Vibration Diagnostic Guide

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Vibration Diagnostic Guide

CM5003
Table of Contents
Part 1
Overview …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
How To Use This Guide …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Detection vs. Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Vibration (Amplitude vs. Frequency) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
“Overall” Vibration …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Time Waveform Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
FFT Spectrum Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Envelope Detection …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 6
SEE Technology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Phase Measurement ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
High Frequency Detection (HFD) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Other Sensor Resonant Technologies ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7

Part 2
Spectrum Analysis Techniques ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
Misalignment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
Imbalance ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
Looseness ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18
Bent Shaft ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Bearing Cocked on a Shaft ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Bearing Defect ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
Multi-Parameter Monitoring …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24

Appendix A
Understanding Phase ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25

Glossary
Glossary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27

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Vibration Diagnostic Guide

Part 1 Detection vs. Analysis


Cause and Effect
There is a big difference between detecting a machinery
problem and analyzing the cause of a machinery problem.
Overview Swapping out a bearing that is showing wear by vibrating
This guide is designed to introduce machinery maintenance heavily may or may not solve your problem. Usually, some
workers to condition monitoring analysis methods used for other machinery problem is causing the bearing to wear
detecting and analyzing machine component failures. prematurely. To solve the bearing problem you must solve the
cause of the bearing problem (i.e. misalignment, looseness,
This document was created by field experienced SKF application imbalance). If not, you are not running a condition monitoring
engineers using measurements obtained with SKF Condition program, you’re running a bearing exchange program.
Monitoring equipment. This guide is a “Living Document” and
will continuously grow as application and experience information It is essential that machinery problems be detected early enough
becomes available. to plan repair actions and to minimize machine downtime.

It is important to note that this guide is not intended to make Once detected, a cause and effect approach must be used to
the reader an analysis expert. It merely informs the reader take further steps toward analyzing what caused the detected
about “typical” methods of analysis and how machinery problem. Only then will you keep the problem from becoming a
problems “typically” show themselves when using these repeat problem.
methods of analysis. It is intended to lay the foundation for
understanding machinery analysis concepts and to show the Vibration (Amplitude vs. Frequency)
reader what is needed to perform an actual analysis on specific
Vibration is the behavior of a machine’s mechanical components
machinery.
as they react to internal or external forces.
Rule 1 Know what you know and don’t pretend to know what you don’t
know!
Since most rotating machinery problems show themselves as
excessive vibration, we use vibration signals as an indication
Often, a situation arises where the answer is not obvious or not of a machine’s mechanical condition. Also, each mechanical
contained within the analysis data. At this point “I don’t know” problem or defect generates vibration in its own unique way.
is the best answer. A wrong diagnosis can cost greatly and can We therefore analyze the “type” of vibration to identify its cause
rapidly diminish the credibility of the machinery maintenance and take appropriate repair action.
worker. Analysis of the problem by a vibration specialist is
required. When analyzing vibration we look at two components of the
vibration signal, its amplitude and its frequency.
How to Use This Guide • Frequency is the number of times an event occurs in a
given time period (the event being one vibration cycle). The
This guide is divided into two sections.
frequency at which the vibration occurs indicates the type
• The first section introduces concepts and methods used to of fault. That is, certain types of faults “typically” occur at
detect and analyze machinery problems. certain frequencies. By establishing the frequency at which
the vibration occurs, we get a clearer picture of what could be
• The second section examples “typical” ways in which various causing it.
machinery problems show themselves and how these
problems are “typically” analyzed. • Amplitude is the size of the vibration signal. The amplitude of
the vibration signal determines the severity of the fault. The
A glossary is provided at the end of this document. Reference higher the amplitude, the higher the vibration, the bigger the
this glossary for any unfamiliar terms.

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problem. Amplitude depends on the type of machine and is
always relative to the vibration level of a “good”; “new” machine!
When measuring vibration we use certain standard
measurement methods: Peak

• Overall Vibration Average RMS


Peak-to-Peak
• Phase
• Acceleration Enveloping
• SEE Technology (Acoustic Emissions)
• High Frequency Detection (HFD)
• Other Sensor Resonant Technologies

“Overall” Vibration Scale Factors on a Sinusoidal Vibration Waveform.

Overall vibration is the total vibration energy measured within a


frequency range. Measuring the “overall” vibration of a machine
or component, a rotor in relation to a machine, or the structure Peak = 1.0
of a machine, and comparing the overall measurement to
RMS = 0.707 × Peak
its normal value (norm) indicates the current health of the
machine. A higher than normal overall vibration reading Average = 0.637 × Peak
indicates that “something” is causing the machine or component
to vibrate more. Peak-to-Peak = 2 × Peak

Vibration is considered the best operating parameter to The Peak value represents the distance to the top of the
judge low frequency dynamic conditions such as imbalance, waveform measured from a zero reference. For discussion
misalignment, mechanical looseness, structural resonance, soft purposes we’ll assign a Peak value of 1.0.
foundation, shaft bow, excessive bearing wear, or lost rotor
The Peak-to-Peak value is the amplitude measured from the
vanes.
top most part of the waveform to the bottom most part of the
Frequency Range waveform.

The frequency range for which the overall vibration reading is The Average value is the average amplitude value for the
performed is determined by the monitoring equipment. Some waveform. The average of a pure sine waveform is zero (it is as
data collectors have their own predefined frequency range much positive as it is negative). However, most waveforms are
for performing overall vibration measurements. Other data not pure sinusoidal waveforms. Also, waveforms that are not
collectors allow the user to select the overall measurement’s centered around zero volts produce nonzero average values.
frequency range. Unfortunately there is an ongoing debate
Visualizing how the RMS value is derived is a bit more
on which frequency range best measures to measure overall
difficult. Generally speaking, the RMS value is derived from a
vibration (even though the International Organization for
mathematical conversion that relates DC energy to AC energy.
Standardization (ISO) has set a standard definition). For this
Technically, on a time waveform, it’s the root mean squared
reason, when comparing overall values, it is important that both
(RMS). On a FFT spectrum, it’s the square root of the sum of
overall values be obtained from the same frequency range.
a set of squared instantaneous values. If you measured a pure
Scale Factors sine wave, the RMS value is 0.707 times the peak value.

When comparing overall values, the scale factors that determine Note: Peak and Peak-to-Peak values can be either true or scaled.
Scaled values are calculated from the RMS value.
how the measurement is measured must be consistent. Scale
factors used in overall vibration measurements are Peak, Don’t be concerned about the math, the condition monitoring
Peak-to-Peak, Average, and RMS. These scale factors have instrument calculates the value. What’s important to remember
direct relationships to each other when working with sinusoidal is when comparing overall vibration signals, it is imperative that
waveforms. The figure below shows the relationship of Average both signals be measured on the same frequency range and
vs. RMS vs. Peak vs. Peak-to-Peak for a sinusoidal waveform. with the same scale factors.

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Note: As discussed in future sections, for comparison purposes, Since we generally know how various machinery problems
measurement types and locations must also be identical. create vibration in each plane, vibration readings taken in these
three positions can provide insight as to what may be causing
Measurement Sensor Position any excessive vibration. Note that measurements should be
Select the best measurement point on the machine. Avoid taken as close to the bearing as possible. If possible, avoid
painted surfaces, unloaded bearing zones, housing splits, and taking readings on the case as the case could be vibrating due
structural gaps. to resonance or looseness.

When measuring vibration with a hand-held sensor, it is Note: Enveloping and SEE measurements should be taken as close to the
bearing load zone as possible.
imperative that you perform consistent readings, paying close
attention to the sensor’s position on the machinery, the sensor’s If possible, choose a flat surface to press the sensor tip against.
angle to the machinery, and the contact pressure with which the Measurements should be taken at the same precise location
sensor is held on the machinery. for comparison (moving the probe only a few inches can
produce drastically different vibration readings). To ensure
Position - When possible, vibration should be measured in
measurements are taken at the exact same spot, mark the
three directions:
measurement point with permanent ink or machine a shallow
• the axial direction (A) conical hole with a drill point.

• the horizontal direction (H), and Magnetic mounts are even better for consistency and
permanently mounted sensors are the best for consistency.
• the vertical direction (V).
• Angle – Always perpendicular to the surface (90° +/- 10°).
• Pressure – Even, consistent hand pressure must be used
NDV DEV (firm, but not so firm as to dampen the vibration signal).
Optimum Measurement Conditions
NDH DEH
Perform measurements with the machine operating under
normal conditions. For example, when the rotor, housing, and
NDA DEA main bearings have reached their normal steady operating
temperatures and with the machine running under its normal
Motor Driven rated condition (for example, at rated voltage, flow, pressure
Machine and load). On machines with varying speeds or loads, perform
NDV – Non Drive Vertical DEV – Drive End Vertical measurements at all extreme rating conditions in addition to
NDH – Non Drive Horizontal DEH – Drive End Horizontal selected conditions within these limits.
NDA – Non Drive Axial DEA – Drive End Axial Trending Overall Readings
Probably the most efficient and reliable method of evaluating
• Horizontal measurements typically show the most vibration vibration severity is to compare the most recent overall reading
due to the machine being more flexible in the horizontal against previous readings for the same measurement, allowing
plane. Also, imbalance is one of the most common machinery you to see how the measurement’s vibration values are
problems and imbalance produces a radial vibration, that changing, “trending” over time. This trend comparison between
is, part vertical and part horizontal. Because the machine present and past readings is easier to analyze when the values
is usually more flexible in the horizontal plane, excessive are plotted in a “trend plot”.
horizontal vibration is a good indicator of imbalance.
A trend plot is a line graph that displays current and past
• Vertical measurements typically show less vibration than overall values plotted over time. Past values should include a
horizontal because of stiffness due to mounting and gravity. base-line (known good) reading. The base-line value may be
acquired after an overhaul or when other indicators show that
• Under ideal conditions, axial measurements should show very the machine is running well. Subsequent measurements are
little vibration as most forces are generated perpendicular to compared to the base-line to determine machinery changes.
the shaft. However, misalignment and bent shaft problems
do create vibration in the axial plane. Comparing a machine to itself over time is the much preferred
method for detection of machinery problems as each machine is
Note: These descriptions are given as guidelines for “typical” machinery unique in its operation. For example, some components have a
only. Equipment that is vertically mounted, overhung, or in
certain amount of vibration that would be considered a problem
someway not typical may show different responses.

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Amplitude

K
A

A
F Cycle
Time

• Velocity is the change in displacement as a function of time,


it is speed at which the distance is traveled, for example 0.2
in/sec.

for most machines, but is normal for them. The current reading • Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. For example,
by itself might lead an analyst to believe that a problem exists, if it takes 1 second for the velocity to increase from 0 to 1
whereas the trend plot and base-line reading would clearly in/sec, then the acceleration is 1 in/sec2.
show that a certain amount of vibration is normal for this Thus, vibration has three measurable characteristics:
machine. displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Although these three
ISO Standards are good for a start (until you develop a machine characteristics are related mathematically, they are three
history). However, ISO charts define “good” or “not good” different characteristics, not three names for the same quantity.
conditions for various wide-ranged machinery classifications. It is necessary to select a vibration measurement and sensor
Every machine is: type that measures the vibration most likely to reveal the
expected failure characteristics.
• Manufactured differently
Displacement
• Installed differently (foundation)
Measured in mils or micrometers, displacement is the change
• Operated under different conditions (load, speed, materials, in distance or position of an object relative to a reference.
environment) Displacement is typically measured with a sensor commonly
known as a displacement probe or eddy probe. A displacement
• Maintained differently
probe is a non-contact device that measures the relative
It is unrealistic to judge a machine’s condition by comparing distance between two surfaces. Displacement probes most
its current measurement value against a wide classification often monitor shaft vibration and are commonly used on
ISO Standard or other general rule or levels. By comparing machines with fluid film bearings.
current values to historical values, you are able to easily see
how a specific machine’s condition is changing over time. You’re
comparing apples to apples.
Overall Vibration Measurements Methods
Measuring vibration is the measurement of periodic motion.
Vibration is exampled using a spring-mass setup.
When the mass is set in motion it oscillates on the spring.
Viewing the oscillation as position over time produces a sine
wave. The starting point (when the mass is at rest) is the zero SHAFT
point. One complete cycle of the mass displays a positive and
a negative displacement of the mass in relation to its reference
(zero). Displacement is the change in distance or position
of an object relative to a reference. The magnitude of the
displacement is measured as amplitude.
There are two measurable derivatives of displacement: velocity
and acceleration.

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Displacement probes measure only the motion of the shaft or major strength. However, since velocity is the most
rotor relative to the casing of the machine. If the machine and common measurement for monitoring vibration, acceleration
rotor are moving together, displacement is measured as zero, measurements are usually integrated (either in the
while in fact the machine could be vibrating heavily. accelerometer itself or by the data collector) to get velocity.
Acceleration units are G’s, in/sec2, or m/sec2.
Displacement probes are also used to measure a shaft’s phase.
The shaft’s phase is the angular distance between a known By mounting accelerometers at strategic points on bearings,
mark on the shaft and the vibration signal. This relationship we can measure the acceleration and derive the velocity.
is used for balancing and shaft orbital analysis (reference the These measurements are recorded, analyzed, and displayed as
Phase Section). tables and plots by condition monitoring equipment. A plot of
amplitude vs. time is called a time waveform.
Velocity
Measured in in/sec or mm/sec, velocity measures the vibration
signal’s rate of change in displacement. It is the most common

Amplitude (Gs)
machine vibration measurement. Historically the velocity
sensor was one of the first electrical sensors used for machine
condition monitoring. This because for an equal amount of
dynamic motion being generated, velocity remains constant
regardless of frequency. However, at very low frequencies
(under 10 Hz) velocity sensors lose their effectiveness. Likewise
milliseconds
at higher frequencies (above 2 kHz).
The original velocity transducer employed a coil vibrating
in a magnetic field to produce a voltage proportional to the Time Waveform Analysis
machine’s surface velocity. Today, with the arrival of low cost The above time waveform plot illustrates how the signal from
and versatile accelerometers, most velocity values are obtained an accelerometer or velocity probe appears when graphed as
by integrating an acceleration reading into the velocity domain. amplitude over time. This type of vibration plot is also called a
Acceleration time domain plot or graph.

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. Vibration in Time waveforms display a short time sample of the raw
terms of acceleration is measured with accelerometers. An vibration. Though typically not as useful as other analysis
accelerometer usually contains one or more piezoelectric crystal formats, time waveform analysis can provide clues to machine
elements and a mass. condition that are not always evident in the frequency spectrum
and, when available, should be used as part of your analysis
When the piezoelectric crystal is stressed it produces an program.
electrical output proportional to acceleration. The crystal
is stressed by the mass when the mass is vibrated by the FFT Spectrum Analysis
component to which they are attached.
A method of viewing the vibration signal in a way that is more
Accelerometers are rugged devices that operate in a very wide useful for analysis is to apply a Fast Fourier Transformation
frequency range from almost zero to well above 400 kHz. This
ability to examine a wide frequency range is the accelerometer’s
Gearmesh
Bearing
Defect
Spring
Housing
Mass

Piezo Element
Amplitude

Base Connector Time Frequency scale showing


component vibration signals
at various frequencies.

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(FFT). In non-mathematical terms, this means that the signal where a low amplitude, repetitive vibration signal may be hidden
is broken down into specific amplitudes at various component by the machine’s rotational and structural vibration noise.
frequencies.
For example, if a rolling element bearing has a defect on its
For example, we measure the signal’s amplitude at 10 Hz, outer race, each roller over-rolls the defect as it goes by and
then again at 20 Hz, etc., until we have a list of values for each causes a small, repetitive vibration signal at the bearing’s
frequency contained in the signal. These values or amplitudes defects frequencies. However, this vibration signal is of such low
are then plotted over the frequency scale. The number of energy that, with overall vibration monitoring, it is lost in the
component frequencies the waveform is divided into is referred machine’s other rotational and structural vibration noise.
to as the number of lines of resolution. The resulting plot is
called an FFT spectrum.

Spall

An FFT spectrum is an incredibly useful tool. If a machinery Envelope detection filters out low frequency rotational signals
problem exists, FFT spectra provide information to help and enhances the bearing’s repetitive impact type signals to
determine the location of the problem, the cause of the problem focus on repetitive events in the bearing defect frequency
and, with trending, how long until the problem becomes critical. range (for example, repetitive bearing and gear-tooth vibration
Because we know that certain machinery problems occur at signals).
certain frequencies, we analyze the FFT spectrum by looking for
amplitude changes in certain frequency ranges.
Alternate Signal Processing Methods
Amplitude (Gs)

Along with time waveforms and FFT spectra, vibration signals


are run through other processing methods to best analyze
specific types of equipment and conditions. Running vibration
signals through multiple processing methods also provides
more ways to analyze the signal and more ways to measure CPM
deviations from the “norm”. Following are a examples of
alternate processing methods. A Spalled Bearing’s Acceleration Vibration Spectrum.

Envelope Detection
Repetitive bearing and gear-mesh activity create vibration
Amplitude (Gs)

signals of much lower amplitude and higher frequencies than


rotational and structural vibration signals.
The object of enveloping is to filter out the low frequency
rotational vibration signals and to enhance the repetitive
components of a bearing’s defect signals occurring in the
bearing defect frequency range. Envelope detection is most CPM
common in rolling element bearing and gear mesh analysis
The Same Bearing’s Enveloped Acceleration Spectrum.

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In recent times this measurement method has proven to be 150 - 500 kHz range). This type of signal is not considered
a successful indicator of a major class of machine problems. vibration as much as it is considered high frequency sound,
Faults in roller element bearings, defective teeth in gear boxes, however, vibration is the commonly used industrial term.
paper mill felt discontinuities, and electric motor/stator problems
are all applications for acceleration enveloping. Since SEE technology measures the ultrasonic noise (acoustic
emissions) created when metal degrades, it is the best tool
SEE Technology for detecting bearing problems in their earliest stages, when
the defect is subsurface or microscopic and not causing
SEE technology (Spectral Emitted Energy) provides very early any measurable vibration signal. For that matter, SEE
bearing and gear mesh fault detection by measuring acoustic measurements are also very effective for measuring any
emissions generated by metal as it fails or generated by other machine condition that produces acoustic emissions such as
specific conditions. Circumstances that can cause acoustic corrosion and friction due to fretting, cavitation, sliding or
emissions include: friction events, etc.
• Bearing Defects If SEE values gradually rise above normal, there is usually
no need to immediately replace the bearing. SEE detection
• Contaminated Lubrication provides enough pre-warning for the maintenance person to
• Lack of Lubrication make operational or lubrication corrections and potentially save
the bearing, or effectively extend its life.
• Dynamic Overloading
If SEE values rise, monitor the bearing more closely (shorten
• Micro-sliding/fretting measurement intervals and perform Multi-Parameter
Monitoring). Trend the bearing’s condition with SEE, enveloping,
• Bearing Friction
temperature, and vibration measurements to best analyze the
• Cavitation/Flow problem and predict the best time for corrective action. A good
understanding of the machine and a logical approach to problem
• Electrically Generated Signals solving is needed to help direct repair action.
• Metal Cutting
Phase Measurement
• Compressor Rotor Contact
Phase is a measurement, not a processing method. Phase
• Electrical Arcing measures the angular difference between a known mark on a
rotating shaft and the shaft’s vibration signal. This relationship
• Cracking or Tin Cry provides valuable information on vibration amplitude levels,
• Electrical Noise shaft orbit, and shaft position and is very useful for balancing
and analysis purposes. See Appendix A for a more detailed
• Materials Striking Materials description of measuring phase.
SEE technology uses a special acoustic emissions sensor that
“listens” for ultrasonic acoustic emissions that occur when
High Frequency Detection (HFD)
bearing elements degrade (these acoustic emissions occur in the HFD provides early warning of bearing problems. The High
Frequency Detection (HFD) processing method displays a
numerical overall value for high frequency vibration generated
by small flaws occurring within a high frequency band pass (5
kHz to 60 kHz). The detecting sensor’s resonant frequency
is within the band pass and used to amplify the low level
signal generated by the impact of small flaws. Because of
its high frequency range, the HFD measurement is made
with an accelerometer and displays its value in G’s. The HFD
measurement may be performed as either a peak or RMS
overall value.
Improper lubrication causing
metal degradation or Other Sensor Resonant Technologies
over-rolling of subsurface Some competitors use sensor resonant technologies that are
defect create measureable
similar to HFD. Sensor resonant technologies use the sensor’s
acoustic emissions.
resonant frequency to amplify events in the bearing defect

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range. These technologies enhance the repetitive components One competitors technology is very similar to HFD and gives
of a bearing’s defect signals and report its condition. The the same indications. However, measurement results between
reading is provided by an overall number representing how SKF’s HFD technology and the competitor’s technology cannot
many impacts (enhanced logarithmically) the system picks up. be compared do to different sensor sensitivities.

ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table


(Horizontal Shift)
Excesssive Excesssive Excesssive Excesssive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration


Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates:

Imbalance YES NO NO NO Horizontal > Axial

Misalignment NO YES YES NO Axial > Horizontal

Looseness YES YES NO YES Vertical ≥ Horizontal

Electrical To detect an electrical


Faults problem:
Measures
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.

Note: On an overhung machine, imbalance and Note: YES = ISO 2372


misalignment may display similar characteristics. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.
Use phase measurements to differentiate
between the two. NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

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ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table
(Overhung – Horizontal Shaft)
Excessive Excessive Excessive Excessive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration


Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Notes
Imbalance YES NO YES NO Horizontal and Axial
> Vertical

Misalignment YES NO YES NO Horizontal and Axial


> Vertical

Looseness YES YES NO YES Vertical ≥ Horizontal

Electrical To detect an electrical


Faults problem:
Measured
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.
Note: On an overhung machine, imbalance and Note: YES = ISO 2372
misalignment may display similar characteristics. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.
Use phase measurements to differentiate
between the two. NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

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ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table
(Vertical Shaft)
Excessive Excessive Excessive Excessive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration


Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Notes
Imbalance YES NO NO NO Radial > Axial

Misalignment YES NO YES NO Axial > Radial

Looseness YES NO NO YES

Electrical To detect an electrical


Faults problem:
Measured
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.
Note: Radial 1 and Radial 2 positions differ by 90 Note: YES = ISO 2372
degrees. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.

NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

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Spectrum Analysis Table
Primary Detection Dominant
Plane Units Frequencies Phase Relationship Comments

• NOTE: Phase references are accurate


Imbalance within ± 30 degrees.

Acceleration/ 90 degree phase shift as sensor is moved from


Mass Radial Velocity/ 1X horizontal to vertical position. No radial
Displacement phase shift across the machine or coupling.

Axial Acceleration/
Overhung
and Velocity/ 1X Axial reading will be in phase.
Mass Account for change
Radial Displacement
in sensor orientation
when making axial
Axial Acceleration/ 1 80 degree phase shift in the axial measurements.
Bent Shaft and Velocity/ 1X direction across the machine with no
Radial Displacement phase shift in the radial direction.

Misalignment

Acceleration/ A phase shift of 180 degrees in the axial With severe


Angular Axial Velocity/ 1X, 2X direction will exist across the coupling. misalignment, the
Displacement spectrum may contain
multiple harmonics from
A phase shift of 180 degrees in the radial 3X to 10X. If vibration
Acceleration/ direction will exist across the coupling. amplitude in the
horizontal plane is
Parallel Radial Velocity/ 1X, 2X Sensor will show 0° or 180 degrees phase increased 2 or 3 times,
Displacement shift as it is moved from horizontal to then misalignment is
vertical position on the same bearing. again indicated.
(Account for change in
Combination Axial Acceleration/ A phase shift of 180 degrees in sensor orientation when
of Angular and Velocity/ 1X, 2X the radial and axial direction will making axial
and Parallel Radial Displacement exist across the coupling. measurements.)

Mechanical Looseness

Usually caused when the


Acceleration/ Phase shifts of 180 degrees will exist machine's foundation
Structural Radial Velocity/ 1X between the machine's feet, baseplate, and/or degrades to such an
Displacement foundation if the machine is rocking. extent that it is no longer
stiff, causing the
machine to "rock".

Acceleration/ Phase will shift when the Result of the machine


Soft Foot Radial Velocity/ 1X, 2X, … machine foot is tightened. footing coming loose
Displacement from the foundation.

Vibration amplitudes
may vary significantly
as the sensor is placed at
Wear/ Axial Acceleration/ 1X, 2X, … Phase reading will be unstable different locations around
Fitting and Velocity/ 10X from one reading to the next. the bearing. (Account
Radial Displacement for change in sensor
orientation when making
axial measurements).

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Spectrum Analysis Table
Primary Detection Dominant Phase Relationship Comments
Plane Units Frequencies

• NOTE: Phase references are accurat e


Local Bearing Defects within ± 30 degrees.

With Acceleration
measurements, bearing
defect frequencies appear
Acceleration/
as a wide "bump" in the
Race Defect Radial Enveloping/ 4X … 15X No correlation.
spectrum. Bearing defect
SEE
frequencies are non-integer
multiples of running speed
(i.e., 4.32 X Running Speed).

Gear Defect
The exact frequency
Acceleration/ relates to the number of
Gear Mesh Radial Enveloping/ 20X … 200X No correlation. teeth each gear has
SEE times the shaft rotation
speed (running speed).

Electrically Induced

Acceleration/ Line Defect frequencies can


AC Motors Radial Velocity/ Frequency No correlation. be seen at exactly twice
Displacement (100 or the line frequency.
120 Hz)
DC motor problems due
to broken field windings,
Acceleration/ bad SCR's or loose
DC Motors Radial Velocity/ SCR No correlation. connections are reflected
Displacement Frequency as higher amplitudes at
the SCR frequencies
(6xFL ).

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Part 2 • If the machine is connected to a fan or pump, know the
number of fan blades or impellers.
• If bearings are present, know their bearing defect frequencies.
• If the machine is connected to gears, know the number of
Spectrum Analysis Techniques teeth for each gear.
How To Use This Section • If the machine is driven with belts, know the belt lengths.
Use the charts in the beginning of this section to get a quick • Is the machine operating in the same vicinity as another
picture of what may be causing excessive vibration. Then turn machine, if so, know the running speed of the adjacent
to the suspected problem’s section to further understand and machine. Vibration from one machine can travel through
confirm your diagnosis. the foundation or structure and affect vibration levels on an
Note: A spectrum is a spectrum is a spectrum. When measuring adjacent machine.
displacement, velocity, or acceleration vibration, all data collectors
should produce very similar spectra.
• Is the machine mounted horizontally or vertically?

Spectrum Analysis Overview • Is the machine overhung, or connected to anything that is


overhung?
Identify the Machine’s Running Speed
Knowing the machine’s running speed is critical when analyzing
Running an FFT spectrum. There are several ways of determining
Speed (1X) running speed.
Lower Frequency
Harmonic / Multiples • Read the speed from instrumentation at the machine or from
(2X) instrumentation in the control room monitoring the machine.
Bearing Frequencies • Look for peaks in the spectrum at 1800 or 3600 RPM if the
(3X)
(4X) (5X) machine is a induction electric motor. (1500 and 3000 RPM
for 50 Hz countries). Electric motors usually run at these
speeds.
• An FFT’s running speed peak is “typically” the first significant
peak reading the spectrum from left to right. Look for this
As mentioned earlier, an FFT spectrum is an incredibly useful peak and check for peaks at two times, three times, four
analysis tool. If a machinery problem exists, FFT spectra times, etc. the suspected running speed frequency (2x, 3x,
provide information to help determine the location of the 4x). Harmonics usually cause vibrations at multiples of the
problem, the cause of the problem and, with trending, how long running speed frequency (although they might be very small).
until the problem becomes critical.
Identify What Type of Measurement Produced the FFT
FFT spectra allow us to analyze vibration amplitudes at various Spectrum
component frequencies on the FFT spectrum. In this way we
can identify and track vibration occurring a specific frequencies. • Was it a displacement, velocity, acceleration, enveloping, SEE,
Since we know that specific machinery problems generate etc. measurement that produced the spectrum?
vibration at specific frequencies, we can use this information to
diagnose what is causing the excessive vibration. • Where was the probe positioned; horizontal, vertical, axial, in
the load zone?
Step 1 – Collect Useful Information If Possible, Obtain Any Historical Machinery Data
Certain information is needed before attempting to diagnose an • Are previously recorded values, FFTs, or overall trend plots
FFT spectrum. available?
Identify All Components of the Machine that Could Cause • Was a base-line recorded?
Vibration
Before a spectrum can be analyzed, the components that cause Step 2 – Analyze
vibration within the machine must be known. In other words, Once the above information is known, you can proceed to
what are the possibilities?

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analyze the spectrum. Analysis usually follows a process of Angular Misalignment
elimination. Eliminate what is not on the spectrum and what is
left is the problem(s).
Once Running Speed is Determined, Identify the
Spectrum’s Frequency Ranges
• Identify any harmonics of running speed (1x, 2x, 3x, etc.).
• Identify bearing fault frequencies.
• Identify fan blade frequencies, if applicable.
• Identify number of gear teeth, if applicable. Angular misalignment occurs when two shafts are joined at
• Identify pump impeller frequencies, if applicable. a coupling in such a way as to induce a bending force on the
shaft.
• Identify adjacent machinery vibration, if applicable.
Parallel Misalignment
• If monitoring an electric motor, identify peaks at line
frequencies. Try to find out if they are electrical or
mechanical.
Verify Suspected Fault Frequencies
The spectra may produce peaks at identified fault frequencies.
These peaks may or may not represent the indicated fault. Look
for harmonics to determine if the identified frequencies were
generated from the indicated fault.
• If a peak appears at the fundamental fault frequency and
another peak appears at two times the fundamental fault Parallel misalignment occurs when the shaft centerlines are
frequency, it is a very strong indication that the fault is real. parallel but displaced from one another.
• If no peak appears at the fundamental fault frequency but Causes
peaks are present at two, three, and maybe four times the
fundamental fault frequency, then this also represents a Possible causes of misalignment are:
strong indication that the indicated fault is valid. • Thermal expansion due to a process working with heat (as
Determine The Severity Of The Fault with a turbine). Most machines are aligned cold, then as they
operate and heat up, thermal growth causes them to grow
• One way to determine the fault’s severity is to compare misaligned.
its amplitude with past readings taken under consistent
conditions. • Machine directly coupled not properly aligned.

• Another way is to compare the amplitude to other readings • Forces transmitted to the machine by piping and support
obtained by similar machines running under the same members.
conditions. A higher than normal reading indicates a problem. • Foundation uneven, shifting, or settling.

Misalignment Effects
Overview Misalignment usually causes the bearing to carry a higher
load than its design specification, which in turn causes bearing
Most experts agree that over half of all machinery problems are failure due to fatigue. Fatigue is the result of stresses applied
caused by misalignment. immediately below the load carrying surfaces and is observed as
Misalignment is created when shafts, couplings, and bearings spalling of surface metal.
are not properly aligned along their centerlines. The two types Diagnoses
of misalignment are angular and parallel, or a combination of
both. Use overall vibration, FFT spectra, and phase measurements to
diagnose misalignment problems.

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Angular Parallel

Rigid Shaft

Amplitude (IPS)
Rigid Shaft
Shafts Pinned Here
Flexible Shaft Shafts Pinned Here
Flexible Shaft

One 1st
Event Event
1 rev 1 rev
2nd
Event

Axial Radial
Direction Direction Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 1200 RPM

Angular misalignment causes axial vibration at the running A FFT Spectrum Showing Misalignment.
speed frequency (1x).
Parallel misalignment produces radial vibration at twice the Note: 2x amplitude is not always present.
running speed frequency (2x).
With misalignment, a higher than normal 1x/2x amplitude
Since most misalignment is a combination of angular and offset, may occur. A high 2x amplitude can vary from 30% of the 1x
both the radial and axial measurements’ 1x and 2x frequencies amplitude to 100% - 200% of the 1x amplitude.
are analyzed.
• Couplings with 2x amplitudes below 50% of 1x are usually
Also, while imbalance forces are the same in the horizontal and acceptable and often operate for a long period of time.
vertical positions, misalignment forces are seldom the same in
both positions. • When the vibration amplitude at 2x is 50% to 150% that of 1x,
it is probable that coupling damage will occur.
FFT Spectrum Analysis
• A machine whose vibration at 2x running speed is above
150% of the 1x has severe misalignment, the problem should
be fixed as soon as possible.
Phase Analysis
Phase measurements are a very useful tool for diagnosing
Amplitude (mm/s)

misalignment. If possible, measure the phase shift between


axial readings on opposite ends of the machine.
Note: All phase values are +/- 30° because of mechanical variance.

Angular Misalignment – In the axial position, a phase shift of


180° will exist across the coupling or machine.
Parallel Misalignment – In the radial direction, a phase shift of
180° will exist across the coupling or machine. A 0° or 180°
phase shift will occur as the sensor is moved from the horizontal
to the vertical position on the same bearing.
Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 1200 CPM
Combination Angular and Parallel Misalignment – In the radial
Example of a High 2x Peak Indicating Misalignment. and axial positions, a phase shift of 180° will exist across the
coupling or machine.

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Note: • With severe misalignment, the spectrum may contain multiple imbalance; static imbalance, couple imbalance, and dynamic
harmonics from 3x to 10x. imbalance (a combination of the first two).
• If vibration amplitude in the horizontal plane is increased 2 or 3 Static Imbalance
times, then misalignment is again indicated.

SKF Monitoring Instruments


The following SKF Condition Monitoring instruments may be
used to determine misalignment.
Vibration Pen plus
/Picolog
Identify misalignment by measuring the overall vibration values
from axial and radial positions on the machine.
• A typical misalignment shows an abnormally higher (or
comparable) vibration amplitude in the axial direction
With static imbalance only one force is involved. To observe this
compared to the radial direction.
force, place the rotor on a frictionless surface. The rotor turns
• Imbalance forces are the same in the horizontal and vertical until the heavy spot is located at 6 o’clock. The term “static”
positions. Misalignment forces are seldom the same in both implies that this type of imbalance can be observed at rest.
positions. Because of gravity or mounting, imbalance usually
produces higher forces in the horizontal plane. If higher than
Couple Imbalance
normal forces are present in the vertical plane, misalignment
is indicated.
Microlog/Multilog
• Radial and axial overall vibration readings will compare with
Vibration Pen plus and Picolog readings.
• FFT spectra will usually display an abnormally high 1x, 2x, or
both.
• Phase readings will usually display a 0° or 180° phase shift in
the radial positions.
Summary
Unlike static imbalance, couple imbalance cannot be measured
If there is an abnormally high 2x/1x amplitude, at rest. With couple imbalance, two equal forces (weights) are
and there is a coupling or belt, 180° from each other, causing the rotor to appear balanced at
then there may be misalignment. rest. However, when the rotor rotates, these forces move the
If the radial 2x amplitude is abnormally high, rotor in opposite directions at their respective ends of the shaft.
and there is a coupling or belt, This causes the rotor to wobble, which produces a 180° out-of-
then there may be misalignment. phase reading from opposite ends of the shaft.

If the axial 1x amplitude is abnormally high, Dynamic Imbalance


and there is a coupling or belt, In reality, almost all imbalance is dynamic imbalance. Dynamic
then there may be misalignment. imbalance is the combination of static and couple imbalance.
On simple machines, there is usually more static imbalance than
Imbalance couple imbalance. On more complex machinery, with more than
one coupling or several spots on the rotor were imbalance can
Overview
occur, couple imbalance is usually the bigger factor.
Experts agree that almost half of all machinery problems are
When balancing a machine, always balance out the static
caused by imbalance.
imbalance first, then take care of the coupling imbalance. When
Imbalance occurs when the shaft’s mass centerline does not balancing for coupling imbalance, the user is forced to balance in
coincide with its geometric centerline. There are three types of multiple planes.

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Cause
Imbalance can be caused by a number of factors, including
improper manufacture, an uneven build up of debris on the
rotors/vanes/blades, or the addition of shaft fittings without an
appropriate counter balancing procedure. With pumps, uneven

Amplitude (IPS)
wear on impellers is indicated as imbalance. Key characteristics
of vibration caused by imbalance are:
• It is a single frequency vibration whose amplitude is the same
in all radial directions.
• It is sinusoidal, occurring at a frequency of once per revolution
(1x).
• The spectrum generally does not contain harmonics of 1x
running speed, unless severe.
Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 1800 RPM
• Amplitude increases with speed up to the first critical speed of
the machine.
Effects
Imbalance usually causes the bearing to carry a higher dynamic
load than its design specification, which in turn causes the
bearing to fail due to fatigue. Fatigue is the result of stresses
Amplitude (Gs)
applied immediately below the load carrying surfaces and is
observed as spalling away of surface metal.
Diagnoses
Use overall vibration, FFT spectra, and phase measurements to
diagnose imbalance problems.
FFT Spectrum Analysis
Vibration caused by pure imbalance is a once per revolution
sinusoidal waveform. On an FFT spectrum, this appears as Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 1200 RPM
a higher than normal 1x amplitude. While other faults can
produce a high 1x amplitude they usually produce harmonics
as well. In general, if the signal has harmonics above once per
revolution, the fault is not imbalance. However, harmonics can
occur as imbalance increases or when horizontal and vertical
support stiffness differ by a large amount.
Amplitude (IPS)

Phase Analysis
Use phase measurements to help diagnose imbalance problems.
Note: All phase readings are +/- 30° because of mechanical variance.

• Sensor shows 90° phase shift between the horizontal and


vertical positions.

• For predominantly static imbalance, there is usually no phase


shift across the machine or coupling in the same measurement
position.
Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 1800 RPM

FFT Spectrums Showing Imbalance.

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SKF Monitoring Instruments Looseness
The following SKF Condition Monitoring instruments may be Overview
used to determine imbalance.
Mechanical looseness, or the improper fit between component
Vibration Pen plus
/Picolog parts, is generally characterized by a long string of rotating
Identify imbalance by measuring the overall vibration values frequency harmonics or 1/2 rotating frequency harmonics at
from axial and radial (horizontal and vertical) positions. abnormally high amplitudes.
Note: These harmonics may be sporadic. For example, looseness may
• Typical imbalance shows an abnormally high vibration display peaks at 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, 6x, etc. or at 3x, 3.5x, 4x, 5.5x, 6x,
amplitude in the radial direction compared to the axial etc.
direction.
Causes
• Imbalance forces are the same in the horizontal and vertical
positions. However, because of gravity and mounting, Possible causes of wear/looseness are:
imbalance usually produces higher forces in the horizontal
• The machine has come loose from its mounting.
plane.
• A machine component has come loose.
Microlog/Multilog
• The bearing has developed a fault which has worn down the
Radial and axial overall vibration readings will compare with the
bearing elements, or the bearing seat.
Vibration Pen plus and Picolog readings.
Effects
• With pure imbalance, the radial measurements’ FFT spectra
display a higher than normal 1x amplitude with little or no • If the looseness is bearing related, the effects are the same as
harmonics. imbalance, only more severe.
• For predominantly static imbalance, phase readings normally • If looseness is generated from a component (for example, a
show a 90° phase shift +/- 30° between the horizontal and fan blade), there is a possibility the part will become detached,
vertical positions. There is usually no phase shift across the causing secondary damage.
machine or coupling in the same measurement position.
Diagnosis
Summary
Use FFT spectra and phase to diagnose looseness.
• If the radial measurement’s 1x amplitude is high,
and harmonics (except vane passing) are less than 15% Spectrum Analysis
of the 1x, Following are spectral examples of wear/looseness as it
then there may be imbalance. “typically” appears on the SKF Microlog or Multilog system.
• If the majority of vibration is in the radial plane,
and the 1x amplitude is medium to high in amplitude,
and the phase from the vertical and horizontal
measurements differ by 90°, +/- 30°
then there may be imbalance.
• If there is a non-synchronous peak corresponding to the 1x
running speed of a coupled machine,
Amplitude (IPS)

then there may be imbalance on the other machine.


• If the primary vibration plane is both axial and radial,
and the machine has an overhung mass,
and the axial phase measurements across the
machine are in phase,
then there may be imbalance.
Note: It is important to note increasing imbalance forces place
increasing loads on nearby bearings. If the bearing’s specified
load is exceeded, damage can occur and the bearing’s life will be
drastically reduced.
Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 1500 RPM

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Diagnosis
Use overall vibration measurements, spectral analysis, and
phase measurements to diagnose a bent shaft.
Spectrum Analysis
Amplitude (mm/s)

A bent shaft typically produces spectra that have misalignment


type characteristics. A higher than normal 1x/2x amplitude
may occur. A high 2x amplitude can vary from 30% of the 1x
amplitude to 100% – 200% of the 1x amplitude.
Phase Analysis
Phase measurements are essential when diagnosing a bent
shaft.
Note: All phase values are +/- 30°.
Frequency (RPM) – Running Speed at 540 RPM
Radial phase measurements (vertical and horizontal) typically
appear “in phase”.
Typically, looseness is identified by an abnormally high running
speed amplitude followed by multiples or 1/2 multiples. Axial phase measurements are typically 180° out of phase.
Harmonic peaks may decrease in amplitude as they increase in
If both the above conditions are true, the problem is probably a
frequency (except at 2x, which, when measured in the vertical
bent shaft.
position, can be higher in amplitude).
Summary
Summary
• If the primary vibration plane is in the axial direction,
• If there are a series of three or more synchronous or 1/2
and there is a dominant 1x peak,
synchronous multiples of running speed (range 2x to 10x),
and there is a 180° phase difference in the axial
and their magnitudes are greater than 20% of the 1x,
direction across the machine,
then there may be mechanical looseness.
then there may be a bent shaft.
• If the machine is rigidly connected (no coupling or belt),
and the radial 2x is high, Bearing Cocked on a Shaft
then there may be mechanical looseness.
Like misalignment, a cocked bearing usually generates
considerable axial vibration. However, phase measurements
Bent Shaft from the axial position help differentiate the two.
With overall vibration and spectral analysis, a bent shaft
If the phase readings among the above four sensor locations
problem usually appears identical to a misalignment problem.
vary considerably, a cocked bearing is indicated.
Phase measurements are needed to distinguish between the
two.
Causes
• Cold Bow - As a result of gravity, a shaft with a high length to
width ratio can, at rest, develop a bend.
• Improper handling during transportation.
• High torque.
Effects
As with imbalance, a bent shaft usually causes the bearing to
carry a higher dynamic load than its design specification, which
in turn causes the bearing to fail due to fatigue.

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Bearing Defects Note: A bearing’s stiffness can affect its enveloping signals. For
example, if a bearing is very heavily loaded, repetitive vibration
Note: It is important to reiterate that most often the bearing defect is energy is small and enveloping measurements become less
not the source of the problem. Usually, some other machinery effective.
problem is causing the bearing defect. When a bearing defect is
detected you should automatically look for other fault symptoms Acceleration and velocity vibration measurements are useful
like misalignment and imbalance, and schedule the repair of both tools for measuring the final stages of a bearing’s life. These
the defective bearing and the fault causing the bearing defect. measurements typically provide indications of imminent bearing
failure (less than 10% of residual bearing life).
Bearing Defect Life Cycle
Vibration Analysis
In order to understand how to monitor bearings, you must first
understand how a bearing defect progresses. As previously mentioned, there are many machinery problems
that can contribute to bearing failure. The most prevalent are
Note: The following discussion relates to typical spall or crack type
bearing defects on rolling element bearings.
excessive load caused by misalignment and/or imbalance, and
lubrication problems (lack of lubrication, improper lubrication,
A bearing may fail for a number of reasons; ineffective excessive lubrication, and contaminated lubrication). Others
lubrication, contaminated lubrication, heavier loading than include:
anticipated, improper handling or installation, old age (surface
fatigue), etc. • Defective bearing seats on shafts and in housings.

Often, initial bearing fatigue results in shear stresses cyclically • Faulty mounting practice.
appearing immediately below the load carrying surface. After • Incorrect shaft and housing fits.
a time these stresses cause cracks which gradually extend up
to the surface. As a rolling elements pass over these cracks, • Vibration while the bearing is not rotating.
fragments break away. This is known as spalling or flaking.
• The passage of electric current through the bearing.
The spalling progressively increases and eventually makes the
bearing unusable. This type of bearing damage is a relatively Velocity vibration measurements are typically performed on
long drawn-out process, and makes its presence known by most machinery. These measurements are very useful for
increasing noise and vibration. detecting and analyzing low frequency rotational problems such
as imbalance, misalignment, looseness, bent shaft, etc.
Another type of bearing failure is initiated by surface distress.
Surface distress causes cracks to form on the surface and Vibration - Numerical Analysis
grow into the material. Surface distress is usually caused by
excessive load or improper lubrication. The following chart illustrates the ISO 2372 Standard for
vibration severity.
In both cases the failing bearing produces noise and vibration
signals that, if detected, usually gives the user adequate time to
correct the cause of the bearing problem or replace the bearing
before it fails completely.
Since SEE technology measures the ultrasonic noise (acoustic
emissions) created when metal deteriorates, it is the best
tool for detecting bearing problems in their earliest stages,
when the defect is subsurface or microscopic and not causing
any measurable vibration signal. For that matter, SEE
measurements detect any machine condition that produces
acoustic emissions, such as lack of lubrication, contaminated
lubrication, corrosion and friction due to fretting, cavitation,
sliding or friction events, etc.
When a local defect, as a spall or crack occurs and is over-
rolled by the bearing’s rolling elements, enveloping becomes an
effective measurement to detect and monitor bearing failure in
its early stages (long before final failure). Again, this provides
enough pre-warning time to possibly correct the cause of the
bearing problem (be it lubrication, excessive load, or process
related) and thus potentially correct or minimize the problem,
effectively extending the bearing’s life.

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Vibration - Spectral Analysis
Because bearing defects occur at much higher frequencies and
much lower amplitudes, ISO severity charts are little help for
detecting early bearing problems. For bearing problems, special
attention must be given to the bearing’s FFT spectrum’s bearing
defect frequencies. Bearing Frequencies

To assist in determining if a machine’s problems include a faulty


bearing, the defect frequencies of the bearing can be calculated
and overlaid on the vibration spectra.
• Ford – Frequency Outer Race Defect
• Fird – Frequency Inner Race Defect
• Fbd – Frequency Ball Defect SEE Analysis
• Fc – Frequency Cage Depending on the monitoring instrument, SEE technology
provides either numerical or spectral output (or both).
When the defect frequencies (Ford, Fird, Fbd, Fc) align with peak
amplitudes in the vibration spectrum, there is probably a SEE Numerical Analysis
bearing defect.
Because SEE signals indicate deterioration in the proximity
Note: Ford = BPFO of the monitoring sensor, a clear understanding of machinery
Fird = BPFI
components in the area is essential. For example, if a gear
box is adjacent to the bearing where the SEE measurement
Fbd = BPF is performed, acoustic emissions from the gear box may add
Fc = FTF
to the bearing’s SEE measurement. In this case a high SEE
reading may indicate a “good” condition for the monitored
Note: SKF offers the Frequency Analysis Module (FAM) software that bearing.
automatically superimposes defect frequencies for most types of
bearings on PRISM2 spectra. This aids greatly when analyzing In general, a “higher than normal” SEE measurement indicates
spectra for bearing defects. a problem. If no SEE signals are initially present, use the
following chart as a guideline for severity of the SEE signal.
If bearing analysis software is not available, bearing defect
frequencies should be mathematically calculated. Numbers are in SEE’s.
Ford = (n) / 2 ξ (RPM) / 60 ξ (1 – Bd / Pd ξ cos ø) 0-3 No identifiable problems.
Fird = (n) / 2 ξ (RPM) / 60 ξ (1 + Bd / Pd ξ cos ø) 3 -20 Lubrication problem, contamination, bearing defect
with light load, or a small bearing defect with normal
Fbd = (n) / 2 ξ (RPM) / 60 ξ [1 – (Bd / Pd)2 ξ cos2 ø]
load.
Fc = 1 / 2 ξ (RPM) / 60 ξ (1 – Bd / Pd ξ cos ø)
20-100 Bearing defect or contamination.
where:
100 + Severe bearing problem.
(n) = number of balls
Again, use these figures as guidelines only. Your measurement
Bd = ball diameter trending experience determines valid figures for your SEE
monitored machinery.
Pd = pitch diameter
SEE Spectral Analysis
ø = contact angle
Very early, microscopic bearing defects are not visible on normal
The following velocity vibration spectrum shows a typical acceleration or velocity vibration spectra as:
bearing defect in its final stages. The size and width of the
“hump” at ≈ 6x running speed indicates that the defect has • No vibration yet exists, or
grown and is approaching failure. In very early stages this
• If vibration does exist, it occurs in the bearing frequency range
hump may not exist, or may appear as non-synchronous peaks.
which may not be shown by the FFT, and

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• It is of such small amplitude that it is hidden by low frequency Microlog – Multilog
rotational vibrations. Band I Band II Band III Band IV
SEE measurements monitor the ultrasonic frequencies at which Good 0 - 2 mG 0 - 20 mG 0 - 0.2 G’s 0 - 0.5 G’s
these acoustic emissions occur (150-500 kHz) and filter out Satisfactory 2 - 10 mG 20 - 200 mG 0.2 - 2 G’s 0.5 - 5 G’s
all the low frequency rotational events. The very early bearing Unsatisfactory 10 - 50 mG 0.2 - 0.5 G’s 2 - 5 G’s 5 - 25 G’s
defect’s repetitive acoustic signals are enhanced and shown as
Unacceptable 50+ mG 0.5+ G’s 5+ G’s 25+ G’s
peaks at the defect’s frequency. With a bearing, if no peaks exist
in the SEE spectra, no acoustic SEE signals are present. Hand-held probe

For magnetic and permanent mounted probes the values of


Band III are multiplied by 2 and Band IV by 3.

Microlog - Multilog
Band III Band IV
Good 0 - 0.4 G’s 0 - 1.5 G’s
Satisfactory 0.4 - 4 G’s 1.5 - 15 G’s
Unsatisfactory 4 - 10 G’s 15 - 75 G’s
Unacceptable 10+ G's 75+ G’s

Enveloping Spectral Analysis


The SEE Spectrum of the Previously Shown Velocity Measurement Peaks
in the Spectrum Represent Cage Defect. In its early stages a bearing defect may not be detectable on
normal acceleration or velocity vibration spectra as:

Note: There are non-bearing related instances where SEE spectra do • The vibration occurs in the bearing frequency range which
no show obvious peaks but where the overall level of the SEE may not be shown by the FFT, and
spectrum may indicate a problem (for example, cavitation or
friction due to fretting). • The vibration’s amplitude is so small that it is hidden by low
frequency rotational vibrations.
Acceleration Enveloping Analysis
Enveloping measurements monitor the bearing frequency
Again, depending on the monitoring instrument, acceleration ranges at which the defect’s repetitive impacts occur and filter
enveloping provides either numerical or spectral output (or out all the non-repetitive impact signals (for example, the low
both). frequency rotational events). The repetitive impact signals are
enhanced and appear as peaks at the defect’s frequency.
Enveloping Numerical Analysis
When a spall occurs and is over-rolled by the bearing’s rolling
elements, enveloping becomes an effective measurement to
detect and monitor bearing failure in its early stages (long
before final failure).
Note: A bearing’s stiffness can affect its enveloping signals. For
example, if a bearing is very heavily loaded, repetitive vibration
energy is small and enveloping measurements become less
effective. In cases like this, SEE might be a more useful
measurement.

In general, a “higher than normal” enveloping measurement


indicates a problem. If no enveloping signals are initially
present, use the following tables as guidelines for evaluating the
severity of the enveloped value.
Note: Amplitudes are not absolute. The amplitude depends on loading The Enveloped Spectrum of the Previously Velocity Measurement Again
and defect conditions; new, old, etc. Peaks Shown Represent Cage Defect.

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To assist in determining if a machine’s problems include a faulty
bearing, the defect frequencies of the bearing can be calculated
and overlaid on the vibration spectra.
The Acceleration Enveloped time domain and spectra (with
FAM overlay) for an outer race defect typically appear on the
Microlog/Multilog system as shown below.

Amplitude
Amplitude

milliseconds

Example of an Enveloped Time Waveform (Inner Race).

Samples Note the running speed sidebands


around the bearing defect frequencies.
Example of an Enveloped Time Waveform (Outer Race).
Amplitude (Env Gs)
This would be typical for a inner ring
or a ball defect with Enveloping.
Amplitude (Env Gs)

Frequency (RPM) –
Fundamental Bearing Defect at 9540 RPM

Example of an Enveloped Spectrum (Inner Race) for Radial Loaded


Bearings!

Frequency (RPM) – The difference of between the inner race and outer race displays
Fundamental Bearing Defect at 9540 RPM is the signal modulation caused by the defect rolling in and out
of the load zone. For display purposes, we’ve highlighted this
modulation on the inner race time domain plot as a dotted sine
Example of an Enveloped Spectrum (Outer Race).
wave. The modulation frequency is running speed (1x) and is
found at the far left of the FFT spectrum. Ball defects react
the same, except the modulation frequency occurs at the cage
The time domain and spectra for an inner race defect typically
speed.
appear on the Microlog/Multilog system as shown in the
following figure. These modulation signals appear as sideband spikes on either
side of the spectrum peaks. Inner race defects have sideband
peaks spaced at shaft rotational speed.

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Sometimes with bearing defects there are missing pulses due
to the physical randomness of a defect as well as sub-harmonic Multi-Parameter Trending
frequencies (BPFO/2, BPFO/3, etc. …). of a Problem Bearing
When the local defect is smaller than the Hertzian Contact of SEE

Amplitude
the ball to raceway the signal can be low. The impact depends
on the condition of the defect. When the defect grows and the ENV AVE VIB ISO
edges fade out the defect manifestation it is more like a local
waviness than an impact, which behaves more like looseness.
Thus the Enveloping/SEE signal can grow and then lessen as ENV PEAK
the defect wears. When there is a fresh defect, the signal grows
again. Time

Multi-Parameter Monitoring
A Multi-Parameter approach to condition monitoring uses Overall Vibration – Monitors low frequency machine vibrations.
several types of measurement technologies to best detect and Detects rotational and structural problems like imbalance,
diagnose bearing and machinery problems. This allows for early misalignment, shaft bow, and mechanical looseness. Detects
detection of specific machinery problems that may not show bearing problems in their later stages.
under normal monitoring conditions and provides more ways Enveloping – Filters out low frequency vibration noise and
to measure deviations from normal signals. Multi-parameter enhances high-frequency, repetitive bearing and gear mesh
monitoring has proven very effective for monitoring bearing vibration signals. Has proven very effective for early detection
condition. and diagnoses of bearing problems.
For example, if a rolling element bearing has a defect on SEE – Measures the ultrasonic noise (acoustic emissions)
its outer race, each roller will strike the defect as it goes by created when metal deteriorates. SEE is the best tool for
and cause a small, repetitive vibration signal. However, this detecting bearing problems in their earliest stages, when
vibration signal is of such low amplitude that with overall the defect is subsurface or microscopic and not causing any
vibration monitoring, it is lost in the machine’s rotational and measurable vibration signal. SEE detects any machine condition
structural vibration signals. that produces acoustic emissions, such as lack of lubrication,
Use a multi-parameter approach to best detect bearing contaminated lubrication, corrosion and friction due to fretting,
problems like the one above. cavitation, sliding or friction events, etc.
With bearings, SEE and Enveloping technologies provide ample
pre-warning time, allowing the maintenance person to take
corrective action early enough to effectively extend bearing life.

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Appendix A Tachometer
High Spot
90 Degrees

Accelerometer 100 Degrees

Force
0 Degrees Time
Tachometer
Understanding Phase Notch

Assumptions
The heavy spot rotates 90 additional degrees, the force
For discussion purposes, this setup uses an accelerometer
experienced by the sensor is zero.
sensor to sense the force of the imbalance, and a tachometer to
sense shaft position.
A notch is placed in the rotating shaft. The tachometer
Tachometer 90 Degrees
generates a pulse when the notch passes the tachometer’s
Tachometer
position. This pulse initiates data collection. Notch Accelerometer 100 Degrees

Force
Definition Time
0 Degrees
High Spot 270
The Phase Angle is the angle (in degrees) the shaft travels from Degrees
the start of data collection to when the sensor experiences
maximum positive force.
The heavy spot rotates 90 additional degrees, opposite the
For example, the phase angle is 90° if the sensor experiences its
sensor position. At this point the imbalance force produces the
maximum positive force 90° after data collection was initiated
highest negative reading from the sensor.
by the tachometer.
Note: Because the heavy spot is moving away from the sensor position,
Example A its force is considered to be in the negative direction.

Tachometer 90 Degrees
Tachometer
Tachometer
Tachometer Notch Accelerometer 100 Degrees

Force
Notch Accelerometer Time Time
Force

0 Degrees 360
0 Degrees Degrees
High Spot 270
High Spot Degrees

The tachometer senses the notch in the shaft and triggers data
collection. At this point force equals zero. The heavy spot rotates 90 additional degrees to complete its
360 degree revolution, the force experienced by the sensor is
again zero.
90 Degrees
Tachometer (Maximum Summary
Tachometer Positive Force)
Notch Accelerometer During the 360° shaft revolution, the sensor experiences its
Time maximum positive force when the shaft’s heavy spot is 90° from
Force

0 Degrees its initial position (its position when data collection was initiated
High Spot by the tachometer).
The phase angle is 90°.
The heavy spot rotates 90 degrees to the sensor position. At
this point the imbalance force produces the highest positive
reading from the sensor.
Note: Because the heavy spot is approaching the sensor position, its
force is considered to be in the positive direction.

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Example B Summary
During the 360° shaft revolution, the sensor
Tachometer experiences its maximum positive force when the
Notch High Spot shaft’s heavy spot is 270° from its initial position (its
Tachometer position when data collection was initiated by the
Sensor Accelerometer 0 Degrees Time

Force
tachometer).
The phase angle is 270°.

Shaft position at 0°.

High Spot Tachometer Notch


Tachometer
Sensor Accelerometer 0 Degrees Time
Force

90 Degrees

Shaft position at 90°.

High Spot Tachometer Notch


Tachometer 0 180
Sensor Accelerometer Degrees Degrees
Force

Time

90 Degrees

Shaft position at 180°.

270 Degrees
(Maximum Positive Force)
High Spot Tachometer Notch
Tachometer 0
Sensor Accelerometer Degrees 180 Degrees
Force

Time

90 Degrees

Shaft position at 270°.

270
High Spot Tachometer Notch Degrees
Tachometer 0 180
Sensor Degrees Degrees
Accelerometer
Force

Time
360
Degrees
90 Degrees

Shaft position at 360°.

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Glossary Balancing – A procedure for adjusting
the radial mass distribution of a rotor
so that the centerline of the mass
Engineering Units – Physical units in
which a measurement is expressed,
such as in/sec, micrometers, or mils.
approaches the geometric centerline of Selected by the user.
1x – The Running Speed of the machine the rotor.
EU – See ENGINEERING UNITS.
(Fundamental Frequency). Band-Pass Filter – A filter with a single
transmission band extending from Fast Fourier Transform – A calculation
2x, 3x, etc. … – The frequency at 2, 3, method of converting a time waveform
etc. … times the running speed of the lower to upper cutoff frequencies.
The width of the band is determined to a frequency display that shows the
machine. relationship of discrete frequencies and
by the separation of frequencies at
Acceleration – The time rate of change which amplitude is attenuated by 3 dB their amplitudes.
of velocity. Acceleration measurements (0.707). Field – One data item. Examples of fields
are usually made with accelerometers. are POINT Type, Description, etc.
Bandwidth – The spacing between
Accelerometer – A sensor whose output frequencies at which a band pass filter Filter – An electronic device designed
is directly proportional to acceleration. attenuates the signal by 3 dB. to pass or reject a specific frequency
Alarm Setpoint – Any value beyond Base-line Spectrum – A vibration band.
which is considered unacceptable or spectrum taken when a machine is in FFT – See Fast Fourier Transform.
dangerous to machinery operation. good operating condition; used as a
reference for monitoring and analysis. Frequency – The repetition rate of a
Alignment – A condition whereby periodic event, usually expressed in
the axes of machine components Center Frequency – For a band pass cycles per second (Hz), cycles per
are either coincident, parallel, or filter, the center of the transmission minute (CPM), revolutions per minute
perpendicular, according to design band. (RPM), or multiples of running speed
requirements. (orders). Orders are commonly
Centerline Position – The average
Amplitude – The magnitude of dynamic location, relative to the radial bearing referred to as 1x for running speed, 2x
motion or vibration. Expressed in centerline, of the shaft dynamic for twice running speed, and so on.
terms of peak-to-peak, zero-to-peak, motion. Frequency Domain – An FFT graph
or RMS. (amplitude vs. frequency).
Condition Monitoring – Determining
Analog-To-Digital Converter – A device, the condition of a machine by Free Running – A term used to describe
or subsystem, that changes real-world interpretation of measurements taken the operation of an analyzer or
analog data (as from sensors, for either periodically or continuously processor which operates continuously
example) to a form compatible with while the machine is running. at a fixed rate, not in synchronism with
digital (binary) processing. some external reference event.
CPM – Cycles per minute.
Asynchronous – Vibration components Frequency Range – The frequency
that are not related to rotating speed CPS – Cycles per second. Also referred
to as Hertz (Hz). range (bandwidth) over which a
(non-synchronous). measurement is considered valid.
Averaging – In a dynamic signal Critical Speeds – In general, any rotating Usually refers to upper frequency limit
analyzer, digitally averaging several speed which is associated with high of analysis, considering zero as the
measurements to improve statistical vibration amplitude. Often the rotor lower analysis limit.
accuracy or to reduce the level of speeds which correspond to natural
frequencies of the system. Gap – (See Probe Gap.)
random asynchronous components.
Cycle – One complete sequence of values Gear Mesh Frequency – The frequency
Axial – In the same direction as the shaft generated by two or more gears
centerline. of a periodic quantity.
meshing teeth together.
Axial Vibration – Vibration which is in Displacement – The change in distance
or position of an object relative to a Global Bearing Defect – Relatively large
line with a shaft centerline. damage on a bearing element.
reference.
Axis – The reference plane used in Hanning Window – DSA window
plotting routines. The X-axis is the Download – Transferring information to
the measurement device from function that provides better frequency
frequency plane. The Y-axis is the resolution than the flat top window,
amplitude plane. the host computer.
but with reduced amplitude accuracy.

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Glossary Overall – A number representing the Probe Gap – The physical distance
amount of energy found between two between the face of an eddy probe
frequencies. The frequency range that tip and the observed surface. The
the overall is derived from and the distance can be expressed in terms
Harmonic – A frequency that is an
type (Average, RMS, Peak, Peak-to- of displacement (mils, micrometers)
integer multiple of a fundamental
Peak) are usually user selectable. or in terms of voltage (millivolts),
frequency. For example 5400 RPM
which is the value of the (negative)
is the third harmonic of 1800 RPM. Overlap Processing – The concept dc output signal and is an electronic
Harmonics are produced either by an of performing a new analysis on representation of the physical gap
event that occurs multiple times per a segment of data in which only a distance. Standard polarity convention
revolution, or by a distortion of the portion of the signal has been updated dictates that a decreasing gap results
running speed component’s pure sine (some old data, some new data). in an increasing (less negative) output
wave.
Peak Spectra – A frequency domain signal; increasing gap produces a
Hertz (Hz) – Cycles per second. CPM/60. measurement where, in a series of decreasing (more negative) output
spectral measurements, the one signal.
Hertzian Contact Zone – In a bearing,
spectrum with the highest magnitude Radial – Direction perpendicular to the
the area at which the ball transfers the
at a specified frequency is retained. shaft centerline.
load on the raceway.
Phase – A measurement of the timing Position – The average location, relative
High Pass Filter – A filter with a
relationship between two signals, or to the radial bearing centerline, of the
transmission band starting at a lower
between a specific vibration event and shaft dynamic motion.
cutoff frequency and extending to
a keyphasor pulse.
(theoretically) infinite frequency.
Radial Vibration – Vibration which is
Phase Reference – A signal used in perpendicular to a shaft’s centerline.
Imbalance – A condition such that the
rotating machinery measurements,
mass of a shaft and its geometric
generated by a sensor observing a Resonance – The condition of vibration
centerlines do not coincide.
once-per-revolution event. amplitude and phase change response
Keyphasor Phase Reference Sensor caused by a corresponding system
Phase Response – The phase difference sensitivity to a particular forcing
– A signal used in rotating machinery
(in degrees) between the filter input frequency. A resonance is typically
measurements, generated by a sensor
and output signals as frequency varies; identified by a substantial amplitude
observing a once-per-revolution
usually expressed as lead and lag increase, and related phase shift.
event. (Keyphasor is a Bently-Nevada
referenced to the input.
trade name.)
RMS – The square root of the sum of a
Phase Spectrum – Phase frequency set of squared instantaneous values.
Lines – Common term used to describe
diagram obtained as part of the results
the filters of a Digital Spectrum
of a Fourier transform. ROUTE – A measurement POINT
Analyzer (e.g. 400 line analyzer).
collection sequence.
POINT – Defines a machinery location at
Low Pass Filter – A filter whose
which measurement data is collected Run Up/Run Down – The monitoring of
transmission band extends from an
and the measurement type. machinery conditions during a start up
upper cutoff frequency down to DC.
or shut down process.
Probe – An eddy-current sensor,
Multi-Parameter Monitoring – A
although sometimes used to describe Sensitivity – The ratio of magnitude
condition monitoring method that uses
any vibration sensor. of an output to the magnitude of a
various monitoring technologies to
quantity measured. Also the smallest
best monitor machine condition.
input signal to which an instrument
Natural Frequency – The frequency can respond.
of free vibration of a system. The
Sensor – A transducer which senses and
frequency at which an undamped
converts a physical phenomenon to an
system with a single degree of
analog electrical signal.
freedom will oscillate upon momentary
displacement from its rest position. Setpoint – (See alarm setpoint.)
Orbit – The path of shaft centerline Sidebands – Evenly spaced peaks
motion during rotation. centered around a major peak.

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Glossary

Signal Analysis – Process of extracting


information about a signal’s behavior
in the time domain and/or frequency
domain. Describes the entire process
of filtering, sampling, digitizing,
computation, and display of results in
a meaningful format.
Spectrum – A display of discrete
frequencies and their amplitudes.
Spectrum Analyzer – An instrument
which displays the frequency spectrum
of an input signal.
Thermocouple – A temperature sensing
device comprised of two dissimilar
metal wires which, when thermally
affected (heated or cooled), produce a
change in electrical potential.
Time Domain – A dynamic amplitude vs.
time graph.
Time Waveform – (See Waveform.)
Transducer – A device which translates
a physical quantity into an electrical
output.
Trend – The measurement of a variable
(such as vibration) vs. time.
Trigger – Any event which can be used
as a timing reference.
Upload – Transferring data from
the measuring device to the host
computer.
Vibration – The behavior of a machine’s
mechanical components as they
react to internal or external forces.
Magnitude of cyclic motion; may be
expressed as acceleration, velocity, or
displacement. Defined by frequency
and time-based components.
Waveform – A presentation or display
of the instantaneous amplitude of a
signal as a function of time.

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Vibration Diagnostic Guide

SKF Reliability Systems


5271 Viewridge Court • San Diego, California 92123 USA
Telephone: +1 858-496-3400 • FAX: +1 858-496-3531
Web Site: www.skf.com/reliability
The contents of this publication are the copyright of the publisher and may not be reproduced (even extracts)
unless permission is granted. Every care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in
this publication but no liability can be accepted for any loss or damage whether direct, indirect or consequential
arising out of the use of the information contained herein. SKF reserves the right to alter any part of this
publication without prior notice.

• SKF is a registered trademark of the SKF Group.


• All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

CM5003 (Revised 2-06) • Copyright © 2006 by SKF Condition Monitoring, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

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