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Chapter 5
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The mitotic ity

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cell cycle
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LEARNING INTENTIONS
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In this chapter you will learn how to:

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• describe the structure of chromosomes

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• outline the cell cycle – the cycle of events by which body cells grow to a certain size and then divide
y

into two
Pr
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• describe the behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis and the associated behaviour of the nuclear
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envelope, the cell surface membrane and the spindle

• identify stages of mitosis in photomicrographs, diagrams and microscope slides
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• explain the importance of mitosis

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• outline the role of telomeres

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• outline the role of stem cells

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• explain how uncontrolled cell division can lead to cancer.

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BEFORE YOU START

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During growth of multicellular organisms, the nucleus divides before the cell divides so that each new

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cell contains an identical nucleus. With a partner, discuss briefly why this is important. Then carry out the
am

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following exercise.
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• Make a list of four structural features of the nucleus of eukaryotes.

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• For each feature, outline its function (or an example of its function).
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WHY GROW OLD?

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Is it useful to prolong human life? The forerunners

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of modern chemists, the alchemists, thought so

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(Figure 5.1). They had two main aims:
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• to discover how to transform ‘base’ metals
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(e.g. lead) into ‘noble’ metals (e.g. gold

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and silver)

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• to discover the elixir of life, which would give

eternal youth.
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By the early 20th century, scientists had relegated
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these aims to impossible dreams. Now, however,

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humans are once again challenging the idea that

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the process of ageing is inevitable.

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Why do organisms grow old and die? Interest

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in the process of ageing was rekindled with the

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discovery of telomeres in 1978. Telomeres are

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protective sequences of nucleotides found at the

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Figure 5.1: A 19th-century oil painting showing an
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ends of chromosomes, which become shorter every

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time a cell divides. A gradual degeneration of the alchemist at work.

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organism occurs, resulting in ageing.

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Some cells are able to replenish their telomeres Question for discussion
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using the enzyme telomerase. It is thought that If the ageing process could be slowed or
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cancer cells can do this and so remain immortal prevented, this would raise some important moral
(will never die). It may therefore be possible to and ethical issues. Try to identify and discuss some
am

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prevent the ageing of normal cells by keeping the of these issues.

enzyme telomerase active.
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In Chapter 6 you will learn how DNA can copy itself

5.1 Growth and
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accurately. In this chapter you will learn how whole cells

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can do the same.

reproduction
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In Chapter 1 you saw that one of the most easily

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All living organisms grow and reproduce. Living recognised structures in eukaryotic cells is the nucleus.
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organisms are made of cells, so this means that cells The importance of the nucleus has been obvious ever
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must be able to grow and reproduce. Cells reproduce since it was realised that the nucleus always divides
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by dividing and passing on copies of their genes to before a cell divides. Each of the two daughter cells
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‘daughter’ cells. The process must be very precisely therefore contains its own nucleus. This is important
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controlled so that no vital genetic information is lost. because the nucleus controls the cell’s activities. It does
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5 The mitotic cell cycle

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this because it contains the genetic material, DNA, which Before their function was known, they were called

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acts as a set of instructions, or code, for life (Chapter 6). chromosomes because ‘chromo’ means coloured and

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‘somes’ means bodies.

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All the cells in the bodies of multicellular organisms
are genetically identical, apart from the reproductive
am The number of chromosomes is characteristic of

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cells known as gametes. This is because they all come the species. For example, in human cells there are
from one cell, the zygote. This is the cell formed when 46 chromosomes; in fruit fly cells there are only 8
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s
one gamete from your mother and one gamete from chromosomes. Figure 5.2 is a photograph of a set of

es
your father fused. When the zygote starts the process chromosomes in the nucleus of a human cell.
y

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of growth, it divides into two cells with identical nuclei.
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This involves a type of nuclear division called mitosis.

The structure of chromosomes

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This process of nuclear division followed by cell division

continues to be repeated in a cycle called the mitotic

rs
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Before studying nuclear division, you need to

cell cycle to produce all the cells of your body, about
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understand a little about the structure of chromosomes.
30 trillion in an average human.

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Figure 5.3 is a simplified diagram of the structure of a

op
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You will study the process of mitosis and the mitotic cell chromosome just before cell division.
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cycle in this chapter.
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telomeres

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Genes for different characteristics –

5.2 Chromosomes
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in reality each chromosome is typically

made up of several thousand genes.
am

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Just before a eukaryotic cell divides, a number of
Centromere – holds the two
threadlike structures called chromosomes gradually
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chromatids together. There are no

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become visible in the nucleus. They are easily seen, genes in this region.
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because they stain intensely with particular stains.

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Two identical chromatids

make one chromosome. Each
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chromatid contains one DNA

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molecule.
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telomeres
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Figure 5.3: Simplified diagram of the structure of a

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chromosome.
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You can see that the chromosome at this stage is a

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double structure. It is made of two identical structures

am

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called chromatids, joined together. The two identical

chromatids of one chromosome are known as sister
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chromatids. There are two chromatids because, during

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the period between nuclear divisions, known as

y

Pr

interphase, each DNA molecule in a nucleus makes an

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identical copy of itself (Chapter 6, Section 6.3, DNA

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KEY WORD
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Figure 5.2: Photograph of a set of chromosomes in a chromatid: one of two identical parts of a
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human male, just before cell division. Each chromosome chromosome, held together by a centromere,
R

is composed of two chromatids held together at the

U

formed during interphase by the replication of

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centromere. Note the different sizes of the chromosomes the DNA strand
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and the different positions of the centromeres.

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replication). Each chromatid contains one of these Histones help to package DNA into a smaller

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DNA copies. The sister chromatids are held together space. The packing ratio is a useful measure of the

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by a narrow region called the centromere, to form a degree of compactness achieved. If a 10 cm long

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single chromosome. The centromere could be anywhere
am piece of string was packed into a 5 cm long tube,

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along the length of the chromosome, but the position is the packing ratio would be 2 (2 cm of string per
characteristic for a particular chromosome. cm of tube). The same idea can be applied to the
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problem of packing DNA into chromosomes.

s
DNA is the molecule of inheritance and is made up of

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a series of genes. Each gene is one unit of inheritance. c Chromosomes vary in length. A chromosome
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10 μm long was estimated to contain 8.7 cm of

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The two DNA molecules, one in each of the sister
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chromatids, are identical. This means the genes on the DNA. What is the packing ratio of DNA in

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chromatids are also identical. The fact that there are this chromosome? Show your working.
two identical chromatids is the key to precise nuclear d There are 46 chromosomes in an adult human
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division. When cells divide, one chromatid goes into one cell. Their average length is about 6 μm. The
ie

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daughter cell and one goes into the other daughter cell, total length of DNA in the 46 chromosomes

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making the daughter cells genetically identical. is about 1.8 m. What is the approximate
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overall packing ratio for DNA in human

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So much information is stored in DNA that it needs to be
chromosomes? Show your working.
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a very long molecule. Although the molecule is only 2 nm

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wide, the total length of DNA in the 46 chromosomes e Explain briefly how histone proteins contribute

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of an adult human cell is about 1.8 metres. This has to to reducing the packing ratio for DNA.

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be packed into a nucleus which is only 6 μm in diameter.

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This is the equivalent of trying to get an 18 km length of

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string into a ball which is only 6 cm in diameter! A precise
5.3 The cell cycle
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scaffolding made of protein molecules prevents the DNA

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from getting tangled up into knots. The DNA is wound Mitosis is nuclear division that produces two genetically
identical daughter nuclei, each containing the same
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around the outside of these protein molecules. The

Pr
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combination of DNA and proteins is called chromatin. number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. Mitosis is
Chromosomes are made of chromatin. Chemically part of a precisely controlled process called the cell cycle.
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speaking, most of the proteins are basic (the opposite of The cell cycle is the sequence of events that takes place
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acidic) and are of a type known as histones. Because they between one cell division and the next. It has three
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are basic, they can interact easily with DNA, which phases: interphase, nuclear division and cell division.
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is acidic.
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These are shown in Figure 5.5.

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Chromosomes also possess two more features essential

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During interphase, the cell grows to its normal size after

for successful nuclear division: centromeres and
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cell division and carries out its normal functions. At

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telomeres. Centromeres are visible in Figures 5.2 and some point during interphase, a signal may be received
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5.3. Telomeres are visible if chromosomes are stained that the cell should divide again. If this happens, the
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appropriately (Figure 5.4). Centromeres are discussed DNA in the nucleus replicates so that each chromosome
with mitosis in Section 5.4 and the role of telomeres is
am

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consists of two identical chromatids. This phase of the

discussed in Section 5.5. cell cycle is called the S phase – S stands for synthesis
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(of DNA). This is a relatively short phase. The gap

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after cell division and before the S phase is called the

Question
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KEY WORDS
1 The primary structure of histone protein molecules
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is highly conserved during evolution, meaning there mitosis: the division of a nucleus into two so
are extremely few changes over time (far fewer than that the two daughter cells have exactly the
rs
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is usual for proteins). same number and type of chromosomes as the

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parent cell
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a State what is meant by the primary structure

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of a protein. cell cycle: the sequence of events that takes

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b What does the fact that histone molecules place from one cell division until the next; it is
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are highly conserved suggest about their made up of interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis
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functioning?
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Figure 5.4: Fluorescent staining of human chromosome telomeres as seen with a light microscope. Chromosomes appear
blue and telomeres appear pink (×4000).
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are usually repaired. Preparations are also made to begin

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nuclear division
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S phase: DNA the process of division. For example, there is a sharp

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replication by mitosis
increase in production of the protein tubulin which is
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G2
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M needed to make microtubules for the mitotic spindle.

cell division
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S (cytokinesis) Nuclear division follows interphase. Nuclear division

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is referred to as the M phase (M for mitosis). Growth

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stops temporarily during mitosis. After the M phase,

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when the nucleus has divided into two, the whole cell
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divides to create two genetically identical cells. In animal

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cells, cell division involves constriction of the cytoplasm

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interphase
between the two new nuclei, a process called cytokinesis.
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G1 In plant cells, it involves the formation of a new cell wall

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between the two new nuclei.

am

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The length of the cell cycle is very variable, depending

Figure 5.5: The mitotic cell cycle. DNA replication takes on environmental conditions and cell type. On average,
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place during interphase, the period between cell division root tip cells of onions divide once every 20 hours;
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and the next nuclear division: S = synthesis (of DNA); epithelial cells in the human intestine every 10 hours.
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G = gap; M = mitosis.
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G1 phase (G for gap). The gap after the S phase and

before cell division is called the G2 phase. Interphase 5.4 Mitosis
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therefore consists of G1, S and G2. During G1, cells

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The process of mitosis is best described by annotated

make the RNA, enzymes and other proteins needed for
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diagrams as shown in Figure 5.6. Although in reality

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growth. At the end of G1, the cell becomes committed to the process is continuous, it is usual to divide it into four
R

dividing or not dividing.

C

main stages for convenience, like four snapshots from

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During G2, the cell continues to grow and the new DNA a film. The four stages are called prophase, metaphase,
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that was made during the S phase is checked. Any errors anaphase and telophase.
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Most nuclei contain many chromosomes, but the cell divides by constriction of the cytoplasm, a process

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diagrams in Figure 5.6 show a cell containing only called cytokinesis. As the cell changes shape, the

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four chromosomes for convenience. Colours are surface area of the cell increases as the two new cells

ev
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used to show whether the chromosomes are from
am form, so new cell surface membrane has to be made.

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the female or male parent. An animal cell is used
The behaviour of chromosomes in plant cells is identical
as an example. Note that during late prophase the
to that in animal cells. However, plant cells differ in
-C

nuclear envelope ‘disappears’. In fact, it breaks up

s
two ways:

es
into small vesicles which cannot be seen with a light
• plant cells do not contain centrosomes
y

microscope. It reassembles during telophase, as shown

Pr
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in Figure 5.6. As a result, diagrams of metaphase and

• after nuclear division of a plant cell, a new cell wall
anaphase do not show the nuclear envelope. At the

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must form between the daughter nuclei.

end of telophase, after the nucleus has divided, the

rs
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Early prophase Late prophase
cell surface

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nuclear envelope ‘disappears’
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membrane (it breaks up into small
vesicles which are not visible
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cytoplasm

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with a light microscope)
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nucleolus
nucleolus ‘disappears’ (forms

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intact nuclear part of several chromosomes)

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envelope
chromosomes are seen to consist
am

-R of two identical chromatids;

centromere with
two centrosomes attached kinetochores each chromatid contains one DNA
produced by centrosomes moving to
-C

molecule
s

replication of the chromosomes start to appear as the opposite ends of nucleus

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original centrosome chromatin coils up, becoming shorter where they form the centromere
during S phase of and thicker; they are thick enough to poles of the spindle
y

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the cell cycle become visible when stained

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At the end of prophase a spindle is formed.

Metaphase
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each centrosome reaches a pole;

centrosomes help to organise
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production of the spindle each chromosome

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microtubules splits at the centromere

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spindle (made from

microtubules)
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the chromatids
chromosomes line up across
start to be pulled
ie
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the equator of the spindle;

apart by microtubules
they are attached by their
ev
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centromeres to the spindle

am

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Anaphase Telophase nuclear envelope re-forming

nucleolus chromatids have reached the poles of
-C

re-forming the spindle; they will now uncoil again

s

(each chromatid contains one DNA

es

molecule, which will replicate itself

y

Pr

remains of during interphase before the next

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spindle which division)

is breaking
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down cytokinesis – this is division of the

cytoplasm and cell into two by
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centrosome – constriction from the edges of the cell

ie

will replicate
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during interphase, cell surface membrane

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chromatids move to opposite poles, before the next nuclear

op
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centromeres first, pulled by the microtubules division

R

Figure 5.6: Mitosis and cytokinesis in an animal cell.

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a Prophase. b Stage intermediate between prophase and metaphase.
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c Metaphase: the spindle fibres (microtubules) are d Early anaphase.

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now clearly visible, and the centrosomes are located at

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opposite ends of the spindle in the centre of a star-shaped

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arrangement of radiating microtubules.

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e Anaphase. f Telophase and cell division (cytokinesis).

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Figure 5.7: Stages of mitosis and cell division in an animal cell (whitefish) (×900). Chromosomes are stained darkly.
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Figure 5.8: Longitudinal section (LS) of onion root tip showing stages of mitosis and cell division typical of plant cells (×400).
am

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Try to identify the stages based on information given in Figure 5.7.
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It is the behaviour of the chromosomes, though,

es

that is of particular interest. Figure 5.7 (animal) microtubules

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and Figure 5.8 (plant) show photographs of mitosis as kinetochore kinetochore

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seen with a light microscope.

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centromere
Centrosomes, centrioles and
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centromeres chromatid
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Centrosomes are located at the poles of the spindle, one

R

chromosome
at each pole. (The poles are the two ends of the spindle.
ge

The spindle gets its name from the fact that it is similar
w

in shape to some spindles used in spinning – Sleeping microtubules

ie
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Beauty pricked her finger on a spindle in the well-known shorten

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fairy tale.) As noted in Chapter 1, the centrosome is an

am

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organelle found in animal cells that acts as a microtubule

organising centre (MTOC). Centrosomes are responsible
-C

for making the spindle, which is made of microtubules.

es

The spindle is needed for separation of the chromatids.

y

Each centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles

Pr
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surrounded by a large number of proteins. It is these Figure 5.9: Role of the centromere, kinetochores and
microtubules during mitosis
ity

proteins that control production of the microtubules, not

C

the centrioles. Plant mitosis occurs without centrosomes.

rs
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The centromere holds the chromatids together (see KEY WORD

ie

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Figures 5.2 and 5.3), but is also involved in the separation of

ev

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chromatids during mitosis. During mitosis the centromere kinetochore: a protein structure found at the
R

is the site of attachment of spindle microtubules. Each centromere of a chromatid to which microtubules
C

metaphase chromosome has two kinetochores at its attach during nuclear division
e

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centromere, one on each chromatid (Figure 5.9).

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The kinetochores are made of protein molecules which For a unicellular organism such as Amoeba, cell division

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connect the centromere to the spindle microtubules. inevitably results in reproduction. For multicellular

ie
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Bundles of microtubules called spindle fibres extend organisms, new individuals may be produced which

ev
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from the kinetochores to the poles of the spindle during
am bud off from the parent in various ways (Figure 5.10).

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mitosis. Construction of kinetochores begins before Budding is particularly common in plants. It is most
nuclear division starts (during the S phase of the cell commonly a form of vegetative propagation in which a
-C

cycle) and they are lost again afterwards. bud on part of the stem simply grows a new plant. The

s
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new plant eventually becomes detached from the parent
The microtubules attached to the kinetochore pull the
y

and lives independently. The bud may be part of the stem

Pr
kinetochore towards the pole of the spindle. The rest
op

of an overwintering structure such as a bulb or tuber. The

of the chromatid drags behind, giving the characteristic
ability to generate whole organisms from single cells or

ity
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> or < shape of chromatids during anaphase

small groups of cells is important in biotechnology and
(Figures 5.6−5.8). The pulling action is achieved by

rs
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genetic engineering, and it is the basis of cloning.

shortening of the microtubules, both from the pole end
ie

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and from the kinetochore end.

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Question

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2 How can the microtubules be shortened? (Refer

ie
id

back to Chapter 1.)

ev
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Importance of mitosis
am

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Growth of multicellular organisms
-C

s
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The two daughter cells formed after mitosis have the

y

same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and are

Pr
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genetically identical (that is, they are clones). This allows

growth of multicellular organisms from unicellular
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zygotes. Growth may occur over the entire body, as

rs
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in animals, or be confined to certain regions, as in the

ie

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meristems (growing points) of plants.

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b
Replacement of damaged or dead cells
R

and repair of tissues by cell replacement

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This is possible using mitosis followed by cell division.

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Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by identical

ev
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cells. In the human body, for example, cell replacement is

am

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particularly rapid in the skin and in the lining of the gut.

Some animals are able to regenerate whole parts of the
-C

body; for example, starfish can regenerate new arms.

s
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Asexual reproduction
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Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the

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production of new individuals of a species by a single

rs

parent organism. The offspring are genetically identical to

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Figure 5.10: a Asexual reproduction by budding in Hydra

the parents. Asexual reproduction can take many forms.
ie

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(×60). Hydra lives in fresh water, catching its prey with

y

the aid of its tentacles. The bud growing from its side is
ev

op
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KEY WORD genetically identical to the parent and will eventually break
R

free and live independently. b Asexual reproduction in

C

asexual reproduction: the production of new

e

Kalanchoe pinnata. The plant produces genetically identical

individuals of a species by a single parent organism
w
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new individuals along the edges of its leaves.

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Immune response d how many chromatids are present in the

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nucleus of each daughter cell after mitosis and

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The cloning of B- and T-lymphocytes during the
cell division?

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immune response is dependent on mitosis (Chapter 11,

br
Section 11.2, Cells of the immune system).
am e how many chromatids are present in the

-R
nucleus of a cell after replication of DNA?
Questions 5 Draw a simple diagram of a cell which contains
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s
only one pair of chromosomes:

es
3 Outline how mitosis allows asexual reproduction to a at metaphase of mitosis
y

take place.

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b at anaphase of mitosis.
4 Human cells contain 46 chromosomes. In the
6 State two functions of centromeres during nuclear

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mitotic cell cycle of a human cell:

division.

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a how many chromatids are present as the cell

7 Thin sections of adult mouse liver were prepared
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enters mitosis?
and the cells stained to show up the chromosomes.

y
ev

b how many DNA molecules are present?

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In a sample of 75 000 cells examined, 9 were found
c how many kinetochores are present?
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to be in the process of mitosis. Calculate the

C
length of the cell cycle in days in mouse liver cells,
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assuming that mitosis lasts one hour.

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PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 5.1

am

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Investigating mitosis using a root tip squash Procedure
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Growth in plants is confined to regions known The root tips of garlic, onion, broad bean and
es

as meristems. A convenient example to study is sunflower provide suitable material. Bulbs or seeds
y

the root tip meristem. This lies just behind the can be grown suspended by a pin over water for a
Pr
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protective root cap. In this meristem there is a zone period of a week or two. The tips of the roots (about
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of cell division containing small cells in the process 1 cm) are removed and placed in a suitable stain
of mitosis. such as warm, acidified acetic orcein. This stains
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chromosomes a deep purple. The stained root tip

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You may be able to study commercially prepared can be squashed into a sheet of cells on a glass
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permanent slides of root tips. You can also make

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slide, using a blunt instrument such as the end of the

your own temporary slides. Cutting thin sections
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handle of a mounted needle.

U

of plant material is tricky, but this is not needed if

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the squash technique is used. This involves staining You should be able to see and draw cells similar to
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the root tip, then gently squashing it. This spreads those shown in Figure 5.8 (but note that Figure 5.8
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the cells out into a thin sheet in which individual shows a longitudinal section of a root tip, not a
ev
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dividing cells can be clearly seen. squash). You could also use Figure 5.8 to make some
am

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annotated drawings of the different stages of mitosis.

(See Practical Investigation 5.1 in the Practical
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Workbook for additional information.)

es
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possible to understand the reason for this without

5.5 The role of telomeres
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a detailed knowledge of replication.) If part of the

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DNA is not copied, that piece of information is lost.

You have seen that DNA is replicated (copied) during
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At each subsequent division, another small section of

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the S phase of the cell cycle. The copying enzyme cannot

y

information from the end of the DNA strand would be

ev

run to the end of a strand of DNA and complete the

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lost. Eventually, the loss of vital genes would result in

replication – it stops a little short of the end. (It is not
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cell death.
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5 The mitotic cell cycle

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The main function of telomeres is to ensure that the adding bases to telomeres is called telomerase. The main

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ends of the molecule are included in the replication function of telomeres is therefore to prevent the loss

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and not left out when DNA is replicated. Telomeres of genes during cell division and to allow continued

ev
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are found at the ends of chromosomes (see Figure 5.11
am replication of a cell.

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and also Figure 5.4). They have been compared with
Some cells do not ‘top up’ their telomeres at each
the plastic tips on the ends of shoe laces. Telomeres
division. These tend to be fully differentiated
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are made of DNA with short base sequences that are

s
(specialised) cells. With each division, their telomeres get

es
repeated many times (‘multiple repeat sequences’).
a little shorter until the vital DNA is no longer protected
y

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Telomeres work by making the DNA a bit longer. They and the cell dies. This could be one of the mechanisms
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have no useful information, but allow the copying of ageing, by which humans grow old and die. This, of

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enzyme to complete copying all the meaningful DNA. course, suggests that by somehow preventing the loss of
As long as extra bases are added to the telomere during telomeres scientists might be able to slow down or even

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each cell cycle to replace those that are not copied, no prevent the process of ageing (see ‘Why grow old?’ at the
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vital information will be lost from the non-telomere beginning of the chapter).

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DNA and the cell will be able to continue dividing
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successfully. The enzyme that performs the role of

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5.6 The role of stem cells
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A stem cell is a cell that can divide an unlimited number

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of times (by mitosis). When it divides, each new cell

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has the potential to remain a stem cell or to develop

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(differentiate) into a specialised cell such as a blood cell
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or a muscle cell.
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The power of a stem cell to produce different types of

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cell is variable and is referred to as its potency. Stem

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cells that can produce any type of cell are described as

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totipotent. The zygote formed by the fusion of a sperm

with an egg at fertilisation is totipotent, as are all the
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cells up to the 16-cell stage of development in humans.

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After that, some cells become specialised to form the

y
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placenta, while others lose this ability but can form all
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the cells that will lead to the development of the embryo

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and later the adult. These embryonic stem cells are

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described as pluripotent.
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As tissues, organs and systems develop, cells become

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more and more specialised. There are more than

am

200 different types of cell in an adult human body.

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KEY WORDS
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telomere: repetitive sequence of DNA at the

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end of a chromosome that protects genes from

the chromosome shortening that happens at
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Figure 5.11: Coloured scanning electron micrographs of each cell division

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human chromosomes showing the location of telomeres

stem cell: a relatively unspecialised cell that
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at the ends of the chromosomes. Chromatids and

retains the ability to divide an unlimited number
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centromeres are also clearly visible. Telomeres contain

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of times, and which has the potential to become a

short repeated sequences of DNA. As cells replicate and
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specialised cell (such as a blood cell or muscle cell)

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age, the telomeres gradually get shorter. Stem cells are an

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exception.
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Question Cancers illustrate the importance of controlling cell

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division precisely, because cancers are a result of

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8 As a result of mitosis, all 200+ different types of uncontrolled mitosis. Cancerous cells divide repeatedly

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cell contain the same set of genes as the zygote.
am and form a tumour, which is an irregular mass of cells.

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Genes control the activities of cells. What does this Figure 5.12 shows a tumour in the lung of a patient who
suggest about the mechanism by which cells become died of lung cancer compared to a healthy lung (from
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different? a patient who died from some other cause). Worldwide,

s
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lung cancer kills more people than any other cancer.
The more ‘committed’ cells become to particular roles,
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Cancer cells usually show abnormal changes in shape

Pr
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the more they lose the ability to divide until, in the (Figure 5.13).
adult, most cells do not divide. However, for growth and

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repair it is essential that small populations of stem cells Cancers start when changes occur in the genes that
control cell division. A change in any gene is called

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remain which can produce new cells. Adult stem cells

a mutation. The term for a mutated gene that causes
ie

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have already lost some of the potency associated with
cancer is an oncogene, from the Greek word ‘onkos’

y
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embryonic stem cells and are no longer pluripotent.

op
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They are only able to produce a few types of cell and meaning bulk or mass. Mutations causing cancer can be
R

inherited but most of the mutations that cause cancers

C
may be described as multipotent. For example, the
occur over the course of the lifetime of an individual.
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stem cells found in bone marrow are of this type. They

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can replicate any number of times, but can produce Mutations are not unusual events, and most of the

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only blood cells, such as red blood cells, monocytes, time they do not lead to cancer. Most mutated cells are

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neutrophils and lymphocytes. Mature blood cells have affected in some way that results in their early death
or their destruction by the body’s immune system.
am

a relatively short lifespan, so the existence of these stem

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cells is essential. For example, around 250 billion red Most cells can be replaced, so mutation usually has no
harmful effect on the body. Unfortunately, cancer cells
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blood cells and 20 billion white blood cells are lost and
s

manage to escape both cell death and destruction so,

es

must be replaced each day.

although the mutation may originally occur in only one
y

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In the adult, stem cells are found throughout the body – cell, it is passed on to all that cell’s descendants. By the
op

for example, in the bone marrow, skin, gut, heart and time it is detected, a typical tumour usually contains
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brain. Research into stem cells has opened up some about a billion cancer cells. Any agent, such as asbestos,
exciting medical applications. Stem cell therapy is the that causes cancer is called a carcinogen and is described
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introduction of new adult stem cells into damaged tissue as carcinogenic.

ie

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to treat disease or injury. Bone marrow transplantation

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Although you do not need to know about different

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is an example of this therapy that has progressed beyond

types of tumour, you may be interested to know that
R

the experimental stage into routine medical practice. It

C

is used to treat blood and bone marrow diseases, and not all tumours are cancerous. Some tumours do not
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spread from their site of origin – these are known as

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blood cancers such as leukaemia. In the future, it is

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hoped to be able to treat conditions such as diabetes,

KEY WORDS
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muscle and nerve damage, and brain disorders such as

br

Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases. Experiments

am

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with growing new tissues, or even organs, from isolated cancers: a group of diseases that result from
stem cells in the laboratory have also been conducted. a breakdown in the usual control mechanisms
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that regulate cell division; certain cells divide

s
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uncontrollably and form tumours, from which

cells may break away and form secondary
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5.7 Cancers
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tumours in other areas of the body (metastasis)

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In high-income countries, cancers cause roughly one in mutation: a random change in the base
rs

sequence (structure) of DNA (a gene

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four deaths. Globally, cancers account for about one

mutation), or in the structure and/or number of
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in six deaths (9.6 million people in 2018). This makes

y

cancers second only to cardiovascular disease as a cause chromosomes (a chromosome mutation)

ev

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of death. There are more than 200 different forms of

carcinogen: a substance or environmental factor
R

cancer, and the medical profession no longer thinks of

C

that can cause cancer

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cancers as a single disease.

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5 The mitotic cell cycle

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a a

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Figure 5.13: a False-colour scanning electron micrograph

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of a cancer cell (red) and white blood cells (orange and

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yellow). White blood cells gather at cancer sites as an

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immune response. They are beginning to flow around

the cancer cell, which they will kill using toxic chemicals
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(×4500). b False-colour transmission electron micrograph

s
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(TEM) of abnormal white blood cells isolated from

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the blood of a person with hairy-cell leukaemia. The

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white blood cells are covered with characteristic hair-

like cytoplasmic projections. Leukaemia is a disease in
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which the bone marrow and other blood-forming organs

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produce too many of certain types of white blood cells.

ie

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These immature or abnormal cells suppress the normal

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Figure 5.12: a Lung of a patient who died of lung cancer, production of white and red blood cells, and increase the
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showing rounded deposits of tumour (white area at bottom patient’s susceptibility to infection (×6400).
R

of picture). Black tarry deposits throughout the lung show the

C
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patient was a heavy smoker. b Section of a healthy human

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lung. No black tar deposits are visible.

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benign tumours; warts are a good example. It is only it can be very hard to find the secondary cancers and

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tumours that spread through the body, invading and remove them.

ie
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destroying other tissues, that cause cancer. These are

ev
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The steps involved in the development of cancer are
known as malignant tumours. Malignant tumours
am shown in Figure 5.14.

-R
interfere with the normal functioning of the area
where they have started to grow. They may block the
-C

intestines, lungs or blood vessels. Cells can break off

s
Question

es
and spread through the blood and lymphatic system
y

to other parts of the body to form secondary growths. 9

Pr
Research is being carried out into ways of
op

The spread of cancers in this way is called metastasis. It inactivating the enzyme telomerase in cancer cells.
is the most dangerous characteristic of cancer because

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Explain the reason for this.

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Carcinogens cause mutations.

y
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e.g. UV light 2 Cancerous cell
does not respond
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1 Oncogenes
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tar in tobacco

C
transformed to signals from
smoke
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by carcinogens. other cells so

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asbestos continues to divide.

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X-rays

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3 Mitosis
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6 Tumour gets bigger.
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Cells change their

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4 Cancerous cells
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characteristics and not removed by

look different under
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5 Rapid mitosis immune system.

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the microscope.
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absorption of
nutrients
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7 Tumour supplied
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8 Metastasis. Tumour
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with blood and

cells invade other
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lymph vessels.
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tissues. Secondary
Tumour cells spread
cancers form
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in blood and lymph

throughout the
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to other parts of the

body.
body.
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Figure 5.14: Stages in the development of cancer.

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REFLECTION
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Make a set of two pairs of chromosomes (one short pair, one long pair so they can easily be distinguished)
as in Figure 5.6 late prophase. Use pipe-cleaners or Pop or Poppit beads which can be joined together to
rs
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represent chromatids. Use two different colours if possible (to represent their origins from male and female
ie

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parents), though this is not essential.

y
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Use these model chromosomes to test your understanding of the stages of mitosis. It is useful to draw a
R

large spindle on a large sheet of paper on which the model chromosomes can be moved appropriately.
e

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5 The mitotic cell cycle

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CONTINUED

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Personal reflection question

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What did you enjoy about this activity? What parts of it did you particularly like or dislike? Why? Will it help

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you to remember the process of mitosis?
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Final reflection

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Discuss with a friend which, if any, parts of Chapter 5 you need to:
y

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• read through again to make sure you really understand

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• seek more guidance on, even after going over it again.

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SUMMARY

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Chromosomes are made of chromatin. Chromatin consists mainly of DNA wrapped around basic protein

ie
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molecules called histones.

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During nuclear division chromosomes become visible and are seen to consist of two chromatids held together
am

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by a centromere. Each chromatid contains one DNA molecule.
-C

Growth of a multicellular organism is a result of cells dividing to produce genetically identical daughter cells.
s
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During cell division, the nucleus divides first, followed by division of the whole cell. Division of a nucleus
y

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to produce two genetically identical nuclei is achieved by the process of mitosis. Mitosis is divided into four
phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
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Mitosis is used in growth, repair, asexual reproduction and cloning of cells during an immune response.
rs
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The period from one cell division to the next is called the cell cycle. It has four phases: G1 is the first growth
y
phase after cell division; S phase is when the DNA replicates; G2 is a second growth phase; M phase is when
ev

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nuclear division takes place (followed by cell division).

R

The ends of chromosomes are capped with special regions of DNA known as telomeres. Telomeres are needed
ge

to prevent the loss of genes from the ends of chromosomes during replication of DNA.
ie
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Many specialised cells lose the ability to divide, but certain cells known as stem cells retain this ability. Stem
ev
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cells are essential for growth from zygote to adult and for cell replacement and tissue repair in the adult.
am

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The behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis can be observed in stained preparations of root tips, either in
section or in squashes of whole root tips.
-C

s
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Cancers are tumours resulting from repeated and uncontrolled mitosis. They are thought to start as the result
y

of mutation.
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EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

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1 During prophase of mitosis, chromosomes consist of two chromatids.

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At which stage of the cell cycle is the second chromatid made?
am

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A cytokinesis
B G1
-C

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C G2
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D S [1]

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2 Growth of cells and their division are balanced during the cell cycle. Which

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column shows the consequences that would follow from the two errors
shown in the table? [1]

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Consequence
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Error
A B C D
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C
speeding up larger and larger and smaller and smaller and
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the growth rate larger cells larger cells smaller cells smaller cells

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without speeding
id

up the cell cycle

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speeding up the larger and smaller and larger and smaller and
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cell cycle without larger cells smaller cells larger cells smaller cells
speeding up the
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growth rate
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3 A cell with four chromosomes undergoes a cell cycle including mitosis. Which
op

diagram correctly shows the changes in chromatid number during interphase?

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2 chromatids 4 chromatids 4 chromatids 8 chromatids

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S phase S phase S phase S phase

cell cell cell cell
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mitosis division mitosis division mitosis division mitosis

division
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4 chromatids 2 chromatids 8 chromatids 4 chromatids

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A B C D
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[1]
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4 Cell potency refers to the varying ability of stem cells to:

am

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A create more copies of themselves

B differentiate into different cell types
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C produce different types of blood cells

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D stimulate growth of tissues [1]

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5 Stem cells found in bone marrow are:

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A multipotent
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B omnipotent
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C pluripotent
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D totipotent [1]
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6 Distinguish between the following terms: centrosome, centriole and

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centromere. [6]
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5 The mitotic cell cycle

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CONTINUED

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7 The diagram shows three cells (labelled A, B and C) from a root tip which has

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been stained to show chromosomes.
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A B C

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a Identify the stage of mitosis shown by each cell. [3]

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b Describe what is happening at each stage. [3]

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C
[Total: 6]
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8 a Diagram A shows a plant cell dividing by mitosis. Only two chromosomes

w
are shown for simplicity.

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nuclear envelope
A B
am

reappears
cell wall
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spindle remains of
-C

fibres spindle
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new cell wall

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forming across
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cell
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i What stage of mitosis is shown in diagram A? [1]

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ii Draw prophase for the same cell. [1]

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b Diagram B shows the same cell at telophase. The cell is beginning to divide
op
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and a new cell wall is forming, spreading out from the middle of the cell.
R

Copy the diagram and add drawings of the chromosomes as

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they would appear at this stage. [1]

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c Diagram C shows chromosomes in the nucleus of an animal cell.

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am

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Draw a diagram to show what the nucleus would look like in anaphase
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of mitosis. [3]
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[Total: 6]
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CONTINUED

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9 In Chapter 1 it was noted that microtubules are tiny tubes made by protein

ev
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subunits joining together. The protein is called tubulin. Colchicine is a natural
am

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chemical which binds to tubulin molecules, preventing the formation of
microtubules.
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a Why should the binding of colchicine to tubulin molecules interfere with

es
the formation of microtubules? [2]
y

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b What structure or structures involved in mitosis are made of microtubules? [2]

c When cells treated with colchicine are observed, the dividing cells are all

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seen to be in the same stage of mitosis. Suggest, with reasons, the identity

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of this stage. [3]

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[Total: 7]

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10 Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
R

A Centrosomes are replicated before M phase of the cell cycle begins.

C
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B Sister chromatids contain identical DNA.

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C The microtubules attached to a given kinetochore extend to both poles
id

of the spindle.

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D Microtubule polymerisation and depolymerisation is a feature of the

am

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S phase of the cell cycle.
-C

E Kinetochores are found in the centrosomes.

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F Telomeres are the sites of attachment of microtubules during mitosis.

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G Sister chromatids remain paired as they line up on the spindle at metaphase.

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[1 mark each]
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[Total: 7]
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11 a Cancer has been described as a genetic disease. Explain why. [2]

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b Define the term carcinogen. [1]
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COMMAND WORD
c The diagram on the next page shows the number of people suffering from
R

cancer worldwide, separated into different age categories. It also shows Define: give the
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changes between the years 1990 and 2016.

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precise meaning.
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i State the age category in which cancer is most common. [1]

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ii Suggest why this age group has the greatest number of cancer cases. [3]
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5 The mitotic cell cycle

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CONTINUED
COMMAND WORD

ie
id
iii Comment on the overall changes shown between 1990 and 2016. [5]

ev
br
Comment: give an
am [Total: 12] informed opinion.

-R
40
-C

s
es
70+
y

30

Pr
op
Millions

ity
C

20
50–69

rs
w
ie

ve
10

y
ev

15–49

op
ni

under 15
R

C
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
ge

w
ie
id

ev
br
am

-R
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
-C

s
es

After studying this chapter, complete a table like this:

y

Pr
op

See Needs Almost Ready to

I can
section... more work there move on
ity
C

describe the structure of chromosomes 5.2

rs
w
ie

outline the cell cycle – the cycle of events by 5.3

ve

y
which body cells grow to a certain size and then
ev

op
ni

divide into two

R

describe the behaviour of chromosomes during 5.4

ge

mitosis and the associated behaviour of the

w

nuclear envelope, the cell surface membrane and

ie
id

the spindle
ev
br

identify stages of mitosis in photomicrographs, 5.4

am

-R

diagrams and microscope slides

explain the importance of mitosis 5.4
-C

outline the role of telomeres 5.5

es
y

outline the role of stem cells 5.6

Pr
op

explain how uncontrolled cell division can lead 5.7

ity
C

to cancer
rs
w
ie

ve

y
ev

op
ni
R

C
e

w
g

ie
id

ev
br
am

-R

141
-C

s
es

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