2/16/24

ENGR-5696EL-01 Special Topics in

Mechanical Engineering
Spring 2012
Machinery Condition Monitoring
and Diagnostics

Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

• Md Abul Khayer
• ID-0436595
• A review of machining monitoring systems
based on artificial intelligence process
models

• Next Week:

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Basic Spring-Mass Model of Vibration

The Physical Nature of Vibration

Cause
§ One or more pulsating forces (excitation)
§ The cause of vibration is governed by the
process, tolerances and defects
§ Examples: mass unbalance and misalignment

Effect
§ Vibration magnitude depends on
− Forces
− Mass
− Stiffness
− Damping

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

System Order

Signal Analysis in the Time Domain

• visual inspection of time history

• shows general nature of signal
• transient analysis (impact testing, tool shuttle
movement)
• discrete events (broken gear teeth, cracked
bearing race)
• non-steady state conditions (run up, coast down)

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Signal Analysis in the Time Domain

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Amplitude

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (ms)

Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Time Waveform Indices

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Signal Analysis in the Time Domain

Time Waveform Indices

• used for trending and comparisons

Peak Level: maximum vibration amplitude within

time signal

Mean Level: average vibration amplitude within time

signal

Signal Analysis in the Time Domain

1
RMS Level: x RMS = ò [x (t ) ]2
dt , useful in steady
T
state applications, reduces effect of spurious peaks

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Time Waveform Indices

Amplitude

xp x p- p
xav x RMS

time

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Time Waveform Indices

Peak-to-Peak: max. +ve to max. -ve amplitude

• all the above are affected by components in the
signal not originating from the monitored
machine.
example: high energy, high speed gear vibration will
overwhelm low speed gear and bearing
components in the same signal (lower energy)

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Time Waveform Indices

Amplitude

xp x p- p
xav x RMS

time

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Statistical Time Waveform Indices Methods

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Statistical Methods
Probability Density Functions
• probability of finding instantaneous amplitude
values within a certain amplitude range
• all signals will have a characteristic shape
• this shape will change as faults develop
• high probability at mean value & wide spread of
low probabilities ® characteristic of impulsive
time domain waveforms
• most normal machine operation - Gaussian Dist.
• fault detection and diagnostics

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Probability Density Function

Faulty Bearing
Probability Density (dB)

Normal Bearing

Normalized Vibration Amplitude

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Statistical Methods

Probability of Exceeding Limits

• integral of Prob. Den. Func.
• probability that instantaneous vibration
amplitude will exceed a particular level
• detection of faults

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Statistical Methods

Probability Density Moments

• single number indices based on Probability
Density Function
• odd moments, 1st & 3rd, ® peak position
relative to the mean
• even moments, 2nd & 4th, ® indicate spread of
distribution
• Kurtosis is sensitive to impulsiveness in the
signal (Rolling Element Bearing Faults).

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Probability Density Moments

Kurtosis
• useful for fault detection
• not good for trending (as fault worsens
impulsiveness in signal disappears, noise floor
increases in amplitude).

Crest Factor vs. Kurtosis

• same good detection ability
• same poor trending ability
• crest factor meter less expensive (fewer
computations)

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Frequency Domain

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Summation of Time Domain Waveforms

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Amplitude Frequency

F2

F1

Time

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Amplitude

Time

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Frequency Spectrum

Amplitude

F1 Frequency F2

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Frequency Domain
• power (energy) in vibration signal at various
frequencies (amplitude vs. frequency)
• amplitude scale is often in dB to highlight low
amplitude components
• frequency domain highlights periodic nature
of time waveform

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Vibration Analysis
§The spectrum and the time waveform
.5
rms =0.468 cm/sec
936 CPM

1.872 CPM
cm/sec

0
0 CPM 9 600
2
cm/sec

-2
0 time 2.5 Sec

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Vibration Analysis

•3-D waveform analysis

– The spectrum shows the

AMPLITUDE
breakdown of harmonic
components
INP
– The harmonic amplitudes UT TIM NC
Y
E E
QU
were obtained from TIM
E
FR
E
WA M
spectrum analyzer VE T RU
FO EC
RM SP

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Vibration Analysis
• FFT (fast Fourier transform) analyzer
– A digital computer containing an algorithm
carries out the FFT analysis
– Utilizes a block of data acquired over a period of
time and related to a frequency range
– Displays the components of vibration in equally
spaced bins, or lines across the frequency range

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Frequency Domain Analysis

Generating A Frequency Spectrum
• Hardware:
•Series of filters, or scanning filter
•Digitally
•Fourier Transform

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

How Could We Extract Signal Components By
Frequency?
Tuning fork
• Microphone
• Summed Signal
• Filter Bank (band pass)
• Result

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Frequency analysis allows us to extract individual frequencies

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Excitation
• The excitation forces are often the result of
defects, wear of components, design and
installation errors

• Frequencies are used to relate machine faults

to the forces that cause vibration

• Machine faults or defects have associated

forcing frequencies

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Excitation
•Forcing frequencies associated with machines
Source Frequency (multiple of RPM)
Fault Induced
mass unbalance 1X (frequency in once per revolution)
Misalignment 1X, 2X
bent shaft 1X
mechanical looseness odd orders of X
casing and foundation distortion 1X
antifriction bearing bearing frequencies, not integer ones
impact mechanisms multi-frequency depending on waveform
Design Induced
universal joints 2X
asymmetric shaft 2X
gear mesh (n teeth) nX
coupling (m jaws) mX
fluid-film bearings (oil whirl) 0.43X to 0.47X
blades and vanes (m) mX
reciprocating machines half &full multiples of speed, depending on design

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

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Data Acquisition

Feature extraction &

Classification problem

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Vibration Transducers

Definition:
a transducer is device which senses a physical
quantity (vibration, temperature, pressure, etc.)
and converts it into an electrical signal.
• output is proportional to the measured variable
• vital link in the measurement chain
• missed or distorted information cannot be
recovered later
• usually require amplification and conversion
electronics

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Vibration Transducers

Transducers must be
• correct for the task
• properly mounted
• properly connected
• signal must be correctly conditioned
• in good working order (properly calibrated)
• fully understood (characteristics)

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Vibration Transducers
Three main classes:
• Displacement transducers (contact and non-
contact)
• Velocity transducer (electro mechanical,
piezoelectric)
• Accelerometers (piezoelectric)
Force and frequency considerations usually
dictate the type of measurements and applications
that are best suited for each transducer

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Displacement
• Definition: The distance moved by a point
from its equilibrium position
• Units: Meters (m) or inches (in)
• Measurement techniques: Proximity probes,
laser displacement sensors
• Applications: Monitoring structural health,
assessing machinery alignment

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Velocity
• Definition: The rate of change of displacement
with respect to time
• Units: Meters per second (m/s) or inches per
second (in/s)
• Measurement techniques: Seismic velocity
sensors, piezoelectric sensors
• Applications: Predictive maintenance,
diagnosing rotating machinery issues

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Acceleration
• Definition: The rate of change of velocity with
respect to time
• Units: Meters per second squared (m/s^2) or
G-forces (g)
• Measurement techniques: Accelerometers,
piezoelectric sensors
• Applications: High-frequency vibration
analysis, shock and transient events

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0.25

0.2

0.15
Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics
0.1

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration 0.05

Amplitude
0

-0.05

-0.1

• Mathematical relationship: -0.15

Acceleration is the derivative of

displacement
-0.2 velocity
acceleration

velocity, which is the derivative

-0.25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (ms)

of displacement with respect to

Figure 5.29 Graphical relationships between displacement, velocity and acceleration of a single
reference point.
time
• Practical implication: Choice of
measurement depends on the
frequency range of interest and
the type of vibration
• Frequency analysis:
• Displacement is more relevant
at low frequencies,
• velocity at mid-range Figure 5.30 Graphical and numerical (via differentiation) relationships between displacement,
velocity and acceleration (normalized amplitude).
frequencies,
• acceleration at high frequencies

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Vibration Transducers

Frequency Ranges of Application

General guidelines for transducer selection.
• displacement < 1000 Hz (1500 Hz)
• velocity
(electromechanical) 50 - 1000 Hz
(piezolectric) 10 - 2000 Hz
• accelerometer > 1.0 Hz

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Vibration Transducers

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Vibration Transducers

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Vibration Transducers

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Vibration Transducers

Type of motion sensed:

• displacement transducers
• relative motion (ex. Between sensor
and a surface)
• velocity transducers and accelerometers
• absolute motion

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Vibration Transducers

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Vibration Transducer Selection

• Important considerations
– Frequency response range
• be compatible with the frequencies generated by mechanical
components of the machine
– Signal-to-noise ratio
– Sensitivity
– Natural Frequency Range
– Signal strength
– Weight and Size
– Temperature limitations
– Measurement Units vs. Desired Analysis Units

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Vibration Transducer Selection

• Frequency spans should cover the maximum frequency

components of interest.
• Clipping occurs when the range of the spectrum is less
than the maximum frequency or amplitude is greater
than the dynamic range of the transducer.
• Broad spectral span has lower resolution.
• To increase spectral resolution, it is necessary to
acquire multiple data samples or split data points into
more spans.

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Eddy Current Proximity Sensors CMSS 

• These sensors are mostly used in Eddy Current Probe System

rotating machinery to measure the API- Proximity transducer system,  mm and  mm

vibratory shaft motion.

• used for measuring rotating
machinery
– Shaft Vibration,
– Axial Position,
– Rotating Speed and
– Phase
– Example Application
Turbomachinery
– flexible fluid film bearings and
heavy housing, vibrations do not
transmit well to the outer casing,
– proximity probes directly measure
displacement where
accelerometers would not work
accelerometers

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Eddy Current Proximity Sensors

• Eddy Current Based Non-
Contact Displacement
Transducers
• operate on eddy current principles
• output voltage is proportional to
the distance of sensor to shaft
• usually consist of probe, cable,
oscillator signal demodulator
• probe tip emits a magnetic field
• conductive material brought close
• eddy current induced at the
surface of the material
• energy extracted from excitation
circuitry
• excitation amplitude varies linearly
over short range

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

Eddy Current Proximity Sensors

Output
Modulated Carrier
Vibration Direction

Time
Vibration Amplitude

Demodulator

Time
Eddy Current Probe Operation
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Eddy Current Transducers

Eddy Current Probe Operation

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Eddy Current Transducers

MCMAD Applications
• fluid film radial or thrust bearings
• indicate shaft motion and position relative to
the bearing.
• radial shaft displacement
• seal clearances
• used in pairs 90° apart to show shaft dynamic
motion (orbit) within its bearing.

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Eddy Current Transducers

Output

Vibration Amplitude
Vibration Direction

Time

Y Direction Displacement
Y Output

Vibration

Direction X Output

X Direction Displacement

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Eddy Current Transducers

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Eddy Current Transducers

Construction and Operation

• probe excited at a frequency of 1.5 kHz
• excitation produces magnetic field radiating from
probe tip
• eddy currents are induced into conductive
material close to the tip
• energy extracted from probe is proportional to
the distance to the conductive material

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Eddy Current Transducers

Construction and Operation (Cont’d)

• as the distance from tip to conductive material
is varied, a proportional DC voltage is produced
• linear range is limited
• proper calibration is essential
• conductive material essential

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Eddy Current Transducers

Calibration (Cont’d)
The calibration curve has three regions:
1 - probe in contact with, or very near the shaft
(0 volts DC output).
2 - linear region, change in gap distance produces
a proportional change in DC output.
(Typical linear gap - 0.25 mm to 2.25 mm)
(industry standard - 8 volts/mm output)
3 - as supply voltage is reached the system looses
constant proportionality.

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Eddy Current Transducers

Supply Voltage
Output (Volts)

nge
Ra
ear
Lin

Gap Distance

Calibration

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Eddy Current Transducers

Calibration (Cont’d)
System Sensitivity = Slope of Linear Part of Curve
= Change in Output
Change in Gap
• probe linearity depends on target
- conductivity
- porosity.
- surface condition (cracks, rust, pits, etc)
• temperature and pressure influences
• capable of both static and dynamic measurements

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Eddy Current Transducers

Installation
• secure, rigid mounting essential
• adaptors useful
• minimum tip clearance of two times the
diameter from any surface
• check resonant frequency of probe extensions
• do not locate probes too close together
• take care when handling cables

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Eddy Current Transducers

Installation - Clearance

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Eddy Current Transducers

• A Bently Nevada proximity probe

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Eddy Current Transducers

• B&K proximity probe

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Eddy Current Transducers

• Proximity probe

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Eddy Current Probe System

The CMSS  system is an eddy current
System specifications
type non-contact displacement/vibration
system, used for measuring Shaft Vibration, Standard calibration target: JIS SCM flat surface (see notes)
Axial Position, Rotating Speed and Phase Measurement range: . to . mm ( to . mil) from sensor tip
Scale factor: . V/mm ( mV/mil)
from small rotating machinery to large Scale factor tolerance: ±% for  m systems
critical machinery in Hazardous and ± .% for  m systems
non-Hazardous environments. Linear characteristics: Within ± µm (± mil) for a straight line of
. V/mm ( mV/mil) for  m systems
Within ± µm (±. mil) for a straight line of . V/mm
The CMSS  can be used in conjunction ( mV/mil) for  m systems
with the SKF On-line systems (IMx) in the Linear range:  mm (. mil)
Frequency response: DC to  kHz (–dB)
Thefollowing,
CMSS  system
typical is an eddy current
industries: Maximal output voltage: Approximately – V DC
System specifications
ype non-contact displacement/vibration Sensor abnormal output voltage: Approximately –. V DC
• Petroleum refineries (Sensor OPEN/ Sensor SHORT)
system, used for measuring Shaft Vibration, Standard calibration target: JIS SCM flat surface (see notes)
• Petrochemical plants Output impedance:  Ω, current  mA (maximum)
Axial Position, Rotating Speed and Phase Measurement range: . to . mm ( to . mil) from sensor tip
Current consumption ( kΩ load): maximum – mA
•• Power generation plants Scale factor:
Output noise:
. V/mm ( mV/mil)
Approximately  mVpk-pk + power supply noise
rom small rotating machinery to large Scale factor tolerance: ±% for  m systems
Sensor tip diameter: Approximately  mm and  mm
critical machinery in Hazardous and System cable length:
± .% for  m systems
 m or  m
Common applications for machinery protection Linear characteristics: Within ± µm (± mil) for a straight line of
non-Hazardous environments.
include Turbines and Compressors. . V/mm ( mV/mil) for  m systems
Temperatures for non-agency approved installations
Within ± µm (±. mil) for a straight line of . V/mm
Operational temperature Probe: – to + °C (– to + °F)
The CMSS  can be used in conjunction Range:
( mV/mil) for  m systems
Extension Cable: – to + °C
withFeatures
the SKF On-line systems (IMx) in the Linear range:  mm (. mil)
Driver: – to + °C (– to + °F)
Frequency response: DC to  kHz (–dB)
ollowing, typical
• Suitable forindustries:
various applications: shaft Maximal output voltage: Approximately – V DC
Range of temperatures for agency approved systems
Sensor abnormal output voltage: Approximately –. V DC
vibration,
• Petroleum axial position, rotating speed
refineries (sensor, extension cable and driver) ATEX
(Sensor OPEN/ Sensor SHORT)
– to + °C (– to + °F)
and phase mark of critical rotating CSA – to + °C (– to + °F)
• Petrochemical plants Output impedance:  Ω, current  mA (maximum)
machinery Current consumption ( kΩ load): maximum – mA
• Power generation plants Temperature characteristic
Output noise: Approximately  mVpk-pk + power supply noise
• Environmentally friendly design: lead-free Condition: Gap =  mm Target: JIS SCM
70 Sensor tip diameter: Approximately  mm and  mm
Common soldering, RoHSforcompliance
applications machinery and small
protection System cable length:  m or  m
 to  °C (at  °C standard) Sensor: Less than ±% of full scale
footprint
nclude Turbines and Compressors. Extension cable: Less than ±% of full scale
Temperatures for non-agency approved installations
• Flexible mounting options: DIN-rail adaptor  to  °C (at  °C standard) Driver: Less than ±% of full scale
Operational temperature Probe: – to + °C (– to + °F)
Loop: Less than ±% of full scale
or -screw plate adaptor Range: Extension Cable: – to + °C
Features
• API standard  (th Edition) compliant Driver: – to + °C (– to + °F)
Operational humidity range:  to % RH (non-condensing, non-submerged)
• Suitable for various
• Intrinsically safeapplications:
(CSA & ATEX)shaft (Probe only is % RH)
Range of temperatures for agency approved systems
Power: Within – V DC ±%
vibration, axial position, rotating speed
• CE compliant (sensor, extension cable and driver) ATEX
Dielectric strength of driver:
– to + °C (– to + °F)
Between each terminal and mounting plate:
and phase mark of critical rotating CSA – to + °C (– to + °F)
 mA or less at  V AC for one minute
machinery
The eddy probe is used to measure radial or Insulation resistance of driver: Between each terminal and mounting plate:
Temperature characteristic
 MΩ or more at  V DC
• Environmentally
axial shaft motion.friendly design: lead-free
It is mounted through or Condition: Gap =  mm Target: JIS SCM
Terminal block: Spring lock terminal
soldering, RoHS
to the side of a compliance
bearing capand andsmall
observes the Applicable wire gauge: . to . mm
 to  °C (at  °C standard) Sensor: Less than ±% of full scale
footprint
shaft’s movement relative to its mounting Weight driver: Approximately  g ( oz)
Extension cable: Less than ±% of full scale
Weight probe: CMSS /, non armoured cable  m: approximately  g
• Flexible mounting
position. An eddyoptions: DIN-railcomprises
probe system adaptor a  to  °C (at  °C standard) Driver: Less than ±% of full scale
(. oz)
Loop: Less than ±% of full scale
orprobe,
-screw plate (oscillator/demodulator)
a driver adaptor and Agency system approval: CSA Class I Division , Groups A,B,C,D T, AEx ia IIC T Ga
• API CSA Class I Division , Groups A,B,C,D T
anstandard
optional  (th Edition)
extension cable. compliant Operational humidity range:  to % RH (non-condensing, non-submerged)
ATEX Ex II G, Ex ia IIC T Ga
• Intrinsically safesystems
Eddy probe (CSA & ATEX)
have excellent (Probe only is % RH)
Power: Within – V DC ±%
• CEfrequency
compliantresponse. They have no lower Dielectric strength of driver: Between each terminal and mounting plate:
frequency limit and are used to measure  mA or less at  V AC for one minute
The shaft
eddy axial
probeposition
is used asto well
measure radial or Insulation resistance of driver: Between each terminal and mounting plate:
as vibration.
 MΩ or more at  V DC
axial shaft motion. It is mounted through or Terminal block: Spring lock terminal
o the
 side of a bearing cap and observes the
Applicable wire gauge: . to . mm
shaft’s movement relative to its mounting Weight driver: Approximately  g ( oz)
Weight probe: CMSS /, non armoured cable  m: approximately  g
position. An eddy probe system comprises a (. oz)
probe, a driver (oscillator/demodulator) and Agency system approval: CSA Class I Division , Groups A,B,C,D T, AEx ia IIC T Ga
CSA Class I Division , Groups A,B,C,D T
an optional extension cable. ATEX Ex II G, Ex ia IIC T Ga
Eddy probe systems have excellent
requency response. They have no lower
requency limit and are used to measure
shaft axial position as well as vibration.

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• Proximity probe as “Keyphasor”

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Proximity probe as “Keyphasor”

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Other Keyphasor Transducers

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Eddy Current Transducers

• Proximity probe as speed sensor on a gear ring

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Machinery Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics

• Video
• Installing An Eddy Current Sensor

https://youtu.be/Iy_kOoyInKE

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Eddy Current Transducers

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Eddy Current Transducers

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STOPPED HERE DEC 31 2024

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