistic ones represented on given figures
the observer’s position),
focus of a specific interest, the route along which
(including all others in which the foci of
the observer moves has to maintain: (i) a “good” (2) the route from which the observer perceives interest are monumental architectural buildings
visibility, by preserving entirely the visibility of the the marker and the focus is a straight line and that commonly represent urban dominants).
focus (or at least a major part of its volume) from belongs to the vertical plane of symmetry of the
all potential positions on the route, (ii) a “clear” related marker composition; the route is horizontal Furthermore, it is necessary to bear in mind that
visibility, able to hold the percept without and located on the plane where the lower none of these limitations question the validity of
interruption in the central zone of the visual field (horizontal) edges of the rectangle are situated, this model, because it offers an adequate
(field of sharp vision), from all potential positions and presentation of realistic spaces with similar
on the route and (iii) a continuous visibility, morphological features (in the relevant field), and
exclusively, in order to secure continuity of the (3) the focus “F” is the hexadron that is visible takes into account that the process of structuring
flow of visual experience. Consequently, along the entire route - through the space respected all “general requirements” introduced
geometrically speaking, the route has to be in previous sections, which were, in fact, the main
5
Since the marker is not an immediate subject of the descriptors of exactly theses spaces.
continuous and as approximate as possible to a
observer’s interest (but the focus), the “peripheral
straight line (of any space direction); the visual vision” can be responsible for it (Author’s note).
experience will “last” provided the route is as long
spatium 41
Given that in morphologically more complex marker is chosen to be less than the height of Figure 9 shows comparative charts that illustrate
realistic spaces there are routes of a more the focus (which is common in architectural the change of the increase rate “Ψ(R)” or “Ψ(F)”
complex geometry, where the dynamic and urban scenes when the focus represents of analyzed visual angles of the upper (horizontal)
perception of the setting (in motion), is most the space determinant of outstanding marker contour line (visual angles) (in degrees),
often characterized by the presence of monumentality). The length of the observer’s responsible for every two successive observer’s
“variable” markers (that may be located even route depends on these sizes so that its positions: “i+1” and “i” (Ψ=Vi+1-Vi).6
farther from the focus), the research of this dimensioning is a consequence of the level of
The following facts can be observed on the chart
phenomenon in the function of these (more the change of actual perceived visual angle
represented in figure 8.
complex) facts, will be the subject of future values “V” of the marker, i.e. focus (given the
research, based on the results of this paper. fact that this change is less than 1º from The increase (decrease) of the values of actual
positions 8-9-10 and further). On the other visual angles “V” (in the function of the observer
PROVING THE HYPOTHESIS hand, the number of station points (and their getting closer (getting farther away)), is present as
mutual distance), is chosen in accordance with well with the marker “R” and the focus “F”, which
The visual phenomenon as an actual the perceived change rate in the sizes of the shows that their perception is determined by a law
phenomenon: physical facts analyzed angles “V” (so it is significant for of linear perspective (in the sense that closer
each two successive observer’s positions). objects seem larger). However, this occurrence of
It is empirically proved (in а realistic setting) a major increase (decrease) of these values with
that the change in the relation between the Figure 7 shows the lateral view of the
the marker can be supported by the fact that the
“upper” marker line and the “upper” contour described model, with actual/physical visual
observer intensively experiences the perspective
line of the focus is clearly visible from greater angles ”V” of the upper (horizontal) focus
change (as a consequence of a perspective
distances. To research a seeming change of contour line “k(F)” (a) and the upper
deformation) on the perceived elements that are
the focus volume with respect to the marker (horizontal) marker contour line “k(R)” (b),
closer to him (Zdravković-Jovanović, 1995).
volume, according to the SDIH hypothesis, perceived for each of 11 observer’s positions.
actual/physical visual angles “V” (in degrees)
were used, under which the observer perceives
the lines, moving along the route. Naturally, it
is evident that as concerns smaller distances
between the existing marker/focus and the (a) (b)
observer, the visual change of depth-planes to Figure 7: Lateral views of the chosen model of the surroundings with traced actual visual angles
which they belong (in the function of the “V” of the upper (horizontal) focus contour line “F” (a) or marker “R” (b)
station point change) is recognizable at every
perceivable motion-parallax change between
the marker line and any other sufficiently Table 1 features actual values (in degrees) of On the other hand, in the observer’s position
visible composition-related focus element considered visual angles “V” of the upper “11”, the actual visual angle of the focus “F” is
(element of secondary or third façade (horizontal) marker and focus contour lines somewhat larger than the visual angle of the
decoration). The seeming change of the focus (“R” i.e. “F”), in the function of a specific marker “R”, which implies that (from that
volume “F” with regard to marker volume “R” observer’s position. station point) it is perceived as being
will be considered in this paper by following somewhat higher than the marker. As the
Table 2 features the increase rate “Ψ” of actual
the seeming change of the height of the upper observer moves from position “11” to position
values (in degrees) of visual angles “V” of the
focus line and upper marker contour line. ”M”, the actual visual angles of the marker and
upper (horizontal) marker and focus contour
the focus are simultaneously increasing, but
To research this phenomenon with a view to lines for every two successive observer’s
the increase of these angles is more significant
proving the hypothesis, a model of the setting positions : “i” and “i+1” (Ψ=Vi+1-Vi).
with respect to the marker than to the focus
with previously described/general geometrical
Table 1: Actual values (in degrees) of visual angles “V” of the upper (horizontal) marker and focus contour lines (“R” i.e. “F”), in the function of a specific observer’s position.
Numbers of the observer ‘s positions along the route
V (º)
11 10 9 8 M 6 5 4 3 2 1
V(R) 7.742 8.505 9.434 10.588 12.059 13.995 16.651 20.498 26.495 36.785 56.228
V`(F) 9.248 9.882 10.470 11.209 12.059 13.045 14.203 15.582 17.248 19.299 21.875
Table 2: Increase rate “Ψ(R)” or “Ψ (F)” (in degrees) of actual visual angles V(R) or V (F), for every two successive observer’s positions
Segments of the observer’s route between each two successive observer’s positions
Ψ (º)
11/10 10/9 9/8 8/M M/6 6/5 5/4 4/3 3/2 2/1
Ψ(R)=V(R)i+1-V(R)i 0.763 0.929 1.154 1.471 1.936 2.656 3.847 5.997 10.290 19.443
Ψ(F)=V(F)i+1-V(F)i 0.574 0.648 0.739 0.850 0.986 1.158 1.379 1.666 2.051 2.576
characteristics was used. As regards specific Figure 8 shows comparative charts that
sizes of the model elements, the mutual illustrate actual values of analyzed visual angles
6
In order to obtain a better visibility of the charts, the
distance between the focus and the marker is values of angles “Ψ” have been enlarged two times
“V(R)” and “V (F)”, in the function of each of
(Author’s note)
arbitrarily dimensioned, where the height of the 11 chosen observer’s positions.
42 spatium
(figure 8). Consequently, from station point level of commenting on the cues which qualify it implies multi-stage computing of these angles’
“M” the observer perceives a levelling of the as such. On that occasion, the arguments set forth sizes, following a comparative scaling of the
actual visual angles of the marker and focus, will correlate with a “corrected” perceptual perceived distances “D” and perceived sizes
which results in a seeming levelling of their approach (based on the “new” SDIH hypothesis), “S” (Visual Processing Model, McCready,
heights. As the observer gets is getting closer because of its contribution to a comprehensive 1965, 1985), the qualification of this
to the focus (henceforth, to the marker), the explanation of the phenomenology of phenomenon will be as follows.
described tendency of the increase of actual controversial visual “size illusions” of 2D and 3D
Consequently, when the observer moves, the
visual angles of the marker and focus spaces (mentioned at the beginning).
impression that the perceived linear sizes of
continues, and the visual angle of the marker is
the focus and the marker are changing in a
manner that “seems” contrary to the law of
linear perspective (in the sense of expected
increase - by getting closer or decrease – by
getting farther away), is the result of a
simultaneous perception of their visual angles
“V`” – in a manner that implies correction of
corresponding actual visual angles “V(F)” and
“V(R)” (actually analyzed here), under the
influence of available (visible) contextual
signals. In that sense, the said correction may
be the impact of one of the three facts
mentioned in the footnote (as specific
depth/distance cues): (i) the equidistance
assumption/equal linear size assumption of the
perceived objects, (ii) familiar size and (iii)
oculomotor micropsia/macropsia.
Namely, before the observer sets in motion,
according to his location/position in the setting
Figure 8: Actual values of visual angles “V(R)” and “V(F)” (º) Figure 9: Concurrent illustration of the increase values
and his specific interest, he perceives the
in the function of the observer’s position “Ψ(R)” and “Ψ(F)” (º) for each visual angles “V`” of its constituent elements
two successive observer’s positions (i.e. linear sizes “S”) that attracted his attention
(by scaling the perceived size-distance
significantly increasing compared to the visual With regard to the fact that the perception of
relationship “S”-“D” under the influence of
angle of the focus. The consequence is the fact the setting elements equals the perception of
available distance/depth cues). The final
that, from position “M” to position “1”, there is their visual angles “V`”(as corrected actual
results of their visual angle-size-distance
an impression of a major increase of the visual angles “V” under the influence of
perception are not only sizes “S” and “D”
marker height with respect to the focus. available (visible) distance/depth cues)7, which
scaled individually, but an impression of their
As these visual changes in the relationship 7
spatial inter-relations (i.e. their ”relative”
On this aspect (as it belongs to the visual perception
between the height of the focus and its visually mutual distances). Such perceived values
domain) the scaling of the perceived distances “D”,
competitive marker are the consequence of a except for the monocular and binocular facts, can also become part of the visual experience. On that
perception of corresponding mutually different be influenced by: (i) their “equidistance assumptions” occasion, if the observer is already familiar
visual angles (except in point “M”!) (figure 8), (McCready, 1965, 1985) or their “equidistance with the setting, the influence of “familiar”
and mutually different rates of visual angle tendencies” (Gogel, 1965) or (ii) “familiar” distance sizes on his subsequent perception confirms
sizes/equidistances (Bolles and Bailey, 1956; Ono,
changes between each two station points the validity of the regained impression,
1970; McCready, 1965, 1985), while the scaling of the
(figure 9), these facts clearly express a specific perceived linear sizes “S”, except for the monocular and
dynamic relationship (in the visual sense) binocular facts, can also be influenced by: (i) “familiar”
between the focus and the marker - revealed linear sizes (but this time as an efficient cue to linear
when the observer moves (gets closer or sizes “S” (Bolles and Bailey, 1956; Ono, 1970) or (ii) oculomotor micropsia (i.e. macropsia) as a
“assumed” or “suggested” linear sizes (Colheart, 1970; phenomenon that may lead to actual changes of the
farther away).
Hastorf, 1950). perceived focus’s angular sizes “V`” (its decrease i.e.
Also, one has to take into account that important increase), because of eye accommodation and/or
The visual phenomenon as a visual determinants of visual perception of the setting in the convergence with regard to objects located between the
“size illusion” i.e. “angular size domain of visual illusions also are: (i) “equal linear focus and observer (i.e. behind the focus); the
illusion”: perceptual facts size assumption” “S” of its constituent elements conducted correction “diverts” the perception system in
(McCready, 1965, 1985) – as the responsible relative one of three ways - perceived linear sizes “S” may be
In view of the professional orientation of the author angular size cue to distance on the basis of which the seen: (i) as smaller ones (i.e. larger ones), (ii) as farther
of this paper, which determined the approach to visual system assumes that it is about the same object ones (i.e. closer ones) or (iii) as smaller and farther
(“identity constancy”- Piaget, 1954; “equidistance ones (ie. as larger and closer ones) (McCready, 1965;
this research, the interpretation of the analyzed
tendency” - Gogel, 1965; “perceptual constancy” - Ono, 1970; Ono et al., 1974; Komoda and Ono, 1974;
phenomenon as a visual “size illusion or “angular Epstein, 1973; Rock, 1977; Rock et al., 1978) and (ii) Roscoe, 1989)
size illusion” will be elementary – kept on the
spatium 43
recognizing the previously acquired visual perspective deformation in the function of (because it “behaves as visually expected” –
experience (Visual Processing Model, getting closer), it is possible to see that as the according to the laws of linear perspective). In
McCready, 1965, 1985). observer gets closer to the focus, the visual case the observer cannot perceive other depth
relationship between marker and focus cues, the size of the marker remains the only
After the observer sets in motion, he has a
becomes more inconsistent (figures 9 and 10). available cue. In order to preserve the
defined focus of interest (which, by the way, he
The fact that the rate of the marker’s seeming presentation of the perceptive constancy of all
may dynamically change – a circumstance
increase is much more significant than is the physically invariable objects in the visual field
contrary to this study!), while the objects from
focus’ (figures 9 and 10), makes the marker a (and therefore make the perceived to be similar
the setting that are visually competitive with
more visible rival of the focus and, therefore, to the initially acquired visual experience), the
respect to the focus (one or more), establish a
an important cue to its distance from the marker size can cause a correction of the
visual marker (become part of the marker
observer (and a paradoxal one!). actually perceived distance of the focus with
volume). If the observer, as he moves, does
respect to the observer (in the direction of its
not change the focus of interest and the Namely, as the space perceived by the
increase). According to the “new” SDIH
visually acquired marker (and if other observer is realistic (architectural and urban) –
hypothesis, the correction of the perceived size
requirements and limitations mentioned in this the shape, size, color and position of its
of the actual distance of the focus with respect
paper are met), the dynamic relationship constituent elements are largely physical
to the observer (which is causally connected
between them (in the visual sense) has constants (which refers to the focus and marker
with the size of the perceived visual angle
characteristics displayed in chart on figures 8 as well), the visual system (despite initiated
“V`”), causes a correction/decrease of the
and 9. Accordingly, the visual presentation the motion and present “dynamics’changes” -
angle of the actual perception “V” and,
observer has of the perceived setting while especially visible on objects closer to the
therefore, a decrease in the perceived focus’
moving is illustrated in figure 10. observer) has a tendency to hold them as such
size/height (while its linear size “S” remains
(treating them as perceptive constants -
Comparing these figures (as simplified constant).
“identity constancy”, “perceptual constancy”).
representations of successively generated
Accordingly, the focus and the marker (as As the observer gets closer to the focus, the
visual fields), considering the actually present
integral parts of the perceived space) are also disbalance between the rate of seeming marker
impression of increase of the marker and focus
treated as perceptive invariants. Consequently, increase and the rate of seeming focus
heights (as the natural consequence of the
the marker becomes a specific depth cue increase becomes more significant (in favor of
Figure 10: Illustration of a dynamic visual inter-relation between the focus and the marker, established as the observer moves along the
route: the observer’s visual fields are formed by the perception of the focus and the marker from station points 11-1
(a simplified model is used)
44 spatium
the marker as the “activated” cue of the focus immediate proximity of the observer (with of a bus or by looking in the rear mirror of the
distance from the observer), the above regard to which “adjustment” of the car…). Then too the marker would be a relative
mentioned can be the reason why, from every oculomotor system “to the proximity” will be angular size cue to focus distance but the
following position (closer to the marker), the done). If the described requirement is met, occurrence of the oculomotor micropsia
distance between the observer and the focus while the observer is getting closer to the (according to its phenomenology), this time,
is scaled more and more (figures 9 and 10). focus, the visible seeming change of the would defy the significant increase of the focus
The consequence is an impression that the marker volume/size/height intensifies - volume as the observer moves farther away (in
focus volume/size/height is getting smaller exponentially grows larger (figure 9) and the the sense of a certain decrease of the sizes of
and smaller (relatively – with regard to the additional influence of the oculomotor the perceived focus’ visual angles).
marker). According to its role to correct micropsia on the focus perception (at every
Consequently, one can conclude that an
actual focus visual angle sizes, it is possible position) leads to a further decrease of its
intense dynamic relationship between the
to tell that, in this phenomenon, the marker already corrected perceived visual angles -
focus and the marker (in a visual sense)
represents a specific relative angular size cue causing more significant “decrease” of focus
creates an impression that the focus volume
to focus distance. volume/size/height (i.e. the impression that the
changes in a manner that “seems” contrary to
focus is obviously “lagging“ in “growth”)8.
Given that (as underscored at the beginning) the law of linear perspective (with respect to
in the process of perception of an Given that all described perceptual factors the created impression of the volume decrease
architectural and urban setting, a large cause a seemingly continuous decrease of - by getting closer or increase - by getting
number of objects constitute the marker, their the focus volume (i.e. its perceived visual farther away). If the marker and focus are
unique marker volume represents a unique angles “V`”) as the observer gets closer, they located in the same depth-plane, the rates of
relative angular size cue to distance used to are all responsible for the creation of the their actualvisual angle changes
scale the distance between the focus and the illusion of the focus decrease in the process (increase/i.e.decrease) for every specific
observer. When the marker contour line of closing in on it (despite the fact that, under position of the observer would be mutually
seemingly “frames” the focus (not rare in these conditions, it is really perceived as proportional, so that this “dynamics” would not
realistic spaces), the observer has the being even larger). Because the described take place and, consequently, nor would the
impression that the focus is not decreasing occurrence is contrary to the laws of linear relevant illusion. This supports the starting
relatively, but generally – as if this perspective, this phenomenon represents a hypothesis.
impression is determined by all objects specific visual size illusion. However, as this
Naturally, when, in addition to the marker
within the surroundings that frame the focus occurrence actually influences the true
presence (as a significant relative angular size
partially or completely. perception of the analyzed perceived visual
cue to focus distance), there are other available
angles “V`”, it is, in fact, an angular size
Consequently, the described mechanism of (visible) depth cues, with regard to them, the
illusion.
visual perception of the focus creates in level of corrections of the focus perceived
observers a powerful impression that, as they It is obvious that the same effect (but of visual angles “Vi`” (from each of the
get closer to the focus, the focus significantly opposite visual impression), is possible as the “excessive” station points “i” close to the
“escapes” from them. observer moves farther from the focus (for marker) would be variant.
example, the perception from the back platform
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11: Seeming change of dimensional relation between the marker and focus occurs when the observer approaches the focus: (a) the observer is at the far end of the focus:
the focus is seemingly perceived as “higher” than the “right” marker object (b) the focus “catches up with” the marker in height and (c) observer is the closest to the focus: the focus is seemingly
perceived as “lower” than the “right” marker object (focus: St. Sava’s Temple in Belgrade - Serbia)
The intensification of the impression that the Bearing this study in mind, it is clear that it makes
focus “retreats” (i.e. decreases and/or both ) 8
no difference whether the marker is an
Bear in mind that marker is the subject of micropsia
as the observer gets closer, can be influenced architectural and urban object situated before or
oculomotor accommodation/convergence (remark by
by an oculomotor micropsia activated in parts the author) behind the focus (as regards the phenomenology
of the route where the marker volume is in the of their dynamic relationship on the visual field):
spatium 45
the result of such an inversion is that the analyzed Colheart, M. (1970) The effect of verbal size Perception & Psychophysics, No. 39, pp. 64-72.
visual illusion will no longer relate to the focus but information upon visual judgments of absolute McCready, D. (1994) Toward the Distance-Cue
to the marker and, instead of the influence of the distance, Perception & Psychophysics, No. 9, pp. Theory of Visual Angle Illusions, Psychology
oculomotor micropsia, oculomotor macropsia 222-223. Department Report, Whitewater: University of
would be a relevant “corrective” mechanism Đokić, V. (2003) Uticaj morfoloskih karakteristika Wisconsin, p. 40.
present during the focus perception. prostora na njegovu sagledivost i prepoznatljivost, Milošević, S. (2002) Percepcija, pažnja i motorna
Arhitektura i urbanizam, No. 12/13, pp. 73-84. aktivnost, Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna
In support of the hypothesis, the actual existence
Đokić, V. (2007) Morfoloska istraživanja u sredstva
of this illusion was confirmed through the used
urbanizmu, Arhitektura i urbanizam, No. 20/21,
model but also in all realistic architectural and Murray, S.O., Boyaci, H. & Kersten, D. (2006) The
pp. 61-72. representation of perceived angular size in human
urban settings with identical morphological
features, as illustrated in figure 11 [illusion of Epstein, W. (1973) The process of “Taking into primary visual cortex, Nature Neuroscience, No.
focus volume change (St. Sava’s Temple in account” in visual perception, Psychological 9, pp. 429-434.
Bulletin, No. 64, pp. 153-163.
Belgrade, Serbia) with regard to the marker Ono, H. (1970) Some thoughts on different
(Slavija-Luks Hotel), in the function of the Foley, J.M. (1980) Binocular distance perception, perceptual tasks related to size and distance in
observer’s motion along Kralja Milana Street)]. Psychological Review, No. 87, pp. 411-434. J.C. Baird, Human space perception: Proceedings
Gogel, W.C. (1965) Equidistance tendency and its of the Dartmouth conference, Psychometric
Monograph Supplement, No. 3 (13, Whole No.
CONCLUSIONS consequences, Perception, No. 2, pp. 267-285.
45)
Gogel, W.C. and Eby, D.W. (1997) Measures of
The results of this study have a broad applicability perceived linear size, sagittal motion, and visual Ono, H., Muter, P. and Mitson, L. (1974) Size-
in designing architectural and urban space. It is angle from optical expansions and contractions, distance paradox with accommodative micropsia,
possible to achieve the effects of this illusion on Perception & Psychophysics, No. 59, pp. 783- Perception & Psychophysics, No. 15, pp. 301-
an already developed matrix, when designing new 806. 307.
objects that need to be integrated in the existing Hastorf, A.H. (1950) The influence of suggestion on Piaget, J. (1954) The construction of reality in the
setting and when planning and designing the relationship between stimulus size and child, New York: Basic Books
completely new urban structures. perceived distance, Journal of Psychology, No. Restle, F. (1970) Moon illusion explained on the
Namely, when already constructed architectural 29, pp. 195-217. basis of relative size, Science, No. 167, pp. 1092-
and urban objects are to become objects of the Higashiyama, A. (1992) Anisotropic perception of 1096.
illusions, it is possible to intervene on their visual angle: Implications for the horizontal-vertical Rock, I. and McDermott, W. (1964) The perception
physical setting so as to make the illusion visually illusion, overconstancy of size, and the moon of visual angle, Acta Psychologica, No. 22, pp.
detectable. illusion, Perception & Psychophysics, No. 51, pp. 119-134.
218-230. Rock, I. (1977) In defense of unconscious inference,
Consequently, when designing new objects, by Higashiyama, A. and Shimono, K. (1994) How in Epstein (ed.) Stability and constancy in visual
incorporating them into an existing context (with accurate is size and distance perception for very perception: Mechanisms and processes, New
an appropriate modelling, dimensioning and far terrestrial objects? Perception & York: Willey, pp. 321-373.
positioning), it is possible to ensure a perception Psychophysics, No. 55, pp. 429-442. Rock, I., Shallo, J. and Schwartz, F. (1978) Pictorial
that guarantees the activation of this illusion.
Joynson, R.B. (1949) The problem of size and depth and related constancy effects as a function
When planning and designing a new urban matrix, distance, Quarterly Journal of Experimental of recognition, Perception, No. 7, pp. 3-19.
one has available the same spectrum of Psychology, No. 1, pp. 119-135. Roscoe, S.N. (1984) Judgments of size and
parameters that initialize this illusion, but it is Kilpatrick, F.P and Ittelson, W.H. (1953) The size- distance with imaging displays, Human Factors,
possible to program its effects with less distance invariance hypothesis, Psychological No. 26, pp. 617-629.
restrictions: not only by modelling, dimensioning Review, No. 60, pp. 223-231. Roscoe, S.N. (1989) The zoom-lens hypothesis,
and positioning of architectural and urban objects Komoda, M.K. and Ono, H. (1974) Oculomotor Chapter 3, in M.Hershenson (ed.) The Moon
(as the focus of the illusion), but with an adequate adjustments and size-distance perception, Illusion, Hillsdale, NJ: L. Earlbaum
modelling, dimensioning and positioning of a Perception & Psychophysics, No. 15, pp. 353-360. Ross, H. and Plug, C. (2002) The mystery of moon
broad spectrum of elements located in their McCready, D. (1963) Visual activity under illusion, Oxford: Oxford University Press
closer or more distant setting. conditions that induce size illusions, Doctoral Zdravković-Jovanović, A., Grujić N., Đorđević Đ.,
dissertation, University of Michigan Popkonstantinović B. (1995) Iluzija uvećanja
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accommodation – convergence micropsia: nastala udaljavanjem posmatrača, Izgradnja Vol.
Baird, J.C. (1970) Psychophysical analysis of visual
A critique, Vision Research, No. 5, pp. 189-206. No. 49, Issue No. 3, pp. 118-120.
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Baird, J.C., Wagner, M. and Fuld, K. (1990) A simple
Illusion Redefined, Psychology Department Report, Međusobne relacije i konstrukcije, Beograd: Zavod
but powerful theory of moon illusion, Journal of
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Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance, No. 16, pp. 675-677. McCready, D. (1985) On size, distance and visual
angle perception, Perception & Psychophysics,
Bolles, R.C. and Bailey, D.E. (1956) The importance
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46 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.432(497.11)
TRANSFORMATION OF THE NEW BELGRADE

URBAN TISSUE: FILLING THE SPACE INSTEAD OF
INTERPOLATION
Igor Marić1, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Ana Niković, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Božidar Manić, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
This paper points to current transformations of the New Belgrade architectural and urban space identifying the process of
filling the empty undeveloped areas within the New Belgrade blocks under the pressure of new commercial facilities. Given
that these changes are not regulated by plans in an appropriate way, they are manifested in the space as problem situations
leading to the production of space which is appropriate for the narrow interests of capital holders, while interests of direct
users, as well as interest of a wider public, are most often neglected. The paper presents a critical analysis of the existing
conditions and identifies problems emerging in the development and planning of the New Belgrade urban tissue. The space
transformations have been explored at the level of urban and physical structure, urban landscape and user’s life. Identified
problem situations are indicative for further consideration of strategies for urban-architectural planning and design of New
Belgrade.
Key words: New Belgrade, open block, urban tissue, transformations, commercial facilities
INTRODUCTION1 holders, while interests of direct users, as well harmonious and scientifically developed
as interest of a wider public, have been relationship between the developed and free
During the past decades, gradual neglected and even often jeopardized. New spaces in the city, is disturbed. By neglecting
transformations of Belgrade urban tissue have forms of connections in space, new types of the real needs of the existing users and existing
taken place, basically changing the city’s physical structure, have emerged completely models of life in the city, the unsparing
physical and spatial structure, urban landscape changing the image of the city and everyday usurpation of every empty space in the city
and life in the city. Over time, these life in it, whereas insufficiently articulated occurs. On the other hand, the physical
transformations have assumed a characteristic relationship between demand and supply has structure in a densely developed city tissue has
form which primarily indicates a certain type of been observed as being the only regularity in unsystematically been replaced, in which
relationship between the economic and spatial this development. The role of capital and process a care is taken neither of the existing
development2, which has not been market law in the production of space in the and future ambiences, nor of living conditions,
consolidated by regulation plans in a proper city is not questioned, and it has already been which are in this way disturbed and/or created.
way, thus producing spaces which are elaborated in studies and theory of space
appropriate for narrow interests of capital In both cases, it is a matter of interpolation in
which emphasize social component of space
its widest sense, the methodological procedure
deriving from the assumption according to
of urban redevelopment which implies the
which every society produces its specific
1
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd issues of context, fitting in of the new and the
space as a specific form of relations of
[email protected] old, anticipation of future and spatial
2
More detailed investigation of this relationship would
production (in this case, capitalism). The
framework absolutely respecting and
certainly call for a comprehensive study, which would problem arises when, in producing space,
simultaneously systematically reexamining the
gradually, starting from general hypotheses on a notion economic interests are allowed to be
existing state.
and role of capital in shaping society, through analysis developed without appropriate or often any
of such society shaped by capital in “production of intervention of the state control and with a However, the observed transformations of
space” (see Lefebvre, 1991), lead primarily to the issue
minimum of professional regulation (“laissez- Belgrade city tissue are not consistent with this
of the city as a “projection of a specific society”
(Blankar, 2003), and then to the specificities of urban faire” capitalism). On the one hand, we definition of interpolation it as much as they
development which are typical for Belgrade and New observe that a basic concept of design and neglect the existing state in a specific way, at
Belgrade. planning of the city, which implies a the same time also problematizing the future
spatium 47
Marić et al.: Transformation of the New Belgrade urban tissue: filling the space instead of interpolation
state, thus becoming such physical framework

in which both current and future models of life
have to be fitted into by force.
This paper deals with one of the forms of
Belgrade urban tissue transformations which is
manifested in the New Belgrade area as filling
of free spaces within the blocks under the
pressure of development and emergence of
new central functions, primarily commercial
facilities. The paper first points out the
discontinuity in planning and developing New
Belgrade, as well as the results of the
researches conducted to date which have
identified the problem of open, free spaces in
New Belgrade and their inert filling. Then, it
shows the changes in its urban structure which Figure 1. Preliminary Urban Plan of New Belgrade, elaborated by the Group for New Belgrade in 1948, led by architect
have taken place as a result of emergence of Nikola Dobrović. (Stojanović, 1975, p.200)
new commercial vernacular3 in the form of
shopping and business centers which are
becoming new urban landmarks restructuring
relationships in space. In the next part, the
attention is focused on the changes in
perceiving New Belgrade, which take place in
line with changes in its urban structure. Finally,
although perhaps the most important issue, the
existing state and consequences of these
changes in inhabitant’s life, primarily the
present inhabitants of New Belgrade, are
discussed.
NEW BELGRADE AS APOTHEOSIS

OF A CONSUMER CITY
One of the manifestation forms of powerful role of
capital in shaping Belgrade architectural and
urban space to be shown here is an accelerated,
most often uncoordinated construction of Figure 2. The first urban plan of New Belgrade, elaborated within the Master Plan of Belgrade of 1950, led by architect
shopping and business centers as a new Vido Vrbanić. (MP, 1950)
commercial vernacular, which has become typical
for some parts of the city, primarily those with
potential availability of free space for of political actors in the process of modernization Discontinuity in planning and developing
development, like in the case of New Belgrade. of the building and urban planning regulations, New Belgrade
Primarily developed as an antithesis of capitalism, prevailing influence of economic factors, and
which has essentially determined the concept and marginalization of town planners, by which illegal Historical development of New Belgrade has been
strategy of its development, New Belgrade today strategies and undesired directions of marked by discontinuity in developing and
represents an illustrative example of how the development are encouraged, such as illegal planning, where period of stagnation due to
market law is manifested, a space of capital. housing development or, as in the case of New political or economic crises have taken turns with
Current urban transformations are colored by Belgrade, imposition of a new image of “Belgrade periods of adopting new plan concepts. Only
specificities of the post-socialist development in Manhattan”.4 during the first ten years of the development, three
which unbalanced role of actors in the plans were adopted based on basically different
development process is still noticeable, which is, concepts (Figures 1-3.)5.
amongst other things, reflected in unpromptness
4
See Vujović and Petrović, 2007. Authors make
3 5
The term “commercial vernacular” is here used in the difference between four types of actors in the Despite all differences in planning concepts, it is
sense as used by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott development process: political actors who define observed that they are linked by the fact that they are all
Brown to indicate a new type of vernacular architecture development goals and strategies, economic actors who developed relative to the principles derived from the
– commercial vernicular in Las Vegas. See Venturi et use urban resources, spatial experts who operationalize Athens Charter. For more details, see Blagojević, 2007,
al., 1990, pp. 2-14. development strategies, and city’s inhabitants-users. pp. 121-154.
48 spatium
development (Blagojević, 2007). Although

conceived on the basis on the “universal”
Athens Charter and thus predetermined to
represent universal values of modernism, New
Belgrade developed during the time of
socialism, which also essentially determined its
concept and development strategy. It was
conceived as a modern city on the left bank of
the Sava River which had to play key role in
transformation of image of the city from
capitalist into socialist one. However, we are
witnesses of how it has, from the concept of
primarily aesthetic structure of socialist state,
become a city colored with humdrum existence,
because of which it has often been identified as
urban dormitory. Furthermore, New Belgrade has
developed as a city in social ownership,
“without inner economical dynamics”, “deprived
of conditions for own reproduction”, where
everything depended on the intervention of the
Figure 3. Master Plan of New Belgrade, elaborated in the Town Planning Institute of Belgrade in 1958,
state, which resulted in inert filling of empty
led by architect Branko Petričić. (Stojanović, Martinović, 1978)
spaces with residential buildings, where the flat
was not considered as goods, but rather as use
However, it is important to emphasize that until consistency in implementing plans7 has also been value.
the 1980-ties (Figure 4.) New Belgrade was indicated. However, these plans were soon
planned as an integral entity based on the replaced by planning strategies which were not Both studies criticize lack of diverse activities,
Regulation Plan adopted in 1962, which is based on scientifically proved and real processes attractiveness and dynamics, this being a
considered the end of the planning phase of urban development. This resulted in consequence of the strategy of mechanical
followed by the “inert filling of space”6. “discontinued construction of buildings, however, (Perović), namely inert (Blagojević) filling of
Construction of residential buildings in Block 24, neglecting economical parameters in reserving space, as well as disproportional and inactive
which was carried out in the period 1984-1989, critically big areas of land equipped with relationship between the developed physical
represents the first deviation from the Regulation municipal infrastructure for the future needs of structure and big open areas separating them.
Plan, as well as from the central zone plan which, urban functions”, where the physical growth of the The studies problematize the character of urban
through the entire period so far, has been a pillar city has been carried out through “mechanical structures and entities emerging in the New
of the development of planning concepts (Figure addition of identical units” on the fringe of already Belgrade space described as monotonous and
5.). At the same time, the construction of the developed tissue. The final result is a too dispersed, uncompleted.
Block represents the beginning of the New dispersed and monotonous city, static relative to A remark that the created space acts like a
Belgrade partial-development practice which the development processes and changes that scheme, a sketch (Perović, 2008, p. 177), has
culminated in the past two decades. This paper have taken place over time (Perović, 2008). indicated the possibility of various development
illustrates examples of block 12, built on the directions, given that it represents a neutral
On the other hand, the uniqueness of the New
space earmarked for greenery, and block 16, framework, spatial potential with lots of “reserved”
Belgrade urban concept is considered from the
which is analyzed in detail later in this paper. The areas prone to various experiments and
standpoint of its ideological and political
pressure of commercial facilities has resulted in a application of various urban theories. Amongst
background as a key fact of its emergence and
series of dispersedly distributed shopping and them, particularly favored are “more complex and
business centers (Figure 6.). refined forms of growth of the city, inner growth...
Scientific studies dealing with phenomenon of
7
See Perović, 2008, pp. 175-176. Perović identified two by extensions, matching of needs with sporadic
New Belgrade agree that its architectural and phases of historical development of New Belgrade. The first spontaneous creation of greater concentration of
one which lasted from 1946 until 1948 and was marked by urban tissue and various activities” which bring
urban concepts are unique. On the one hand, they plans made by Nikola Dobrović (1946), Edvard Ravnikar
start from the fact that it is one of the rare cities the New Belgrade urban structure closer to the
(1947) and Nikola Dobrović (1948) which were
built in the spirit of Athens Charter and its typical characterized by being in line with the world trends. The
traditional concept of the city.8
functionalism. The initial enthusiasm and second phase lasted much longer and “still lasts” (the first
edition of the book was published in 1985, although some
8
of the conclusions may be applied to current conditions) See Perović, 2008, p. 174. Another study leaves an open
6
Ibid, p. 249. The author states that the end of the New and was characterized by non-critical application of issue of its further irreversible extending – possibility that “it
Belgrade planning phase, which was followed by inert modernism formula, as well as application of halfway results extends in accordance with the lessons from the past,
filling of empty spaces, is actually the Central Zone Plan in researches. The author also emphasized that this change whether to leave its extending to the market policy or to put
of 1960 and Regulation Plan of 1962, which have in attitude towards the principles of Athens Charter a complex discourse of modern city to the test of
prevented further consideration of planning and design coincided with the changes which derived from the activities contemporary conditions of modernity”. See Blagojević,
strategies (p. 209). and conclusions of the CIAM Congress. 2007.
spatium 49
Figure 4. Layout of New Belgrade. The state in 1980.
Figure 5. Layout of New Belgrade, the state in 1990. Deviation from the central zone plan due to construction of block 24.
50 spatium
Figure 6. Layout of New Belgrade today. Dispersedly distributed commercial facilities.
In any case, big areas, despite not being filling of space in the period of New Belgrade important location which is to be activated as a
integrated in the urban tissue, are a privilege of formation exists even today as a form of its urban new business city, thus bringing the future
the New Belgrade’s inhabitants, because they are growth, but in the form of inert filling of space of commercial functions in the fore and favoring
realized as the very space of air, sun and already formed New Belgrade blocks, under the them in relation to other central facilities (MP
greenery, which is conceived by original Athens pressure of new urban functions of central and 2021, 2003, 2.2.9.).
Charter as a contribution to improving the recreational character, primarily trade as the most
The New Belgrade area is divided into urban
dwelling conditions in the city. Besides, the so vital branch of economy. Restaurants, hotels,
entities belonging to different spatial zones and
called New Belgrade spirit has become present shopping and entertainment represent important
thus it is not treated as integral one9. In order to
not only in everyday life, but also in literature, habits of mankind and activities in a consumer
secure ambience unity and continuity of planning
movies, and music, indicating coexistence of the society, resulting in spatial concepts and
character of New Belgrade, it is envisaged to
New Belgrade’s inhabitants with their structures which announce the today’s
make regulation plans which should not cover the
environment. Despite all scientifically identified commercial vernacular which is becoming ever
areas smaller than a block. However, it is not
deficiencies, New Belgrade has become reality as more present and dominant element of urban
required to consider this entity in the context of a
a spatial framework, and it is necessary to adjust landscape.
wider surrounding, thus calling into question the
all future interventions to its character which is
Master Plan of Belgrade 2021 realization of desired results.
closely connected with the life of its inhabitants. It
is necessary to densify the New Belgrade urban The current Master Plan of Belgrade 2021 (MP The plan emphasizes the New Belgrade urban
structures by fully respecting its present 2021, 2003) adopted in 2003 is a basic urban structure based on the type of open block as its
character, and to reduce big open spaces to plan document for the territory of Belgrade and the basic specificity based on which the allowed
smaller ones, primarily having in mind their only one covering the entire space of New
relations with the existing physical structures and Belgrade. The critical analysis of this plan shows 9
Urban entity 2 – “Original New Belgrade“, in one of its
users of space. that the issues of New Belgrade development and parts is out of the Central Spatial Zone framework,
transformation as a unique and specific urban- which means that different rules of building
However, the current building and urban planning construction apply to it. See Chapter 7. “Spatial zones
practice does not take into account any of these architectural entity have not been recognized as a
and urban entities“, point 7.1.4. dedicated to New
facts, or historical development of New Belgrade, current problem (MP 2021, 2003, 1.7.1.). At the Belgrade
or basic principles of its formation either. Inert same time, New Belgrade is considered as an
spatium 51
urban parameters are determined, as well as rules buildings and architectural-urban entities of the
of construction, and insists on the continuity of Modern epoch in the regime of partial or full
this type of development. However, the plan does protection, was made for the needs of the Master
not accept these spaces as a part of specific Plan. The preservation of the existing values of
urban concept, but they are, depending on the important New Belgrade entities, on which the
theme under consideration, treated in the same Chapter 5.3 entitled “The protection and treatment
way as other urban entities which are, at the same of modern architecture“ insists, is precisely the
time, very different both from them and from each result of this study, while a concrete measure
other. On the one hand, New Belgrade is, included in the Plan is an obligation to announce
according to the criteria of urban block type, a competition for some entities. At the same time,
classified in the same group with other new however, the “Recommendations for plan
settlements regardless of its particularity. On the interventions in ambience complexes of urban
other hand, urban entities called “New Belgrade spaces“ (MP, 2021, 5.2.1.) do not refer to the
Central Part“ and “Original New Belgrade“ belong territory of New Belgrade. This leads to the Figure 7. Relationship between the undeveloped and
to the Central Spatial Zone and they are subject to conclusion that individual attitudes are not developed areas of block 16 according to the competition
the same rules of construction valid for other integrated in other parts of the Plan during the concept which won the first prize.
urban entities belonging to this Zone10, albeit they synthesis procedure.
are, according to their genesis and concept,
completely opposed to the concept of New Case of Block 16
Belgrade. The Plan also recognizes their
Genesis of the process of uncontrolled
particularities in historical, functional and
construction may be observed through the
ambience sense. Also, the Plan criticizes lack of
analysis of construction in Block 16, which, by
traditional forms of public urban space (MP 2021,
its scope, character of its location and
2003, 5.2.), while free open spaces are
development represents an outstanding
recognized as possible fields for building in
example and illustrates the essence of many
traditional forms of public urban spaces, which is
interventions which have been carried out in
opposite to insisting on development of blocks of
New Belgrade urban tissue to date. After the
open type, thus negating the original urban
change in ownership of the “Ušće“ office
concept. Figure 8. Relationship between the undeveloped and
building and on the initiative of the investor,
Therefore, despite a declarative attitude that the developed areas of block 16 according to the Detailed
who wanted to build new buildings on the
Regulation Plan of 2007.
ambience of New Belgrade as a city of the empty part of the plot, a general and invitation
Modern should be preserved, according to the poll competition was announced in 2003 for
permitted urban parameters and other provisions preliminary urban-architectural design of the
of the Master Plan of Belgrade 2021 it is clear that “Ušće“ Multifunctional Center. The The work which won the first prize offered the
New Belgrade open spaces are recommended for competition was announced by the Belgrade concept by which a great part of the block was
intensive development following the logic Land Development Public Agency and preserved as a green area, a supplemented and
according to which more free spaces enable “European Construction“ company in strengthened vertical accent, and the new
greater scope of new development, not accepting cooperation with the Association of Belgrade construction was matched with the existing one
specific character and originally important Architects and the Town Planners Association and got a contemporary expression. Based on
percentage of plot usage on this territory. Belgrade, at which both local and foreign the work which won the first prize, an urban
architects participated. The obligation of plan was made (DRP, 2004). However, during
A study entitled “Ways of protecting areas with the construction, the deviations from the
announcing competition for preliminary design
contemporary architecture and important adopted plan concepts occurred and the
has derived from the Master Plan of Belgrade
individual buildings”11, which identified valuable investor commenced the construction of the
202112, as well as from the need for defining
additional urban indicators for elaboration of a building on a considerably bigger area than
10 regulation plan. Competition requirements permitted. The City Assembly adopted a new
Permitted maximum percentage of plot usage is the same
were not rigorous given that it was a poll plan (DRP, 2007) in order to accommodate the
for the center of the old Belgrade, center of Zemun and
center of New Belgrade – 3.5, while permitted maximum competition, but the continuity of the idea of “necessary increase of capacity of the
plot ratio in New Belgrade is somewhat smaller relative to planning the New Belgrade blocks was Multifunctional Center“ (DRP, 2007, 1.2), thus
the other two mentioned central zones and is 60% (point
required as an important element of the future subsequently legalizing illegal construction
4.5.6. “Central zone and main city center“, Table 49), which and, at the same time, making senseless all
is still greater compared to the values existing before urban concept.
previous efforts of professionals in achieving a
transformations which are the subject of this paper.
11 quality concept for the subject space. Figures
The study entitled “Way of protecting the territory with a
12 7. and 8. show the relationship between the
contemporary architecture and individual important buildings“, It was planned to preserve the character of the Block,
the second working material for the phase of Draft Master Plan with the possibility of extending the appendage part undeveloped and developed areas of the block
of Belgrade, Belgrade, April 2002, elaborated by: Igor Marić, (which was also planned earlier). See part 5.3.6. “Urban according to the competition concept which
Aleksandar Stjepanović, Darko Marušić, Bojan Kovačević, planning recommendations for particular entities in the won the first prize (Figure 7.), and according
Dijana Milašinović-Marić and Eva Vaništa-Lazarević. regime of partial protection“. the Detailed Regulation Plan (Figure 8.).
52 spatium
NEW URBAN LANDMARKS

New commercial vernacular in the form of
shopping and business centers, hyper-markets,
mega markets, supermarkets, and shopping
malls, according to the structuralist theory of
the city, represents introduction of strong
elements13 which have fully redefined and
reconfigurated the space which was till then
neutral, namely the New Belgrade structure.
They also represent strong and attractive
centrifugal elements at the level of the entire
city as well, restructuring the usual directions
of movement of people towards the new
consumption and production centers. These
new zones of attraction are the product of the
globalization process which, in our conditions,
has taken a specific form. However, they do not
improve overall urban and physical structure of
Figure 9. The concept which won the first prize at the Competition for Preliminary Urban-Architectural Design the city since, due to concentration of attractive
of the ''Ušće'' Multifunctional Center. facilities in certain buildings, the uniform
distribution of tertiary activities on the wider
territory has not been achieved. Therefore, they
cannot be considered as global zones of
connection which, by their attractive
architectural envelops and multi-layered
facilities, define a specific position of the city
in a global and regional hierarchy (Stupar,
2009).
The frequency of movement of people towards
New Belgrade, number of daily visitors who do
not live and work in it, in particular the number
of visitors who spend their leisure time in it,
indicates a new function of New Belgrade
within the Belgrade metropolitan area. It could
be concluded that exceptional location
advantage of New Belgrade, deriving from its
position between the two formed city cores -
Belgrade and Zemun – has been finally
realized, so that New Belgrade no longer
represents an inert housing tissue, but rather
an attractive zone of social happenings. It may
further be concluded that the role of
connecting city tissue, which once had to be
Figure 10. ''Ušće'' Multifunctional Center opened in 2008. 13

According to Roland Barthes, a city is a tissue which
Source: http://www.kombeg.org.rs/Komora/OpstaA.aspx?veza=299 is not formed of equal elements whose functions we can
enumerate, but of strong and neutral elements which
The “Ušće“ Shopping Center was opened in surface area and volume then envisaged by the create rhythm, and which further, analogue to the
2008. Compared to the competition concept competition design which won the first prize opposition between the sign and absence of sign,
by which a connection of communication and by the Plan of 2004, so that it, to great between the full degree and the zero degree, constitutes
direction within the building was realized with extent, obstructs the view of the “Ušće“ palace one of the major processes in elaboration of
the surrounding space up to the Park of tower and visually competes with it as a new signification. See Roland Barthes, 'Semiology and
urbanism', in Miloš R. Perović, town planner, Antologija
Friendship and a park surrounding the Museum landmark, whereas the competition work of the
teorija arhitekture XX veka, translated by Irena Šentevska
of Contemporary Art, the realized design is authors winners of the first prize envisaged an (Belgrade: Građevinska knjiga, 2009.), pg. 422-429.
turned towards inner space and does not integral whole with a business tower and also [Roland Barthes, “Semiology and Urbanism,” [1967]
communicate with its surroundings. In affirmed its existing values. Roland Barthes, The Semiotic Challenge, (New York: Hill
addition, the realized building has greater and Wang, 1988), pp. 191-201]
spatium 53
taken over by the planned New Belgrade center, between the place of dwelling and place of these big centers which are hyper-markets, the
has finally become reality in this alternative way14. work. The first phase is characterized by the hyper-space of goods where a new form of
However, despite the integrated urban functions end of household economy as a unity of sociability is being developed. It should be
which have become reality in the formed physical production and consumption, disintegration of seen how these hyper-markets centralize and
structures, it may be concluded that an adequate the basic structure of medieval town. The redistribute entire space and population, and
spatial framework, in which primarily current and second phase is generated by a progressive how they concentrate and rationalize time
then future models of life may be included, has industrialization which separates dwelling from flows, routines – creating enormous movement
not been developed. In its original form with big work, disintegration between neighbors takes of people there and back...” (Bodrijar, 1991,
city blocks and “uncritically large areas equipped place, as well as concentration of mutually p. 79) This may be an explanation of how it
with municipal infrastructure for future needs of dependent services in one place, as the first was possible “that in the period of one month,
urban functions” (Perović, 2008, p. 168), New “cities”. The third phase has developed with November 2007, by not finding one’s way, and
Belgrade has offered a chance and opportunity for the development of traffic in terms of individual not finding one’s way even today, in New
application of modern theories of urban growth vehicles, when the dwelling becomes Belgrade, about 1.2 million citizens visited the
and development. Today, when these large areas independent of place of work and connected new city in a part called ‘city’?” (Blagojević,
are being filled without a strategy and come into with it by the function of time (Rossi, 2000, 2008).
collision with the existing housing tissue and life p. 249). In this way, first the industry and then
As an apotheosis of a consumer city with wide
of inhabitants, we cannot speak about possibilities traffic have forever changed the image and
boulevards well-suited to high-speed city
but about certainties, primarily in terms of spatial structure of a city, thus becoming a fact
traffic and landscape in which a sign
problems imposed by a new spatial and physical which cannot be ignored in an attempt to
dominates over architecture, New Belgrade
framework. simply return to the concept of pre-industrial
reminds us of lessons of Las Vegas (Venturi et
town and its traditional values. New spatial-
The competition of 1986 (International al., 1990), representing, just like Las Vegas, an
time conception15 in architecture and urbanism
competitions for improvement of New Belgrade urban heterotopia, to use the Foucault’s term
implies application of a new and broader
urban structure – 1986) has been an attempt to describing an “other space”, the structure
criteria in urbanism, which is, on the one hand,
prevent an uncontrolled and partial development different from other structures, but connected
reflected in integration of traffic lines into a city
of a new urban layer in New Belgrade. with them. At the same time, in the context of
“organism” as constitutive elements and, on
Unfortunately, social interest to make a new urban heterochronism, the principle of
the other hand, in finding out such
plan based on the competition results which heterotopology which indicates that heterotopia
relationships between the “high buildings in
would enable further development in a is related to small parts and pieces of time,
free space” which would correspond to
methodological and conceptual way, was lacking. namely, that they completely enter into the
“dynamic changeable view of our time”,
function when people find themselves in some
namely observing the city while moving
FROM THE NEW SPATIAL-TIME kind of break with the traditional time, it
through it, primarily by car (Giedion, 1969,
CONCEPTION TO THE LEARNING represents a heterotopia limited by time (Fuko,
pp. 484-513).
2009). Besides, the “new” New Belgrade
FROM LAS VEGAS
The post-industrial society in which mass represents a realized concept of a place of
Aldo Rossi identifies three typical phases in media have become new industrial plants for pleasure in the same sense in which Roland
transformations of cities and urban entities in production, dissemination and presentation of Barthes analyses the role and connectivity of
whose basis is industry, and which are information, while the so far world, a big the city center as a space in which subversive
primarily reflected in the change in relationship supermarket for circulation of information forces act and meet, the forces of interruption,
models, introduces a new dynamics in urban ludic forces and all that is not the center:
14 system. “From the distance of thirty family, flat, identity (Bart, 2009). Venturi and
Miloš Perović realized an exceptional location
kilometers, traffic arrows direct you towards Scott Brown concluded that Las Vegas
advantage of New Belgrade which derived from its
positions between the two formed city tissues – represented a structuralist conception despite
Belgrade and Zemun – and stated that these advantages
15
“Around 1910, something happened which was, to banality of marketing messages, as they say, a
were not even partially exploited, primarily in terms of great extant, crucial: discovery of spatial concept in art. context which is new and indicates the need for
establishment of new relationships in the system of the Painters and sculptors have, in their ateliers as matching new models with the models of life
Belgrade center. “...the central part of New Belgrade, laboratories, investigated ways in which they would which it presents (Venturi et al., 1990, p. 9).
despite enormous location potential and comparative sensitively revive space, volume and material.”
advantages, has a very low level of vitality out of many (Giedion, 1969, p. 46.) Giedion wrote about changed
reasons, so that its impact on other centers within the conception of space which resulted from introduction of THE EXISTING STATE AND RIGHT
Belgrade metropolitan area is still negligible. Should time as the fourth dimension. Primarily in painting, in TO THE CITY
the problems of its functioning, identified in this paper, which the objects are broken down, observed
be overcome by a directed action, namely, should a transparently, by actualizing the conception of Absence of human dimension is at the basis of
regulatory and physical framework be created that would simultaneousness which the objects simultaneously criticism of cities based on the principles of
support natural processes of growth and development present when observed from different angles, and then
and processes of creating a critical population mass for in sculpture and architecture, in which the essence of
Athens Charter (Perović, 2008, p. 176). The
initiating centers and processes of extension and space is in the infinite possibilities of its inner phenomenon of “disintegration of relationships
transformation of the existing structures, then one of the relationships, where the form of space changes between neighbors” identified by Aldo Rossi as
possible scenarios of developing the system of centers depending on the point of observation. New spatial-time a consequence of progressive industrialization,
of the Belgrade metropolitan area could take a form...” conception has its origin also in urbanism. See the next gets its most extreme form within a modern,
(Perović, 2008, p. 197). note.
functional city which is disintegrated,
54 spatium
compared to the traditional city and its humane with “exploring various meanings of the term architectural entity, has begun. However, this
dimension, by wide roads as a basic neighborhood in the context of urban, phase continues even today, which is obvious
constitutive element of an urban structure. architectural and sociological language, as from the analysis of the Master Plan of
Additional departure from the principle of a well as with the analysis of historical Belgrade 2021. New Belgrade open blocks as a
man as a measure of all things has resulted development and current progress of basic particularity of its urban structure are
from plan concepts which consist of neighborhood urban transformations in New considered by regulation plan in the same way
“reservation of disproportionally large spaces Belgrade” (Erić, 2009). The results of these like other new parts of the city, and their
for future development of certain activities” researches are divided into three thematic construction according to permitted urban
(ibid., p. 177). Such concepts derive from an fields. The first one deals with the analysis and parameters is recommended.
aspiration towards “realizing an ideal urban realization of original concept of New Belgrade.
Scientific studies which problematize the
environment by a series of concepts The second one addresses current urban
concept of New Belgrade and its open blocks
determined beforehand...” (ibid., p. 177) but, transformations which are manifested through
indicate over-dimensioning of free areas
in case of New Belgrade, precisely these “introduction” of neo-liberal capitalism in New
compared to the developed structure, which is
concepts have today become an impetus to Belgrade empty spaces, while the third
reflected in the final effects of the development
growth which has not been considered in the thematic field explores the possibility of
of the new city which lacked “many layers” in
long term, and which is reflected in an regenerating the neighborhood by creating new
order to become a “real” city meeting all
unsystematic filling of these large areas, by places of gathering which produce a feeling of
complex needs of contemporary life.
hyper-production of space satisfying belonging and identification with the
Complexity, layerness, compactness,
momentary appetites both of investors and environment. One of the basic hypotheses of
hierarchical structure, visuality and humane
beneficiaries of space, but lacking a vision of a these researches is that the city must be given
dimension are presented as important factors
wider and more complex future development. back to its (New Belgrade) inhabitants, namely,
of urbanity which characterize the cities and
to fulfill their “right to the city” or “spatial
Uncritical and non-scientific approach in parts of the cities developing through time, by
justice”. However, before mentioning
transforming these free areas into developed choosing, in a given historical moment,
jeopardizing of these rights, and they relate to
spaces precisely indicates the domination of appropriate plans and rules of construction.
the issues of identity and belonging, higher
economic interests and absence of multiple Problems that we are facing today in analyzing
existential level, and should represent
professional control of growth, where real urban tissue development and transformations
attainment of contemporary society, we lay
needs and interests of the existing derive from insufficiently developed vision of
stress on that the elementary right to sun, air
beneficiaries have been neglected, as well as a the future development of the city in the
and greenery is in jeopardy, actually the right
democratic principle of contemporary society context of contemporary consumer society.
that has been granted by the original concept
according to which “the right of individuals and Economic factors, which lie in the basis of
of New Belgrade which has derived from the
the right of the community are mutually society, are not in balance with other elements
Athens Charter, and which, in this sense,
conditioned” (Giedion, 1969, p. 508). The and factors in the city design and planning
represents conception which is certainly more
theory of needs, as an “elaborated system of system, this resulting in space which satisfies
advanced from everything in the realization that
state and the ‘everyday’ in all phenomena” only primary capitalist appetites for safe
followed afterwards.
represents a necessary starting point in the investments and quick capital turnover, while
procedure of investigating new forms of long-term goals in space development have
environment. In this way, an often situation in CONCLUSION not been considered. Space, which is still the
which sociology decodes the world only when The Belgrade urban tissue is a rewarding greatest social and state resource of Serbia and
it has already been constrained by its physical polygon for various comparative researches of a challenge to big capital (Vujošević, 2003),
limits, can be avoided16. its urban structure considering that, on the one by proper strategy for planning and creating an
side, there is a planned urban matrix of New adequate spatial and physical framework of life
This situation is typical for New Belgrade and
Belgrade mega-blocks, the part physically in the city, is becoming a capital itself, which
has been a subject of recent interdisciplinary
separated by natural river flow, and, on the should be continuously emphasized as an
studies, such as annual project of the Center
other side, a densely developed urban argument for stronger implementation of
for Visual Culture (Museum of Contemporary
structure of the old part of the city. It has been designer’s recommendations in plan
Art in Belgrade) entitled “Differentiated
shown herein that, in the case of New documents.
Neighbourhoods of New Belgrade” which deals
Belgrade, the main problem of its current and Globalization process brings about changes in
probably future development is a process of the notion of city which no loner implies a
16
Branislav Milenković observes a practice relevant in filling undeveloped parts of blocks under the
the context of considering New Belgrade urban
compact entity, but an urban point in wider,
pressure of new commercial facilities which existing and evolving regional and global
structure, according to which large areas occur as a
technical response to the needs of society, while the
basically change the character of space. By the networks. One of the imperatives of the future
studies of sociologists and psychologists with alarming deviation from the Central Zone Plan and development of Belgrade is also inclusion in
titles, primarily about the fact that the cities are not built Regulation Plan of New Belgrade of 1962, these integrations and new networks, coming
according to the measure of man appear only actually by the construction of block 24, a out of the position of isolation on the global
afterwards. He emphasized the importance of prior phase of its development which was
sociological researches which provide coexistence of scene, in which the creation of its new urban
dominantly marked with absence of such identity and image plays an important role. At
the model of life with the model of space (Milenković,
1980). regulation plans which would consider this the same time, the conception of identity and
area as a unique and specific urban-
spatium 55
image in the today’s world of consumer Simulation (The Body, In Theory: Histories of Kiril, (ed.) The Post-Socialist City. Urban Form
society, global networks and global market is Cultural Materialism), Michigan: University of and Space Transformations in Central and
replaced with a notion of brand of the city, the Michigan Press, 1995) ] Eastern Europe after Socialism. Dordrecht:
term implying its market value resulting from Erić, Z. (ed.) (2009) Differentiated Springer, pp. 361-383.
the fact that the cities themselves are Neighbourhoods of New Belgrade: project of Documents
becoming a product in great or small demand the centre for visual arts at MOCAB. Novi DRP, 2004 - Detailed Regulation Plan of the
in the context of various forms of tourism Beograd: Muzej savremene umetnosti Central Zone – Block 16 in New Belgrade
(Stupar and Cenk, 2006). Fuko, M. (2009) O drugim prostorima: utopije i between the streets: Ušće, Bulevar Nikole
heterotopije, in Perović, Miloš R. (ed.), Tesle and public green area by Boulevard of
In this sense, the analysis of Belgrade urban
Antologija teorija arhitekture XX veka. Beograd: Mihailo Pupin, Official Gazette of the City of
tissue transformations is a contribution to
Građevinska knjiga, pp. 430-438. [Michel Belgrade, Official Gazette of the City of
exploration of possibilities for improving Foucault, 'Of Other Spaces: Utopias and Belgrade, No. 23/2004
Belgrade urban structure through identification Heterotopias,' in Diacritics, XVI, 1 (Spring, DRP, 2007 - Detailed Regulation Plan of a part of
of the problem of environment. In further steps, 1986), pp. 22-27.) ] the New Belgrade Central Zone – part of block
it is necessary to consider the existence of
Gidion, Z. (1969) Prostor, vreme, arhitektura. 16 between the streets: Ušće, Bulevar Nikole
paradigmatic models which may be a starting
Beograd: Građevinska knjiga. Tesle and public green area by Boulevard of
point of planned transformations, and also Mihailo Pupin, Official Gazette of the City of
successful examples of regulation plans by Glavički, M. (1978) Rekonstrukcija kao proces
stalnog poboljšavanja gradskih uslova života, Belgrade, No. 44/2007
which the identified problems, as well as
Urbanizam Beograda, No. 50, pp. 23-25. Le Corbusier (1933/1965), Athens Charter.
concrete consequences of current urban and
Lefebvre, H. (1991) The Production of Space. Beograd: Klub mladih arhitekata.
construction practice in Belgrade in terms of
investigation of typology of new vernacular, Oxford: Blackwell. MP 1950 (1950)- The Master Plan of Belgrade
may be eliminated. Maksimović, B. (1957) Urbanizam. Beograd: 1950.
Građevinska knjiga. MP 2021 (2003)- The Master Plan of Belgrade
The presented transformations are only one of 2021, Official Gazette of the City of Belgrade,
Milenković, B. (1980) Studija programskih načela
the forms of capital-space interaction which No. 27/2003.
arhitekture i njen odnos prema drugim poljima
has brought about transformation of Belgrade
u nauci o prostoru. Poslediplomske studije The New Charter of Athens (2003) Lisbon: ECTP
urban tissue. The changes which take place in Stanovanje, sveska 52. Beograd: Arhitektonski (The European Council of Town Planners),
a wider city center in function of dwelling, fakultet. viewed 13 May, 2010, <http://www.ceu-
neglected and abandoned spaces of once ectp.eu/index.asp?id=108>
Perović, M. (2008) Iskustva prošlosti. Beograd:
industrial areas in the city center and problem
Građevinska knjiga. Publications
of the city expanding outside its center are also
essentially influenced by economic factors and Rosi, A. (2000) Arhitektura grada. Beograd: New Belgrade (1961) Belgrade: Directorate for
indicate the problems which arise from Građevinska knjiga. Construction of New Belgrade
uncontrolled domination of economic interests Stojanović, B., Martinović, U. (1978) Beograd International competitions for improvement of
and absence of plan and legal regulations and, 1945-1975. Beograd: Tehnička knjiga. New Belgrade urban structure, competition
as such, they may be a subject of further Stojanović, B. (1975) Istorija Novog Beograda, announcement and rules (1986) Belgrade:
researches. Godišnjak grada Beograda, knjiga XXII, pp. 199- Association of Belgrade Architects
217. General invitation poll competition for preliminary
REFERENCES Stojkov, B. (1978) Aktiviranje neposrednih urban-architectural design of “Ušće“
interesa u rekonstrukciji grada, Urbanizam Multifunctional Center in block 16 in New
Bart, R. (2009) Semiologija i urbanizam, in Beograda, No. 50, pp. 27-29. Belgrade, Jury’s report and justification of
Perović, Miloš R. (ed.) Antologija teorija works. (2003) Belgrade: Association of
arhitekture XX veka. Beograd: Građevinska Stojkov, B. (1992) Plan i sudbina grada.
Belgrade Architects
knjiga, pp. 422-429. [Roland Barthes, Beograd: Građevinska knjiga.
17
“Semiology and Urbanism,” [1967] Roland Stupar, A., Cenk H. (2006) Chasing the
Barthes, The Semiotic Challenge, (New York: Limelight: Belgrade and Instanbul in the Global
Hill and Wang, 1988), pp. 191-201] Competition, SPATIUM, No. 13/14, pp. 27-33.
Blagojević, Lj. (2007) Novi Beograd osporeni Stupar, A. (2009) Urbs et Orbis: (re)charting
modernizam. Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike, the center, (re)positioning the limits, SPATIUM
Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, International Journal, No. 20, pp. 53-59.
Zavod za zaštitu spomenika kulture grada Venturi i dr. (1990) Pouke Las Vegasa. Beograd:
Beograda. Građevinska knjiga.
Blagojević, Lj. (2008) Novi Beograd 1948-2008. Vujošević, M. (2003) Odjeci sa naučnog skupa
Krofna bez rupe: moderni urbani pejzaž, Daily “Planiranje i implementacija” IAUS, jun,
newspaper Politika, 12 April Beograd, 2002, Arhitektura i urbanizam, No.
Blankar, P. (2003) Kroz istoriju grada do novog 12/13, pp. 131-137.
drustva. Beograd: Magna Agenda. Vujović, S., Petrović, M. (2007) Belgrade's post- 17 Received June 2010; accepted in revised form
Bodrijar, Ž. (1991) Simulakrumi i simulacija. Novi socialist urban evolution: reflections by the July 2010
Sad: Svetovi. [Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and actors in the development process, in Stanilov,
56 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 624.074.5
DEVELOPMENT, CHARACTERISTICS AND

COMPARATIVE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF
TENSEGRITY TYPE CABLE DOMES
Aleksandra Nenadović1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Tensegrity type cable domes are three-dimensional structural configurations, prestressed inside the perimeter compression
ring, in which the continuous tension throughout the roof structure is made by continuous tension cables and discontinuous
compression struts. These kinds of structures can be formed like spatially triangulated networks or like networks non-
triangulated in space. This paper examines some effects of network geometry on the behaviour and structural efficiency of
tensegrity type cable domes. In this paper the roof cover is considered non-interactive with the supporting structure, unlike
rigidly clad tensegrity type cable domes.
Since the main bearing elements of tensegrity type cable domes are prestressed cables, they show non-linear load deformation
and rely upon geometric stiffness. A geometrically non-linear analysis of non-triangulated and triangulated structures for
different load conditions was conducted employing a computer program based on the perturbation theory. The incrementally-
iterative procedure, with an approximation of the stiffness matrix by combining the elastic and geometric stiffness matrix,
allows detection of structural instabilities.
Keywords: tensegrity type cable domes, prestress, network geometry, geometrically non-linear analysis, perturbation
INTRODUCTION1 degree. Since it is possible to create these DEVELOPMENT AND

systems without the roof cover as a load- CHARACTERISTICS OF TENSEGRITY
Tensegrity type cable domes are structures that bearing element, as can be seen in the first
are highly convenient for large span covering TYPE CABLE DOMES
tensegrity type cable dome covered in rigid
owing to the fact that a comparatively small ’floating’ panels (Gossen et al., 1998), this The emergence of steel cables made it
number of elements are needed to form the paper will analyze the behaviour and structural possible to produce structure elements of high
structure, their high prefabrication level and efficiency of triangulated and non-triangulated tensile load-bearing capacity but of small
easy assembly. Observation of already existing structures without taking into consideration the cross-section. The erection of the arena in
tensegrity type cable domes reveals two basic co-action of roof cover. For the purpose of this Ralley, North Carolina in 1954, fully
approaches to the formation of these analysis, only the cable-strut network was demonstrated how steel cables could be
structures: Geiger’s, which forms the dome as modelled. applied in roof structures. Since that time,
a non-triangulated spatial network, and many structures, of various shapes and
Fuller’s, that adopts the principle of spatial Since tensegrity type cable domes must fulfill
systems, have been erected featuring the cable
triangulation. This paper examines some the condition of equilibrium on the deformed
as bearing element. Among them, those that
effects of network geometry on the behaviour configuration, they were analyzed by means of
particularly stand out are the hanging,
and structural efficiency of tensegrity type a software application intended for the
pneumatic and tensegrity type structures.
cable domes. geometrically nonlinear analysis of three-
Those structures turned out to be highly
dimensional trusses. The programme is based
Campbell et al. (1994) investigated the effects economical, especially in covering large
on the perturbation theory (Levy and Spillers,
of spatial network triangulation on the spans. Apart from having decreased the
1995). The procedure applied allows for the
behaviour of tensegrity type cable domes expenditure for materials, the time necessary
detection of structure instability.
combined with the action of a stressed fabric for erection has gone down, owing to the high
membrane which stabilizes them to a high prefabrication level. In Serbia, an exceptional
contribution to the development of primarily
cable-based structures has been made by
1
Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia Đorđe Zloković, architect and structural
[email protected]
spatium 57
Nenadović A.: Development, characteristics and comparative structural analysis of tensegrity type cable domes
engineer, Professor of the Faculty of tension hoops trigger a response of the entire
Architecture at Belgrade University and cable-strut system. Apart from that, the tension
member of the Serbian Academy of Arts and hoops resist out-of-plane displacements of
Sciences. radial cable trusses nodes. The structure
therefore, while resisting load, relies on
Inspired by the idea to put the tension and
geometric rather than conventional stiffness. In
compression forces within a structure into
this way, a three-dimensional network of
balance, some authors have developed the
cables and struts is formed, prestressed within
idea of integrally tensioned structures (Fuller,
the perimeter compression ring. One of the
1961). Fuller, Emmerich and Snelson patented
main advantages of such a structure is that its
structural systems which were fundamentally
weight by square meter of plan does not
the same. The definition of tensegrity structure
change with the increase of span. To enlarge it,
based on the initial patent descriptions would
it is only necessary to insert a new module in
have been along these lines: tensegrity
the shape of a new concentric tension hoop.
structures are systems established by means
Geiger’s tensegrity type cable domes have
of interaction between discontinuous
proved structurally efficient in numerous large-
compression members and continuous tension
span roofs.
members which, put together, form a stable
shape in space. Many authors have Figure 2 – Tensegrity dome over the square plan Tensegrity type cable domes are cable-strut
investigated the possibilities of applying Source: Nestorović, M. (1994) networks, prestressed within a perimeter
tensegrity systems in architecture, such as compression ring. The fact that they rely on the
Vilnay, Hanaor, Pellegrino, Pugh, Emmerich continuous perimeter ring in order to close the
and Motro (Motro, 2003). The ’tensegrity structural system makes them different from
approach’ has demonstrated a number of other ’pure’ tensegrity systems which are self-
advantages over the ’non-tensegrity’ approach. equilibrated.
Separation of structure members into
The first large span tensegrity type cable
exclusively tensioned and exclusively
domes were constructed in Seoul for the
compressed leads to the fact that the
Figure 3 – Geiger’s tensegrity type Cabledome Olympics of 1986 (Figure 4). Two sports halls,
tensioned members may be only as light as
of 120m and 93m-spans were covered by
the current technology allows it. The
In 1983, Horst Berger developed a solution for Geiger’s cable domes (Geiger et al., 1986,
prevalence of light cables in the structure
the roof structure of the ’’Sundome’’ in St Rastofer, 1988, Tuchman and Ho-Chul, 1986).
makes it lighter, more cost-effective and
visually unobtrusive. Petersburg, Florida. However, after Geiger
Berger Associates split in 1983, Berger’s
Some authors have focused their research solution was replaced by a system developed
towards the possibilities of tensegrity type by David Geiger (Figure 3). Geiger combined
cable domes, believing that tensegrity Fuller’s tensegrity principle with the principle
principles would enable bridging large spans of prestressed cable network formation and
while effectively using materials and energy thus proposed a new non-triangulated spatial
(Pallasmaa, 1997). In 1964 Fuller patented his network. He patented the new system and
basic concept of tensegrity dome (Figure 1) called it ’Cabledome’.
after trying out numerous models.
The main principle underlying Geiger’s cable
domes is in achieving a continuous tension
through the roof structure by means of Figure 4 – Olympic arena under construction
continuous tension cables and discontinuous Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/DOMES/
compression struts. The primary structure is SEOUL/sol-43.jpg
formed by radial cable trusses which are rib-
like and which consist of tensed ridge and
diagonal cables and compressed struts. The
Figure 1 – Fuller’s tensegrity dome bases of the flying struts are held by diagonal
Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/BSI/ cables attached to the top of the compressed
TENSEGRI/fuller.jpg struts in the next outer ring and are mutually
connected within the given radiuses by means
Tensegrity domes were also the subject of of tension cables forming concentric hoops.
research by Miodrag Nestorović (Figure 2), These hoops assume the role that bottom
architect, Professor of the Faculty of chords of the radial cable trusses normally Figure 5 - Olympic arena in Seoul
Architecture at Belgrade University (Nestorović, have. The concentric tension hoops relay the Source: http://www.atpm.com/14.10/south-korea-guam
load effects throughout the system, thus /images/Seoul%20City%20Skyline%20-%20Overlooking%
1994).
minimizing any local effects. Changes in the 20the%20Olympic%20Park%20with%20downtown%20Seou
l%20in%20the%20background.jpg
58 spatium
Unlike Fuller’s high profile tensegrity domes, roof span of 225m. It comprises four tension sports halls which required a considerable
Geiger’s domes display low-profile hoops. A low profile roof configuration has amount of daylight, as venues of athlethic
configuration (Figure 5) which decreases the allowed for minimal fabric costs. competition. However, it turned out that rigid
wind uplift and uneven snow drifting, and cladding of such structures was also a choice,
At night, a translucent roof covering gives the
significantly reduces the amount of fabric especially in those cases where membrane
effect of the ’fifth facade’ when the lights are on
needed for roof covering. covering was not desirable for reasons of
– which is illustrated by the Tao-Yuan Coiunty
adequacy or cost-effectiveness. The erection of
Geiger also developed a system for the Arena built in 1994 in Taiwan (Figure 8). The
the first rigidly clad cable dome began in
erection of tensegrity type cable domes. arena is multipurpose, designed to host sports
1994, in North Carolina, where the authorities
Tensioning of the diagonal cables and putting events and entertainment performances alike.
decided to build an athletic hall to seat 13,000
the hoops into their final positions is done The circular plan of the arena and a wish to
spectators (Gossen et al., 1998). The project
starting from the periphery and moving to the secure as much daylight as possible led the
architects developed a circular plan of 99.7m
centre of the structure (Figure 6). design towards the tensegrity type cable dome.
in diameter. A number of roof structures had
The cable dome spans 120m employing three been taken into consideration and analyzed
tension hoops. The structure has been before the ’Cabledome’ cable-strut network
designed to enable quick erection. The whole was selected. The tensegrity type cable dome
cable-strut network was preassembled on the offered the best combination of architectural
ground, and then lifted to the given height and features and cost-effectiveness.
stressed. The roof was completely engineered,
The roof consists of three tension hoops. The
fabricated and erected in fourteen months.
roof is segmented radially into 18 pieces. In
The relative flexibility of Geiger cable domes to this design, the typical arrangement of
asymmetric loading was a decisive factor in ’Cabledome’ elements is somewhat modified
using the stressed membranes as roof covering (Figure 9). The perimeter compression ring is
in those first structures. Apart from that, the a conical truss. The top chord of the perimeter
development of the system was motivated by compression ring anchors the diagonals and
Figure 6 - Erection sequence the wish to keep the membrane covering but to the bottom chord anchors the ridge cables. The
develop a structure that would replace the cable network is non-triangulated in the central
The membrane system applied in these domes vulnerable large-span air-supported roofs. The zone of the dome, while it is partially
belongs to the class of lightweight roof membrane covering was widely in use for its triangulated in the outer compression ring zone
coverings, displays satisfactory thermo light weight and translucency, especially in by doubling the ridge cables.
insulating and acoustic properties and is semi-
transparent. Its overall daylight transmission is
6%, which allows for most of the daytime
lighting requirements (Krstić, 2006). The
membrane covering the domes consists of four
separate layers: a waterproof fibreglass fabric,
an insulating layer, a vapour barrier and an
acoustic insulation layer that are attached to
the structure. Radial valley cables are tightened
to stress the membrane. In this way, the so-
called ’pleated’ tensile membrane is formed. Figure 7 - Florida Suncoast Dome Figure 9 – Axonometry of the roof structure
The pleated tensile membrane is a system Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/DOMES Source: http://www.geigerengineers.com/images/
/TIMELN/suncoast/sun-06.jpg techfigs/roofdiagramfig1.gif
used for the first time in 1983, in the roof of
the Lindsay Park Sports Centre in Calgary.
The relatively flexible structure is covered by non-
The Redbird Arena, a multipurpose arena built transparent rigid panels instead of the translucent
in 1989 as part of the Illinois State University membrane. The panels, made of steel frames, are
campus, can seat 11,000 spectators and supported by the cable-strut network. The support
represents the first cable dome erected over an points of the roof panels are angular nodes which
elliptical plan. The roof covering is translucent, coincide with the position of compressed struts.
as in the Seoul halls, and enables reduction of The nodes are designed in such a way to allow for
artificial lighting during the daytime. the rotation in the radial and circumferential
direction. The panels ’float’ on the cable-strut
The Florida Suncoast Dome was built in 1990
network and follow the distortion of its geometry
in St Petersburg, Florida. It seats 43,000
caused by loading. The entire cable-strut network
visitors. Its unique translucent fibreglass
Figure 8 - Tao-Yuan County Arena was assembled on the ground and then lifted and
membrane covers the world’s largest
Source: http://www.taiyokogyo.co.jp/img/lgr/mk_371.jpg put into place. Finally the system was prestressed.
’Cabledome’ (Figure 7). This structure covers a
The roof panels were mounted last.
spatium 59
In 1992, Georgia Dome was erected in Atlanta,

USA. The oval stadium, that can seat 70,500
visitors, was designed and built in thirty
months. Apart from sports events, this
’megastructure’ hosts fairs, conferences,
multimedia concerts and political conventions
(Figures 10a and 10b).
Figure 11 - Axonometry of the roof structure

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/DOMES/GEORGIA/geo-23.jpg
Figure 10a - Georgia Dome interior view

Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/
DOMES/GEORGIA/1018-52.jpg
Figure 12 – Roof structure section

Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/DOMES/GEORGIA/geo-41.jpg
The structure is clad in diamond shaped panels to the equations describing perturbation
of PTFE coated glass fibre membrane that conditions, with the approximation of the
follow the geometry of the network. Structural stiffness matrix by combining the elastic and
components, joints, steel pipes for geometric stiffness matrix. A quantitative
compressed struts and steel cables were analysis of the combined system stiffness
prefabricated which significantly reduced matrices allowed for the detection of structure
erection time. instabilities. During the incremental-iterative
Figure 10b - Georgia Dome exterior view
Source: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/
solution procedure, the determinant of the
DOMES/GEORGIA/geo-21.jpg COMPARATIVE GEOMETRICALLY system matrix is monitored. When this
NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL determinant goes to zero (singular stiffness
The tensegrity type cable dome, patented as the matrix) the structure is said to be unstable.
ANALYSIS OF TWO TYPES OF
’Tenstar Dome’, was formed as a triangulated Conventional analytical methods for system
TENSEGRITY TYPE CABLE DOMES instability prediction could not be applied to
spatial network over an oval plan, 240 x 192m of
span and represents the world’s largest structure In tensegrity type cable domes, prestressed structures of this type.
of its kind (Castro and Levy; 1992, Levy 1994; cables are the primary loadbearing elements, In this paper, the computer program for
Terry, 1994). The continuous tension through the thus their non-linear behaviour due to load geometrically nonlinear analysis of three-
roof structure was achieved by means of action is expected, as well as their reliance on dimensional trusses - P3-TR3DNL was used
continuous tension cables and discontinuous geometric stiffness. Since structures of this for the analysis of structures. This program was
compression struts. The primary structural system type need to fulfil the condition of equilibrium given on a disk as an integral part of the book
consists of tensed ridge and diagonal cables and upon a deformed configuration, the analysis of “Analysis of geometrically nonlinear
compressed struts. The bottoms of the the structures was conducted by means of a structures“, written by Robert Levy and William
compressed struts are borne by diagonal cables software application for geometrically R. Spillers, 1995. The original computer
attached to the tops of the compressed struts in nonlinear analysis of three-dimensional program was partially adapted (reprogrammed)
the next outer ring and are interconnected by trusses, based on the perturbation theory (Levy for the needs of the analysis, so the different
tensed cables that form concentric hoops. These and Spillers, 1995). Instead of directly solving modulus of elasticity-E of the cables and struts
tension hoops assume the role that bottom chords non-linear equations, they were being could be taken into account.
of the radial cable trusses normally have. In this linearized by the application of the incremental
way, a three-dimensional structural configuration approach. Load was determined by a system of Two analogous models (Figures 13a and 13b),
was made, which is prestressed within the consecutive steps, where the final structure based on the basic premises of these
compressed perimeter ring. Unlike the Geiger configuration at a given step was taken for an structures, were formed for the needs of
system, this one is triangulated in space. This initial approximation for the next step. At each comparative structural analysis of non-
solution follows Fuller’s principle of spatial step, i.e. within each increment, the triangulated and triangulated tensegrity type
triangulation (Figures 11 and 12). geometrically non-linear analysis was reduced cable dome for different load conditions
to the application of Newton’s iterative method (Nenadović, 2004). The network geometry was
60 spatium
Influence of the network geometry on

the behavior and structural efficiency
of tensegrity type cable domes
Prestress level – LC-0

The prestress level in the triangulated structure is
15% higher than in the non-triangulated structure.
Initial (referent) stress intensity and
stress distribution after prestressing –
LC-0 (Figure 16)
Figure 13a - Non-triangulated tensegrity type cable dome model Figure 13b - Triangulated tensegrity type cable
dome mode In the triangulated structure, a differential
Z distribution of stress was noted, i.e. a differential
Z
1.7 1.9
1.2
force flow from the periphery towards the
1.0
0.0
2.
0 gr.7
gr.6 structure’s centre. While the non-triangulated
-0.3 1
3.2 gr.8 gr.2
gr.9
1-2 structure was characterized by practically linear
-2.2
gr.3
gr.10
3-14 gr.4 dependence in the increase of tension forces from
gr.11 the centre towards the periphery, the tension force
5.0 5.0 5.0
15-26 gr.5
flow in the triangulated structure was significantly
l
disturbed in the outer tension hoop zone. The
Figure 14 – Cross-section of tensegrity type cable dome model Figure 15 – Groups of elements and nodes
prestressing forces in the triangulated structure,
which were significantly higher in this zone than in
established in such a way that it resembled zone; nodes 3-14 – the inner tension hoop; the non-triangulated structure, decreased rapidly
already constructed tensegrity type cable nodes 15-26 – the outer tension hoop). toward the central zone. In spite of the higher
domes. This yielded in low profile domes in intensity of initial prestress, the prestress, i.e.
Loads:
both cases (Figure 14). Both domes were stiffness, was lower in the central zone of the
formed as two-hoop configurations. Either • Dead load – g=0.25 kN/m2 triangulated structure. It was obvious that the
model was developed as a cable-strut network, triangulated network geometry partially impeded
• Snow load – s=0.75 kN/m2
i.e. a three-dimensional truss. The cables the distribution of the initial prestress, which was
could only take tension forces. The loads were • Wind load – w=0.9 kN/m2 particularly reflected on the lower prestress in the
given only at the system nodes. Both models • qw’=-0.63 kN/m2 Gz=2.0 qw = - 1.26 central zone.
were developed and analyzed without taking kN/m2 Horizontal and vertical displacements
into consideration interaction with the roof
• Thermal load ∆t = ± 30° after initial prestressing – referent
cover.
position
Load conditions:
The structures were analyzed for prestressing The referent position of the nodes in deformed
of the cable network and for different • LC-0 – dead load and prestress without structures, measured in comparison to the span,
combinations of snow, wind and temperature fabric membrane was slightly changed (0.3 – 1.2%) after the
loads. The prestress introduced into the This load case is used as the input condition introduction of initial prestress.
structure, which carried dead load only, was for load conditions I through IX
determined relative to the condition that cables Force intensity in load-bearing elements
had to remain tightened for all load conditions • LC-I - LC-0/snow load – stress distribution – load conditions I –
and relative to the defined deformability IX
• LC-II - LC-0/asymmetrical snow load
expressed as allowed deflection under the The effect of network geometry on the structure
• LC-III - LC-0/wind load
most unfavourable load conditions. During the sensitivity for different load conditions was
geometrically non-linear analysis of the • LC-IV - LC-0/temperature decrease analyzed. The structure sensitivity was defined as
structures, the software application reported • LC-V - LC-0/temperature decrease / snow the relation between the maximum force values
the possible structure instability under various load for the given load conditions and the maximum
load conditions. force values for the basic load case (LC-0) in
• LC-VI -LC-0/temperature different element groups. Besides the comparative
For the groups of load-bearing elements in decrease/asymmetrical snow load analysis of structure sensitivity, the relation
non-triangulated and triangulated structure,
• LC-VII - LC-0/temperature decrease/wind between the stress intensity was analyzed, as well
from 1-gr.11 (figure 15), comparative
load as the stress distribution after loading.
maximum force graphs are given for the
analyzed load conditions. For the nodes of • LC-VIII - LC-0/temperature increase Comparative maximum force graphs for the
non-triangulated and triangulated structure, the • LC-IX - LC-0/temperature increase/wind analyzed load conditions I - IX in different groups
comparative maximal horizontal and vertical load of load-bearing elements are given for both the
displacement graphs are given for the analyzed triangulated and non-triangulated cable domes
load conditions (nodes 1-2 – in the central (Figures 17-25).
spatium 61
P(kN)
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
1 gr.2 gr.3 gr.4 gr.5 gr.6 gr.7 gr.8 gr.9 gr.10 gr.11
non-triangulated dome triangulated dome
Figure 16 – LC-0
P(kN)
LC-I P(kN) LC-II
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
-100 -100
-200 -200
-300 -300
1
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
Figure 17 – LC-I Figure 18 – LC-II
P(kN) P(kN) LC-IV

LC-III 900
900
800
800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
-100 -100
-200 -200
-300 -300
1
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
1
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
Figure 19 – LC-III Figure 20 – LC-IV
62 spatium
P(kN) LC-V P(kN) LC-VI

900 900
800 800
700 700
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200 100
100 0
0 -100
-100 -200
-200 -300
-300 -400
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
1
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
Figure 21 – LC-V Figure 22 – LC-VI
P(kN) LC-VII P(kN)

LC-VIII
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
-100 -100
-200 -200
-300 -300
1
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
Figure 23 – LC-VII Figure 24 – LC-VIII
P(kN) LC-IX
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
1
gr.2
gr.3
gr.4
gr.5
gr.6
gr.7
gr.8
gr.9
gr.10
gr.11
Figure 25 – LC-IX
spatium 63
LC–I – On the whole, the triangulated structure increased from the centre towards the proved slightly less stiff than the non-
was less sensitive to snow load than the non- perimeter compression ring, while the situation triangulated structure.
triangulated one. The triangulated structure was reversed in the triangulated structure.
LC–IV – At temperature decrease, both
showed a higher sensitivity to the given snow
The distribution of stress in the given structures proved similarly stiff. The triangular
load only within the central zone, in which
structures after the application of load did not structure was slightly less stiff in the central
there was a significant drop in the prestress of
change significantly relative to the basic load zone, while in the zones of outer and inner
ridge cables.
case; it changed only in the non-triangulated tension hoops it proved slightly stiffer than the
LC–II – On the whole, the non-triangulated structure after the application of wind load, non-triangulated structure.
structure was less sensitive to an asymmetrical after temperature decrease and wind load and
LC–V – At temperature decrease and snow
snow load than the triangulated one. The non- after temperature increase and wind load,
load, the triangulated structure proved stiffer
triangulated structure showed a higher where a significant decrease in tension force
than the non-triangulated one, in the zones of
sensitivity to the given load only in the zone intensity in the outer tension hoop, as well as a
inner and outer tension hoops, while in the
between the perimeter compression ring and linear decrease in tension force intensity in
central zone both structures had the same
the outer tension hoop, where a lesser drop in diagonal cables from the centre towards the
stiffness.
the tension force intensity in ridge cables was periphery of the structure was noted.
noted. LC–VI – At temperature decrease and
However, in spite of the noted differences in
asymmetrical snow load, the triangulated
LC–III – On the whole, the triangulated structural sensitivity and stress distribution
structure proved vertically stiffer than the non-
structure was less sensitive to wind load than after the given load application, it should be
triangulated structure. However, in the central
the non-triangulated one. The triangulated noted that the maximum force values in the
zone and in the zone of inner tension hoop, the
structure showed a higher sensitivity to the load-bearing elements of the non-triangulated
triangulated structure showed higher
given load only in the zone of the inner tension and triangulated structure were present at the
deformability in horizontal direction than the
hoop, where a decrease in tension force was same load cases: at temperature decrease and
non-traingulated one. It is only in the zone of
noted, which was reflected as a lower prestress snow load, a temperature decrease and
the outer tension hoop that the triangulated
in the central zone. asymmetrical snow load, and at temperature
structure showed greater horizontal stiffness.
decrease and wind load.
LC–IV – The structures analyzed showed
LC–VII – At temperature decrease and wind
similar sensitivity to temperature decrease. Vertical and horizontal displacements –
load conditions I – IX load, the triangulated structure proved stiffer
LC–V – Sensitivity of the analyzed structures to than the non-triangulated one in the zones of
temperature decrease and snow load varied For different load conditions, the effect of inner and outer tension hoops. In the central
depending on the system zone that was network geometry on structure displacement zone, the triangulated structure proved slightly
analyzed. The sensitivity of the non- relative to the referent position was analyzed, less stiff than the non-triangulated one.
triangulated structure increased from the centre i.e. the effect of network geometry on structural
stiffness was analyzed. LC–VIII - At temperature increase, the
towards the perimeter compression ring, while
triangulated structure proved stiffer than the
the situation was reversed in the triangulated Comparative maximum vertical displacement non-triangulated structure.
structure. graphs are given for different node groups of
non-triangulated and triangulated cable domes, LC–IX – At temperature increase and wind
LC–VI – The non-triangulated structure was
for given load conditions I – IX (Figures 26, 27 load, the triangulated structure was stiffer than
less sensitive to temperature decrease and
and 28). the non-triangulated one in the zones of inner
asymmetrical snow load than the triangulated
and outer tension hoops. In the central zone,
structure. Comparative maximum horizontal the triangulated structure was slightly less stiff
LC–VII – On the whole, the triangulated displacement graphs are given for different than the non-triangulated one.
structure is less sensitive to temperature node groups of non-triangulated and
triangulated cable domes, for given load However, in spite of the noted differences in
decrease and wind load than the non-
conditions I –IX (Figure 29, 30 and31). the system stiffness at different load
triangulated structure. The triangulated
conditions, it should be pointed out that the
structure showed a higher sensitivity only in LC-I - At snow load, the triangulated structure maximum horizontal displacements in
the zone of the inner tension hoop, where a proved stiffer than the non-triangulated one in triangulated and non-triangulated structure
decrease in tension force was noted and which the zones of the outer and inner tension hoops, occurred at asymmetrical snow load, and
was reflected as a lower prestress in the central while the non-triangulated structure proved maximum vertical displacements occurred at
zone. slightly stiffer in the central zone. temperature increase and wind load.
LC–VIII – The triangulated structure was LC–II – At asymmetrical snow load, the Load-bearing elements weight – material
slightly less sensitive to temperature increase triangulated structure was significantly stiffer consumption
than the non-triangulated structure. than the non-triangulated one.
The overall load-bearing elements weight
LC–IX – Sensitivity of the analyzed structures LC–III – At wind load, the triangulated structure (steel pipes and steel cables) of the non-
to temperature increase and wind load varied proved stiffer than the non-triangulated one in triangulated structure was 56% lesser than that
depending on the system zone analyzed. The the zones of inner and outer tension hoops. In of the triangulated one.
sensitivity of the non-triangulated structure the central zone, the triangulated structure
64 spatium
v(cm) nodes 1,2 v(cm) nodes 3-14 v(cm) nodes 15-26

20 20 20
18 18 18
16 16 16
14 14 14
12 12 12
10 10 10
8 8 8
6 6 6
4 4 4
2 2 2
0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-10 -10 -10
-12 -12 -12
-14 -14 -14
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
Figure 26 – Maximum vertical displacements – Figure 27 – Maximum vertical displacements - Figure 28 – Maximum vertical displacements –
nodes 1, 2 nodes 3-14 nodes 15-26
u (cm)
7
nodes 1,2 u (cm) u (cm)
nodes 3-14 nodes 15-26
7 7
6
6 6
5
5 5
4
4 4
3
3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
Figure 29 – Maximum horizontal displacements – Figure 30 – Maximum horizontal displacements - Figure 31 – Maximum horizontal displacements -
nodes 1, 2 nodes 3-14 nodes 15-26
Maximum support reactions – load CONCLUSION the introduction of initial prestress. The stress
conditions I – IX distribution within the given structures,
On the basis of a geometrically non-linear following the application of different loads, did
Maximum vertical support reactions for the
comparative analysis of triangulated and non- not change significantly relative to the basic
non-triangulated structure show relatively
triangulated tensegrity cable domes, it can be load case, except in the non-triangulated
lower intensity, bearing in mind lesser overall
noted that the introduction and distribution of structure where, upon the application of wind
weight of the network load-bearing elements.
prestress in the triangulated structure appeared load, a significant decrease in tension forces in
This allows for the formation of a secondary
to be partially impeded, which particularly the outer tension hoop occurred, as well as a
structure with a smaller cross-section of the
reflects itself on the lesser prestressing of the linear decrease in tension force intensity in
bearing elements. The maximum horizontal
central zone. The sensitivity of the analyzed diagonal cables from the centre towards the
support reactions in the radial direction were
structures varied under different load periphery of the structure.
25% lower in intensity than the respective
conditions and between different systems
support reactions within the triangulated On the whole, the triangulated structure
zones under analysis. Within the triangulated
structure. This allows for the formation of the appeared to be stiffer than the non-triangulated
structure there was a greater number of
perimeter compression ring and secondary structure. However, in its central zone, a
occurrences of central zone sensitivity, which
structure of the lesser cross section. significant decrease in stiffness occured due to
was a result of its lesser prestressing following
spatium 65
its lesser prestress (in spite of the greater Castro, G., Levy. M. P. (1992) Analysis of the Terry, W. R. (1994) Georgia Dome cable roof
intensity of initial prestressing forces), to the Georgia Dome Cable Roof, in Barry J. Goodno construction techniques, in John F. Abel, John
degree where the maximum vertical and Jeff R.Wright (ed.) Proceedings of the W. Leonard, and Celina U. Penalba (ed.)
displacement of the structure nodes in this Eighth Conference of Computing in Civil Spatial, Lattice and tension structures:
zone, in the majority of cases, proved to be Engineering and Georgraphic Information Proceeding of the IASS-ASCE International
higher than in the non-triangulated structure. It Systems Symposium, Dallas: ASCE, pp. 566- Symposium. New York: ASCE, pp. 563-572.
should be noted that those displacements were 573. Tuchman, J., Ho-Chul, S. (1986) Olympic Domes
also related to the defined deformability of the Fuller, R. B. (1961) Tensegrity, in Alfred First of Their Kind, Engineering News Record,
system. In non-triangulated structure, greater Frankfurter (ed.) Portfolio and Art News pp. 24-27.
horizontal displacements of nodes occurred. Annual No. 4. The Art Foundation Press,
The non-triangulated structure would require pp. 112-127, 144, 148.
less material for its construction, as well as for Geiger, D. et al. (1986) The design and
construction of the perimeter compressed ring construction of two cable domes for the
and secondary structure. Korean Olympics, in Koichiro Heki (eds.) Shells,
Membranes and Space Frames: Proceedings of
Significant decreases in the tension force the IASS Symposium on Membrane Structures
intensity in the outer tension hoop and and Space Frames, Osaka, Japan, 15-19
diagonal cables of the non-triangulated September, 1986. Amsterdam; New York:
structure, especially at asymmetric load action Elsevier, pp. 265-272.
and with comparatively great horizontal Gossen, P. et al. (1998) The First Rigidly Clad
displacements, showed that this network "Tensegrity" Type Dome, The Crown Coliseum,
geometry has its disadvantages, especially in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in Gusev, B. V.,
rigid roof cladding solutions. Geiger’s ’pleated’ Khaidukov, G.K., Shugaev, V. V., and Sokolov,
roof membrane that is applied in tensegrity B.S. (ed.) Spatial Structures in New and
type cable domes is system based on the Renovation Projects of Buildings and
interaction of the membrane fabric and cable- Construction: theory, investigations, design,
strut network in bearing the load. The erection; Proceedings of International
membrane has a stabilizing effect on the Congress IASS-ICSS. Moscow, pp. 477-484.
structure, but is flexible enough to follow its Krstić, A. (2006) Multifunkcionalne krovne
displacements. Unlike membrane fabric, rigid strukture energetski efikasnih zgrada,
roof panels ’float’ upon the load-bearing Arhitektura i urbanizam, br.18/19, pp. 34-47.
structure, i.e. the cable-strut network, and do Levy, M. P. (1994) The Georgia Dome and
not exert the stabilizing effect of the membrane beyond achieving lightweight–longspan
fabric. In such cases, the structure experiences structures, in John F. Abel, John W. Leonard,
significant displacements. In order to control and Celina U. Penalba (ed.) Spatial, Lattice and
the displacement, especially horizontal tension structures: Proceeding of the IASS-
displacements of non-triangulated structure in ASCE International Symposium. New York:
case of rigid sheet cladding, it is possible to ASCE, pp. 560-562.
intervene with the network geometry by Levy, R., Spillers, W. R. (1995) Analysis of
introducing partial triangulation in the critical geometrically nonlinear structures. New York:
zone. The example of a successful combination Chapman & Hall.
of the triangulated and non-triuangulated Motro, R. (2003) Tensegrity: Structural 2
network is the first realized rigidly clad Systems for the Future. London: Kogan Page
tensegrity cable dome, where the network is Science.
partially triangulated in the zone of the outer Nenadović, A. (2004) Addition to the analysis of
tension hoop, while in the inner tension hoop the behaviour of tensegrity type cable domes,
zone it respects and follows the geometry of Unpublished MSc thesis, Faculty of
Geiger’s non-triangulated network, which Architecture, University of Belgrade.
enables a higher prestressing level and a Nestorović, M. (1994) Integralno zategnuti
higher stiffness in the central zone. (tensegriti) konstruktivni sistemi I. Beograd:
Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu.
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Campbell, D. et al. (1994) Effects of Spatial ecological functionalism, SPATIUM International
Triangulation on the Behavior of "Tensegrity" Review, No. 1, pp. 38-43.
Domes, Spatial, Lattice and tension Rastofer, D. (1988) Structural Gymnastics for
structures: Proceeding of the IASS-ASCE the Olympics, Architectural Record, pp. 128-
International Symposium. New York: ASCE, pp. 135.
652-663. 2
Reseived February 2010; accepted in revised form
June 2010
66 spatium
SPATIUM International Review UDC 004.432.41MATHEMATICA:72.012
No. 22, July 2010, pp. 67-72 Preliminary report-Short communications
PARAMETRIC CURVES AND SURFACES

MATHEMATICA DEMONSTRATIONS AS A TOOL
IN EXPLORATION OF ARCHITECTURAL FORM
Ljiljana Petruševski1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Milana Dabić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Mirjana Devetaković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia
Through their work in the field of generic explorations, authors of this paper have developed a series of demonstration
projects, based on the software package MATHEMATICA, related to the parametric representation of curves and surfaces in
space. The main purpose of the demonstrations is exploration of generic potential of curves and surfaces in order to apply it to
the process of generating architectural form. The paper presents the developed demonstration projects and their application
within the generic explorations of architectural form.
Key-words: Mathematica demonstrations, parametric curve and surface, architectural form
INTRODUCTION1 As a support for their own exploration3 and to

help their students within the courses where x : I → R , and y : I → R are
Wolfram Demonstration Project has been Mathematics in Architecture4 and Generic real-valued functions (Shelden, 2002).
developed by Wolfram Research software Explorations5, Faculty of Architecture, If we choose Cartesian coordinate system for
company. The aim of this project is to educate University of Belgrade, the authors of this two-dimensional space representation, then
in science, technology, mathematics, art, paper have developed series of Demonstration L(t)=(x,y), represents a set of points with
finance and other realms2. With help of projects6 which graphically represent coordinates
Mathematica, one of the most powerful parametric curves and surfaces. The main
x=x(t), y=y(t), t ∈ I
computer program for calculus, wide purpose of these demonstrations is exploration (2)
auditorium got chance to illuminate many of generic potential of curves and surfaces, in
scientific concepts. Project is growing daily, order to apply it to architectural form exploring These equations are called parametric
because the Mathematica users are allowed to and generating process. representation of curve L (Pottmann et al.,
make and upload demonstrations, which could 2007).
be used with free software – Mathematica
PARAMETRIC CURVES AND Example: Ellipse in Figure 1a) is represented
Player.
SURFACES with equations:
The development of Mathematica has been
started by Stephen Wolfram. His idea was to build One way of representing curves and surfaces, x=5cos(t), y=2sin(t), t ∈ [0,2 π ] (3)
a computer program for simulating natural in Cartesian coordinate system, is parametric.
phenomena. Unexpectedly simple algorithms A planar curve L is a map of interval I in two-
gave results, which initiated the exploration of Ellipse in Figure 1b) is represented with
generic forms (Wolfram, 2002). Since the idea of dimensional space ( L : I → R 2 ). For each equations:
generic concept is in basis of Mahematica, there t∈I x=2cos(t), y=5sin(t), t ∈ [0,2 π ] (4)
are many demonstrations which illustrate the
L(t)=(x(t),y(t)), (1)
A space curve L is a map of interval I in three-
most important ones: fractals, L-systems, cellular
dimensional space L : I → R ,
3
automata (Bogdanov et al., 2007; Petruševski et
al., 2009; Devetaković et al., 2009). 3
Web resource: Generic explorations
4
Web resource: Mathematics in Architecture L(t)=(x(t),y(t),z(t)), t ∈ I (5)
1 5
Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia Web resource: Generic explorations, elective course
[email protected] 6 where x, y and z are real-valued functions,
Web resource: Demonstration projects by Milana
2
Wolfram Demonstrations Project Dabić
spatium 67
Petruševski et al.: Parametric curves and surfaces MATHEMATICA demonstrations as a tool in exploration of architectural form
parameter values in equations. With change of

parameter values, graphic preview of object
changes simultaneously, so one can notice
how particular parameter affects graphic
interpretation. This way, geometric object is
not seen as a static, but as a dynamic object,
which improves understanding of parametric
representation.
Figure 2 presents “Looped Curves”
demonstration with chosen curve
x=asin(k1t)cos(k2t), (10)
y=bsin(k1t)sin(k2t), t ∈ [0,2 π ]
for parameter values a=5, b=5, k1=3 and k2=5.
Figure 1 - Parametric representation of ellipse
x:I → R , y : I → R , z : I → R . curves or surfaces, is created, which have

different shape or position for various values of
Points of space curve L have coordinates these parameters. In Example, by adding
L(t)=(x,y,z), hence equations parameters a and b instead of constants,
collection of ellipses is created
x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t), t ∈ I (6)
x=acos(t), y=bsin(t), t ∈ [0,2 π ], (9)
are parametric equations of space curve L. One
could notice that parametric equations of which is for parameter values a=5, b=2
planar and space curves are functions of one shown in Figure 1a), and parameter values
variable t. a=2, b=5 in Figure 1b).
A surface S is a map of I × J in three- One of the challenging issues in understanding

parametric representation, is seeing parametric
dimensional space: ( I × J → R ), where
3
object as static set of points, without noticing
I × J denotes Cartesian product of intervals I connection between functional relationship of
and J. For each u∈I , v∈J , parameter values and assigned points (Filler,
2007). Solving this problem was one of the
S(u,v)=(x(u,v),y(u,v),z(u,v)) (7) motives for authors of this paper to develop
parametric curves and surfaces
where x, y and z are real-valued functions of
demonstrations.
set I × J . Coordinates of surface points
S(u,v)=(x,y,z), are functions of two variables, WOLFRAM DEMONSTRATIONS FOR Figure 2 - Demonstration “Looped Curves”
described with equations:
REPRESENTIG CURVES AND
x=x(u,v), y=y(u,v), z=z(u,v), (8) SURFACES
(u, v) ∈ I × J . In the first row of illustrations, below
The authors of this paper have developed demonstration in Figure 2, there is a curve
These equations are called parametric following projects as a tool for generic described with equations (10) for various
representation of surface S. explorations: “Circle, Ellipse, Hyperbola, and values of parameter k1, while parameters a, b
Astroid”, “Cycloid and Archimedes's Spiral”, and k2 are constant. The values of parameters
Parametric curves could be discretized by “Looped Curves”, “Four Space Curves” and are a=5, b=5 and k2=1, while parameter k1 is
finding the polyline (polygonal curve) that “Parametric Representations of Four equal, respectively
represents curve. For surfaces, it is desirable Surfaces”7. Paper describes demonstrations:
to cover it with planar panel elements and use “Looped Curves”, “Four Space Curves” and k1=2, k1=3, k1=4, k1=5. (11)
polyhedral surfaces (Pottmann et al., 2006). “Parametric Representations of Four Surfaces”, The second row illustrates the same curve,
One could also control how precise that illustrated respectively in Figures 2, 3 and 4. represented with equations (10), for various
representation could be. As higher number of
In the above mentioned demonstrations several values of parameter k2, and constant values of
line segments or panels is, the curve or surface
geometric objects are presented. After one of parameters a, b and k1. Values of parameters
is better represented.
them is chosen, parametric equations are are a=5, b=5 and k1=1, while parameter k2 is
In parametric representation of curves and displayed. Also, there are sliders for choosing respectively equal
surfaces, it is possible to replace constants
k2=2, k2=3, k2=4, k2=5. (12)
with additional parameters. Thus, collection of 7
Demonstration projects by Milana Dabić, Op. cit.
68 spatium
Demonstration “Four Space Curves”, shown in interval which has various size. Parameter t while respectively
Figure 3, describes parametric equations of takes values within the interval, respectively
circle, Archimedes’s spiral, helix and conical u ∈ [0, π ], v ∈ [- π , π ];
t ∈ [0,12 π ], t ∈ [0,8 π ], (17) 2 2
spiral. Figure 3 shows demonstration where
Archimedes’s spiral is chosen: t ∈ [0,4 π ].
u ∈ [0,2 π ], v ∈ [- π , π ]; (21)
x=atcos(t), y=atsin(t), z=c, (13) “Four Surfaces” demonstration shows sphere, 2 4
ellipsoid, surface eight and hyperboloid, and
t ∈ [0,2 π ]
enables change of parameters which figure in u ∈ [0, 7π ], v ∈ [- π , π ].
for parameter values a=3 and c=0. parametric equations. In Figure 4, 4 2 8
demonstration shows surface eight with
Illustrations in the first row, under the CREATING DEMONSTRATIONS
parametric equations:
demonstration, present a conical spiral with
parametric equations x=acos(u)sin(2v), y=bsin(u)sin(2v), (18) In order to create a demonstration, it is necessary
z=csin(v) to become familiar with Mathematica’s
x=atcos(t), y=atsin(t), z=ct, (14)
programming language. It is a specific language
t ∈ [0,2 π ] for parameter values a=5, b=5, c=5,
which provides a great number of functions for
u ∈ [0,2 π ], v ∈ [- π , π ]. mathematics calculus and geometric
for parameter c values, respectively
2 2 visualization. Several commands developed
c=5, c=0 and c=-5, (15) The first row of illustrations shows surface for within Wolfram Demonstration Project made
various values of parameter a, b and c: possible to see the results of some function for
while parameter a has constant value (a=5).
a=2, b=2, c=5; various values of its arguments.
It is noticeable, by reviewing the illustrations, a=2, b=5, c=5; (19) There are series of functions for defining and
that Archimedes’s spiral is in conical spiral a=5, b=5, c=3; visualizing curves and surfaces. In the source
collection too, and it could be described with
while, interval sizes for u and v stays the same: code of previous demonstrations function
equations (14) for parameter value c=0.
ParametricPlot, which enables visualization of
The second row of illustrations in Figure 3 u ∈ [0,2 π ], v ∈ [- π , π ]. (20) parametric plane curves, and function
presents a helix with parametric representation 2 2 ParametricPlot3D, which enables visualization of
The second row illustrates change of those parametric space curves and surfaces, are used.
x=acos(t), y=asin(t), z=ct (16)
Buttons and sliders are implemented with the
intervals, while parameters a, b and c stay
for constant parameter values a and c (a=5, constant. For all illustrations a=5, b=5, c=5, available functions for demonstration building.
c=1), but parameter t takes values from
Figure 3 - Demonstration “Four Space Curves” Figure 4 - Demonstration “Four Surfaces”
spatium 69
"Eight", In Figure 5, a part of source code of the

demonstration “Four Surfaces” is shown. That
Pane[
part of code implements tab which represents
Column[{ surface Eight (Figure 4). In Traditional Form,
Text@Row[{Style[Row[{ parametric equations are displayed, and with
the function ParametricPlot3D, surface Eight is
TraditionalForm[x == a*Cos[u]*Sin[2 v]],", ", visualized. The arguments of function
TraditionalForm[y ==b*Sin[u]*Sin[2 v]],",", ParametricPlot3D are parametric equations,
boundaries of intervals within parameters take
TraditionalForm[ z ==c*Sin[v]]}]]}],
values and some optional settings for surface
ParametricPlot3D[ visualization.
{aa*Cos[u]*Sin[2 v], bb*Sin[u]*Sin[2 v],cc*Sin[v]}, In Figure 6, some of the functions for creating
{u,0,U},{v,-Pi/2,V}, demonstrations are shown. Part of the source
code of the demonstration “Four Surfaces”
PlotRange→{{-5,5},{-5,5},{-5,5}}, given in Figure 6, implements tabs Sphere,
Boxed→ax,Axes→False,ImageSize→300,ImagePadding→20]}], Ellipsoid, Eight, Hyperboloid (Figure 4), and
shows implementation of sliders which allow
{400,400},Alignment→{Center,Center}], change of parameter values a, b, c, U, V. There
is one check box denoted with box (Figure 4,
and source code in Figure 6). If it’s checked,
Figure 5 - Demonstration “Four Surfaces” – part of source code, functions for surface visualization then box around object is displayed. Code also
includes some optional functions for sliders
and tab placement (ControlPlacement),
possibility of using them (Enabled), their size
{surface,{"Sphere","Ellipsoid","Eight","Hyperboloid"}, and appearance…
ControlPlacement→Top}, Before uploading8, demonstrations are sent for
reviewing process. Experts in relevant field
{{aa,3,"a"},1,5,
check its accuracy and quality, and automated
Appearance→"Labeled",ImageSize→Tiny}, software-quality-assurance methods check its
operation. In case of theoretical or technical
{{bb,1,"b"},1,5,
irregularity, demonstrations are sent back for
Enabled→ correction. Therefore, available demonstrations
are theoretically correct, they could be counted
(surface "Ellipsoid"||surface "Eight"||surface "Hyperboloid"), as academic publications and could be used in
Appearance→"Labeled",ImageSize→Tiny}, educational purposes. Demonstration Project
made possible for everyone to use
{{cc,3,"c"},1,5 , Mathematica visualization and to learn about
Enabled→ Mathematica code. With accuracy check and
great number of contributors, Project became
(surface "Ellipsoid"||surface "Eight"||surface "Hyperboloid"), reliable and extensive source of knowledge.
Appearance→"Labeled",ImageSize→Tiny}, The Wolfram Demonstration Project continues
to grow, because number of contributors and
{{U,2 Pi,"u"},Pi/32,2Pi,Pi/32,
published demonstrations increases daily.
Appearance→"Labeled",ImageSize→Tiny}, Demonstrations are developed in many areas –
mathematics, physics, mechanics, biology, art,
{{V,Pi/2,"v"},Pi/2+Pi/32,Pi/2,Pi/32,
etc. Although demonstrations mentioned in this
Appearance→"Labeled",ImageSize→Tiny}, paper are developed for architecture generic
explorations, Wolfram’s team also related them
{{ax,True,"box"},{True,False},ControlPlacement→Top},
to other areas: 3D graphics, high school
mathematics and analytic geometry.
Figure 6 - Demonstration “Four Surfaces” – part of source code, functions for surface visualization
APPLICATION IN THE PROCESS OF
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
At the Faculty of Architecture, University of
8
Wolfram Demonstrations Project, Op.cit.
70 spatium
Belgrade, within the series of elective courses a plane curve. That surface contains all those Plane curves are very important in generating
named Generic Explorations9 the authors of curves, generated by moving the first one, and architecture form. This is justified and proved
this paper made experimental part of some of them, often by discretization, could take a once more through this experimental work. For
architectural form exploration based on plane role of construction elements. Discretization of this reason the plane curves are at the main
and space curves and surfaces. Two groups of surfaces with polygons creates large number of focus of this study. Developed Demonstration
20 senior students took part in the plane curves which could be interpreted like its projects have had an important role in
experimental design. constructive elements. choosing and studying plane curves.
The exploration was organized weekly in the
following phases: Plane curve study, Generic
potential of plane curve, Curve discretization,
Space curve study, Space curve
materialization, Architectural interpretation of
space curve in a given context, Surface study,
Curves on surfaces and Final works. Curves
and surfaces are defined by parametric
equations.
The participants in this experiment easily
adopted the presented Demonstration as an
explorative tool and stimulated further
development of Mathematica demonstrations
for exploring curves and surfaces.
These Demonstrations made possible for
architecture students to see spatial
representation of curves and surfaces, which
depends of larger number of parameters. Also,
they contributed to examination of generic
potential and to application in architectural
form exploration. Some of the results of curve
studies are shown in Figure 7, and some of the
resulted architectural form based on curves
and surfaces exploration are shown in Figure
8. Explorations of architecture form are
realized in CAAD software, while Mathematica
demonstration projects have been considered
as a tools for basic precedent explorations.
Figure 7 - Plane curve study and Curve discretization Figure 8 - Generic potential of curves and surfaces –architectural form exploration
The funcionality of the Demonstration projects in
the process of generic explorations is easy to (Student works: Stanislava Predojević, Nevena Urošević) (Student works: Ana Jevtić, Sonja Dimčić, Vesna Ivanović, Stanislava Predojević
follow on the example of curve (10) within
demonstration project “Looped Curves”. Even
with systematic mathematical analysis, which
include variation of parameters k1 and k2 for fixed
values of remaining parameter a and b, one could
not predict appearance of curves obtained from
some combination of parameter values (Figure
9).
DISCUSION – CURVE AS A FORM

GENERATOR
The presented Demonstration projects are
mostly related to plane curves for a particular
reason. Plane curves have important role in
generating architectural geometry. Surfaces
are often generated as a trace of movement of
Figure 9 - Study of curve with parametric representation (6)
9
Web resource: Generic explorations, elective course,
Op.cit.
spatium 71
Analyzing the results of the experiments, within terms of future construction (Figure 8 and 181-192 http://www.generativeart.com/on/cic/
Plane curve study phase and Generic potential Figure 10). GA2009Papers/p18.pdf , accessed 20 Feb. 2010
of plane curve phase it was concluded that Filler, A. (2007) Discovering functional and dynamic
curve is often interpreted as architectural CONCLUSIONS aspects of parametric equations by creating
element, outlining base geometry of future computer animations, Mathematics Education in a
architectural precedent design (Figure 10). Presented demonstration projects, have multiple Global Community, International Conference, pp.
Mathematically defined curve becomes impacts on architectural form exploration. With 187-193 http://math.unipa.it/~grim/21_project/
architectural sketch. Advantage of this sketch is their help, it is possible to clarify mathematical 21_charlotte_FillerPaperEdit2.pdf, accessed 20
that architect can control project much more representations of geometric objects and Feb. 2010
precisely. Experiments from this study deal connection between formulae and graphical Petruševski, Lj., Devetaković M., Mitrović B. (2009)
mostly with early design stages. interpretation. Also, projects made possible for Self-replicating Systems in Spatial Form
one to explore collections of curves and surfaces Generation – the Concept of Cellular Automata,
In most cases, as an architect is getting closer by adding additional parameters in parametric SPATIUM International Review, No19, pp. 8-14.
to a real architecture form, he deals with representation. Although demonstrations use Devetaković, M., Petruševski, Lj., Mitrović, B.
project construction. Because of technology Mathematica’s programming language which (2009) Arhitektonske interpretacije prostorne
that is available today, architects discretize differs from other programming languages, forme bazirane na celularnim automatima sa
curves and surfaces, according to material authors of this paper believe that the results are primerima u banjskom kontekstru, Arhitektura i
performances, project scenario, etc. Students worth the efforts of learning it. urbanizam, No. 26, pp. 45-55
at these courses recognized this potential of 10
discretizated curves and surfaces and they Featuring of these demonstrations shows their Pottmann, H., Asperl A., Hofer M. and Kilian A.
mathematical (educational) importance. Their (2007) Architectural Geometry, Bentley Institute
used it in the early design. Moving plane
importance as a tool in exploration of architectural Press
curves in discrete steps, with simultaneous
affine transformations, students used them as a form is confirmed within the experimental work on Pottmann H., Brell-Cokcan S. and Wallner J. (2006)
generator of initial architectural geometry the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade. Discrete surfaces for architectural design, In P.
Chenin, T. Lyche and L. L. Schumaker (eds),
design (Figure 10). The presented demonstration projects had Curves and Surface Design, Avignon
As mentioned before, plane curve has the main essential part in choice and Study of plane curve,
Shelden D.(2002) Digital Surface Representation
role in generative processes. Also, comparing Space curve study and Surface study. They and the Constructibility of Gehry’s Architecture,
the results of plane curve exploration and facilitate the understanding of generic potential of Thesis (Ph.D.) Massachusetts Institute of
space curve exploration, it turns out that the curves and surfaces. Demonstrations are Technology, Dept. of Architecture,
plane curve has more significant potential in developed in an intensive interaction with http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/16899?sho
participants of the experiment as a response to w=full, accessed 10 Feb. 2010
their high criteria and demands. Most of the Wolfram, S. (2002) A New Kind of Science,
demonstrations are related to Plane curves Wolfram Media Press, Champaign
because they are significant as architectural form
Web resources
generators.
Demonstration projects by Milana Dabic,
Demonstrations presented in this paper are http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/author.html?
included in Wolfram Demonstration Project author=Milana+Dabic, accessed 10 Feb. 2010
collection. Although they are developed for the Generic explorations, http://genericexplorations.
purpose of generic exploration in architecture, blogspot.com/, accessed 10 Feb. 2010
they illuminate concept of parametric
Generic explorations, elective course, Faculty of
representation of curves and surfaces and are
Architecture, University of Belgrade, AMRES e-
available within Wolfram Demonstration Project’s
Learning system (2009),
categories of analytic geometry, high school
http://elearning.amres.ac.rs/moodle/course/view.p
mathematics and 3D graphics.
hp?id=6a, accessed 10 Feb. 2010
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Figure 10 - Curves and surfaces – architectural interpretation
Reseived March 2010; accepted in revised form
(Student works: Ana Jevtić, Stanislava Predojević,
11
10
Demonstration projects by Milana Dabić, Op. cit. April 2010
Nevena Urošević)
72 spatium
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SPATIUM International Review

No. 22, July 2010, Belgrade ISSN 1450-569X

SCOPE AND AIMS

Miodrag Vujošević Editorial

GENERAL STRATEGIC ISSUES

1-10 Luigi Mazza Strategic planning and republicanism

REGIONAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

URBAN CONSTRUCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

57-66 Aleksandra Nenadović Development, characteristics and comparative structural analysis of

STRATEGIC PLANNING AND REPUBLICANISM

64 Received December 2009; accepted in revised form

CHALLENGES, RESPONSES AND PARTNERSHIP

Table 1: Example of referent mountain destinations

by creative innovative development

ESDP (1999) European Commission, European & Information, 2008, www.escapetobulgaria.com/

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AREAS

topographical conditions, but also to different

Worker Health Chart book, Publication No. Service (SDWP). http://www.fao.org/sd/2001/ 5

VISUAL ILLUSION OF THE CHANGE OF THE SIZE

requirements points out the undeniable geometrical organization of physical structure of

Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3:

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

TRANSFORMATION OF THE NEW BELGRADE

state, thus becoming such physical framework

NEW BELGRADE AS APOTHEOSIS

development (Blagojević, 2007). Although

Figure 4. Layout of New Belgrade. The state in 1980.

Figure 6. Layout of New Belgrade today. Dispersedly distributed commercial facilities.

NEW URBAN LANDMARKS

Figure 10. ''Ušće'' Multifunctional Center opened in 2008. 13

DEVELOPMENT, CHARACTERISTICS AND

INTRODUCTION1 degree. Since it is possible to create these DEVELOPMENT AND

In 1992, Georgia Dome was erected in Atlanta,

Figure 11 - Axonometry of the roof structure

Figure 10a - Georgia Dome interior view

Figure 12 – Roof structure section

Influence of the network geometry on

Prestress level – LC-0

non-triangulated dome triangulated dome

Figure 17 – LC-I Figure 18 – LC-II

P(kN) P(kN) LC-IV

Figure 19 – LC-III Figure 20 – LC-IV

P(kN) LC-V P(kN) LC-VI

Figure 21 – LC-V Figure 22 – LC-VI

P(kN) LC-VII P(kN)

v(cm) nodes 1,2 v(cm) nodes 3-14 v(cm) nodes 15-26

PARAMETRIC CURVES AND SURFACES

INTRODUCTION1 As a support for their own exploration3 and to

parameter values in equations. With change of

x:I → R , y : I → R , z : I → R . curves or surfaces, is created, which have

A surface S is a map of I × J in three- One of the challenging issues in understanding

Figure 3 - Demonstration “Four Space Curves” Figure 4 - Demonstration “Four Surfaces”

"Eight", In Figure 5, a part of source code of the

DISCUSION – CURVE AS A FORM

SPATIUM : urban and spatial planning,

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