CHAPTER 2

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

2.1 INTRDUCTION

Soil classification is the arrangement of soil into different groups such that the soil in particular group shows
similar behavior. It is sort of labelling soil with different labels. Soil may be classified in general way as
cohesive vs cohesionless, fine grained vs coarse grained, residual vs transported soil etc. However these
terms are too general and cover too wide range of physical and engineering properties. So a more refined
classification is necessary to determine the soil for specific engineering purposes. Therefor these terms are
collected into soil classification systems usually with some specific engineering purpose in mind. A number
of classification system hs been proposed since 1st quarter of 20th century.

For classification system to be useful to geotechnical enginner, classification system should exhibit
following basic requirements:

1. It should have limited number of groups.

2. It should be based on that engineering properties which is most closely connected for the
purpose the classification has been made.
In most of cases a geotechnical engineer is interested in knowing the suitability of soil for the
foundation or a construction material. For this large number of tests are required. However
approximate assessment can be made from index properties of soil. So index properties are also
called as classification properties. The engineering properties discussed in this point is also
index properties. ( Grain size and Atterberg limits)
3. It should be simple and should use the term which are easily understood.

Most classification system which are developed satisfy the following requirements.

NEED OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Classification system provides a common language between engineers dealing with soils. It is useful in
exchange of information and experience between geotechnical engineers. For example if a soil has been
classified as SW as per USCS, the geotechnical engineer anywhere in world knows the soil is well graded
sand and its properties are it is quite pervious, has low compressibility, high shear strength. This all
information is exchanged by two letters ‘S’ and ‘W’.
[Note:- जसरी मान्छे को जनरल चररत्र उस्को रशी बाट थाहा हुन्छ र उस्को सम्पू र्ण गुर् को लागग उस्को गचना आव्श् एक
पछण , तेसै गरी soil classification ले soil ko जनरल charaterstics info मात्र गिन्छ। सबै engineering
properties को लागग सबै engineering properties हे रु को टे स्ट गनुण पने हुन्छ। ]

ROLE OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Classification and index

properties

(w, e, γ, s, GSD, LL, PI etc.)

Classification System

“Language”

Engineering Properties

Permeability, Shear strength,

Compressibility, Swell-Shrinkage
etc.

Engineering Purpose

(Foundation, Dams, Highways,

Airfields etc)

2.2 FIELD IDENTIFICATIOIN OF SOIL

When laboratory facilities are not available, some simple field tests can help you distinguish soil types and
determine gradation, plasticity and dispersion:

Gradation To judge gradation of dry soil, spread a sample on a flat surface. Separate the larger and smaller
particles with a piece of stiff paper or cardboard. Estimate the percentage of particles larger than 1/4 in.
(6mm) and the percentage of fines - individual grains too small for you to see with the unaided eye. Finally,
gauge whether the larger particles are uniform in size (poorly graded) or have an assortment of sizes (well
graded).

Figure 1 - Gradation Test

If the soil is wet, break a lump apart. Estimate the percentage of large particles as in the dry soil method.
To find the percentage of fines, put just enough water in a clear glass to cover the bottom and fill the glass
1/4 full with soil. Then add enough water to just cover the soil and mark this level with a rubber band.

Figure 2 - Percent of Fines

Now add water to the 3/4 mark and stir the mixture vigorously. After it settles for a minute and a half, mark
the height of soil that has settled out. The difference between the two marks as a portion of the height of
the upper mark approximates the percentage of fines.

Plasticity Here are four field tests for estimating a soil's plasticity.

i. The Shaking Test (Dilatancy Test): Knead a sample of the soil to work out as many large
grained particles as possible. Add water gradually and knead the soil until it begins to get
sticky.

Figure 3 - Shaking Test

Then hold the ball in one hand and tap the back of the hand with the other. If the ball becomes wet and
shiny, it is mostly fine sand or silt. No reaction suggests clay.

ii. The Toughness Test: Use the ball from the shaking test. Knead about half of it until it's dry.
Then roll the soil sample into a 1/8 in. (3mm) thread or "worm". If you can't form a worm, the
soil is sand or silt or fine sand (low plasticity).
Highly plastic soils take a long time to dry and become hard and waxy. You have to exert a
lot of pressure to form a worm that breaks at about 1/8 in. diameter.

Figure 4 - Toughness Test

iii. The Dry Strength Test: Knead the other half of the sample into a ball and let it air dry. Then
break it apart and select a jagged, pointy fragment. Try to crush this fragment between your
thumb and forefinger. A silt will turn to powder with little effort. A clay will be hard and
almost impossible to crush.
iv. Hand Washing: After handling silts and sands, your fingers will feel dusty. Rubbing them
together will almost clean them. Gently flowing water will rinse them.
If you've been handling clay, you'll find a crust on your fingers you cannot rub off. Water will
not rinse it off. You have to rub your hands together under water to cleanse them.
v. Dispersion test: Dispersion Use a dispersion test to support your gradation estimates. It will
also give you an idea of how difficult the soil will be to compact. First fill a glass 1/4 to 1/3
 full with soil and then add water to within 1/2 in. (13mm) of the top. Stir the mixture well and
set it aside.
The mixture will settle in three layers: sand at the bottom, silt in the middle and clay at the top.
Besides showing the relative amounts of the three soils, the results will indicate whether the
soil is well or poorly graded.
Although silt and clay particles are smaller than the eye can see, gradation difference will show
up as color differences. Also, the longer it takes a layer to settle, the smaller the particles.
Usually, a single particle size (poor gradation) and a small particle size mean more difficult
compaction than a mix with good gradation.

Figure 5 - Dispersion Test

Summary of Identifying Clues

To summarize how various soil types react to the field tests:

1. Clay - No reaction to the shaking test; a tough worm that dries out slowly; a crusty dry residue that
is hard to remove from the hands.
2. Silts - Rapid reaction to the shaking test; a weak or crumbly worm; powdery residue that is easily
wiped or washed off the hands.
3. Silt and Clay Mixtures - Intermediate or conflicting reactions to hand tests.
4. Sand or Gravel with a few Fine Clays - Enough clay to soil the hand when you knead a wet sample,
but not enough to form a lump.
5. Sand or Gravel with Silt Fines - Dusty or gritty fines.
6. Clean Sands and Gravels - Added water sinks in immediately without making mud.
Soil Test Checklist

Watch for these possible reactions when you are using in-field do-it-yourself soil tests.

1. No reaction to the shaking test, a tough worm that dries slowly, and a crusty residue that is hard to remove
from your hands indicates the soil is clay.

2. Rapid reaction to the shaking test, a weak or crumbly worm, and powdery residue that washes easily
from your hands indicates silt.

3. Intermediate or conflicting reaction to hand tests indicate silt as well as clay mixtures.

4. Enough clay to soil your hands when you knead a sample, but not enough to form a lump indicates sand
or gravel with a few fine clays.

5. Dusty or gritty fines indicates sand or gravel with silt fines.

6. When added water sinks in immediately without making mud, you will have clean sands and gravels

2.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

1. Particle size classification systems

A.
i. MIT system
ii. International classification system
iii. US Bureau of soil classification
iv. IS classification
B. Textural Classification system
2. Classification system based on both particle size and plasticity characteristics
a. Unified soil classification system (USCS)
b. Indian standard soil classification system (ISSCS)
c. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
d. British Standard Soil Classification System (BSSCS)

The size of particle has important influence on the behavior of soil. So the researchers tried to
classify the soil based on their size at first. Based on this system soil is mainly categorized under
four sub groups i.e. gravel size, sand size, silt size and clay size. It is better to use term silt size than
just silt because in case of fine grained soil the term silt and clay only may be misleading. As for
example rock flour when grinded to clay and silt size don’t exhibit the plasticity characteristics as
 shown by clay and silt. So better to use term silt and clay sized than silt and clay only in case of
particle size classification system.

i. MIT System:- This system is developed by professor G. Gilboy at Massachusettes

Institute of Technology of USA. It divides soil into 4 category.
a. Gravel for size > 2 mm
b. Sand for size between 0.06mm to 2 mm
c. Silt sized particle for size between 0.002 to 0.06 mm
d. Clay sized particle for size < 0.002 mm

Figure 1MIT soil classification system

ii. U.S. Bureau of soil classification (1895)

Figure 2 U.S. Bureau of soil classification

iii. International Classification System (Swedish system, 1927)

Figure 3 International Classification System

 iv. IS Classification

Figure 4 IS classification

B. Textural Classification system (triangular classification by US Bureau of Public Roads)

Texture means the visual appearance of soil which is governed by its particle shape, size and its gradation.
As the terms shape and gradation are difficult to incorporate, the textural classification system classify soil
on basis of size of particle. The term texture is used to express the percentage of three constituents of soil
namely sand, silt and clay.

Figure 5 textural classification adopted from US Bureau of Public Roads

According to the classification system, the constituents of sand silt and clay expressed in percentage are
plotted on the side of equilateral triangle on the chart shown above. The chart divides soil into 11 categories.
The key provided on right helps to locate the soil in corresponding 11 categories. For example if soil sample
taken contains sand 30%, silt sized particle 30% and clay sized particle 40% then with help of key a line
drawn parallel to clay side from sand, line drawn parallel to sand side from silt and line drawn parallel to
silt side from clay intersect at point ‘A’ shown in figure which lies in clay category or zone. So the soil
sample taken is classified as clay.

The assumption of this classification system is that it does not contain particle larger than 2mm. If there is
particles larger than 2mm then constituents of sand, silt and clay must be modified. For example if the is
20 % particle larger than 2mm (i.e. sand size), then summation of sand, silt and clay is 80%. Now modified
constituents of sand, silt and clay is obtained by multiplying the corresponding percentages by 100/80 so
that corrected sum of percentages of textures is now 100%. Now this corrected percentages are plotted on
the chart is get the classification.

This classification system includes the terms as loam to describe mixture of sand silt and clay which is
rather a agricultural term than engineering term where its use is limited. So Mississipi River Commission
USA proposed modified triangular diagram.

Figure 6 Modified Triangular Diagram as per Mississipi River Comission

It replaces the loam term by terms as silty clay, clayey silt, silty sand etc. The major fraction is indicated
by the noun and minor fraction by adjective. Here in silty clay, the major fration is clay and traces of silt is
also present.

It must be noted that the behavior of soil containing mixture of silt, sand and clay is not governed by the
constituents containing larger proportion. If in a mixture if proportion of clay is greater than about 30%
then the mixture shows the behavior of clay. This information has been shown on the modified chart.

Since the sum of sand, silt and clay is 100%, there is no need to plot all three constituents. This information
leads to development of Right Triangle Chart. In Right triangle chart, the two perpendicular sides will
represent clay and silt percentage. Clay and silt is represented in the right triangle

The percentage of sand particles = 100% – (sum of percentages of silt and clay).

Figure 7 Right Triangle Chart

From figure, the lines of intersection of silt and clay will give the textural classification. The right triangle
diagram is more convenient than a triangular diagram. The right triangle diagram consists of orthogonal
lines which make the point location easy.

Classification system based on both particle size and plasticity characteristics

a. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

It was developed by Casagrande (1948) and later modified by US bureau of Reclamation and Corps of
Engineers of USA on 1952. It is later adopted by American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM). It is most
popular system for use in all type engineering problem involving soil. The general symbol used in this
system are tabulated as follows:

Symbol Description

Primary G Gravel

S Sand

M Silt (obtained from swidesh word Mo)

C Clay

O Organic

Pt Peat

Secondary W Well graded

P Poorly graded

M Silty (non-plastic fines)

C Clayey (plastic fines)

L Low Plasticity

H High Plasticity
As it is based on both particle size and plasticity charcteristics, the test that needs to performd for the
classification are grain size distribution tests (i.e. sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis) and Atterberg
limit tests ( LL test, PL test).

It is easier to understand the classification system based on the plasticity chart and tree diagram as shown
below.

L H

PI

LL

(Holtz and Kovacs,)

The USCS classify soil into major three category. They are
 i. Coarse grained soil
ii. Fine grained soil
iii. Highly organic soil (peats)

To categorize into this general groups, soil sample should be first sieved through 75μ sieve (sieve no. 200).
If mass retained is greater than 50 % then it is coarse grained soil and if mass passing on this 75μ is greater
than 50% of total mass taken then it is fine gained soil. It should be noted that soil is identified or named
based on the major fraction present in soil.

A. If identified soil is coarse grained, then USCS further classify coarse grained soil into either Gravel
or Sand based on the GSD of coarser fraction (fraction retained on 75μ sieve). If coarser fraction
when sieved through 4.75mm sieve (sieve no. 4) retains more than 50% mass then it is Gravel else
if more than 50% mass passes through 4.75mm sieve then it is Sand. The primary symbol for gravel
is ‘G’ and for sand it is ‘S’.

If the soil is gravel (mass retained in 4.75 mm sieve is >50%) then gravel is further categorized into
following three categories based on the amount of fines present in the soil.

i. Fines (mass of soil passing through 75μ sieve) <5%:- if fines present is less than 5% then soil
is categorized as clean Gravel and denoted by symbols either GW (well graded gravel) or GP
(poorly graded gravel). The classification criteria for well graded gravel (GW) is that the
gradation parameter Cu>4 and Cc between 1 and 3. If any of the classification criteria for well
graded gravel is violated then it is poorly graded gravel.
ii. Fines (mass of soil passing through 75μ sieve) > 12%:- if fines present is greater than 12% then
it is called Gravel with fines. Gravel with fines can be Clayey Gravel (GC) or Silty Gravel
(GM). The traces of type of fines is used as adjective (C or M) during naming and major fraction
which is gravel is used as noun (G). The classification criteria for the type of fines (clayey or
silty) depends upon the plasticity chart provided above. The liquid limit and plastic limit of
fraction passing 425μ should be obtained and after plotting in plasticity chart if lied above A-
line then fines is clay else if lied below A-line then fines is silt.
iii. Fines (mass of soil passing through 75μ sieve) between 5% and 12% :-if fines present in soil
sample taken whose major fraction is Gravel is between 5 and 12% then it shows behavior of
both type of soil enlisted in i) and ii) so gravel is named with the help of symbols used in i) and
ii). That is gravel can be well graded gravel-clayey gravel (GW-GC) or well graded gravel-
silty gravel (GW-GM) or poorly graded gravel-clayey gravel (GP-GC) or poorly graded
gravel-silty gravel (GP-GM).
If the soil is sand (mass retained in 4.75 mm sieve is <50%) then sand is further categorized into following
three categories based on the amount of fines present in the soil.

i. Fines (mass of soil passing through 75μ sieve) <5%:- if fines present is less than 5% then soil
is categorized as clean Sand and denoted by symbols either SW (well graded sand) or SP
(poorly graded sand). The classification criteria for well graded sand (SW) is that the gradation
parameter Cu>6 and Cc between 1 and 3. If any of the classification criteria for well graded
sand is violated then it is poorly graded gravel.
ii. Fines (mass of soil passing through 75μ sieve) > 12%:- if fines present is greater than 12% then
it is called sand with fines. Sand with fines can be Clayey Sand (SC) or Silty Sand (SM). The
traces of type of fines is used as adjective (C or M) during naming and major fraction which is
sand is used as noun (S). The classification criteria for the type of fines (clayey or silty) depends
upon the plasticity chart provided above. The liquid limit and plastic limit of fraction passing
425μ should be obtained and after plotting in plasticity chart if lied above A-line then fines is
clay else if lied below A-line then fines is silt.
iii. Fines (mass of soil passing through 75μ sieve) between 5% and 12% :-if fines present in soil
sample taken whose major fraction is Sand is between 5 and 12% then it shows behavior of
both type of soil enlisted in i) and ii) so sand is named with the help of symbols used in i) and
ii). That is sand can be well graded sand-clayey gravel (SW-SC) or well graded sand- silty
sand (SW-SM) or poorly graded sand-clayey gravel (SP-SC) or poorly graded sand-silty
sand (SP-SM).
B. If fraction of mass passing 75μ is greater than 50% then soil becomes fined grained soil. Fined
grained soil is further classified into clay and silt based upon the plasticity characteristics of fraction
passing 75 μ sieve. The LL value and its plasticity index (PI) is plotted in plasticity chart. If plot
lies above A-line then it is inorganic clay(C) and if plot lies below A-line then it is inorganic silt
(M). Further organic silt and clay also exists represented by symbol ‘O’. “The soil’s liquid limit
(LL) after oven drying is less than 30 % of its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above
statement is true, then the first symbol is ‘O’. The second symbol ‘L’ or ‘H’ is also used with ‘O’
which is obtained by locating the values of PI and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
Clay and silt is further classified as high plastic and low plastic based upon its Liquid Limit (LL)
value. If LL<50% then it lies in category of low plasticity and if LL>50% then the soil is high
plastic. So following symbols for fine grained soil refers as:
CL-inorganic clay of low plasticity
 CH- inorganic clay of high plasticity
OH – organic clay of high plasticity
ML- inorganic silt of low plasticity
MH-inorganic silt of high plasticity
OL-organic silt of low pasticity
[Note:- organic clay of low plasticity and organic silt of high plasticity doesn’t exists.]
C. Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol Pt)
A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition and has a
fibrous to amorphous texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an organic odor should be
designated as a highly organic soil and shall be classified as peat, Pt.

Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)

For the following conditions, a dual symbol should be used.

i. Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.

 About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the coarse-grained media
by orders of magnitude.

 The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or poorly graded.
The second symbol describe the contained fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly
graded sand with silt.

ii. For coarse grained soil with fines >15%

If plasticity plot of fines (fraction passing 425μ) on hatched zone on plasticity chart then
dual symbol is used to describe the soil. Which can be GM-GC or SM-SC

iii. Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI between 4 and 7 and LL between
about 12 and 25).

 It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike materials.

 CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.

iv. Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.

 Possible dual symbols GM-ML, GM-MH, GC-CL, GC-CH, SM-ML, SM-MH,

SC-CL, SC-CH.
Example

Classify according to unified soil classification system

i. Soil passing from 75μ sieve = 4%, soil passing from 4.75 mm sieve = 62%, coefficient of
uniformity = 5 and coefficient of curvature = 2.6
ii. Soil passing from 75μ sieve = 62%, Liquid Limit = 54%, plastic limit = 23%
iii. Soil passing from 75 μ sieve = 39%, Liquid Limit = 33%, Plastic Limit = 28%
[TU 2073 Bhadra]

Solution:

i. - As soil passing 75 μ is less than 50%, it is coarse grained soil.

- As coarse fraction i.e. size greater than 75 μ when sieved through 4.75 mm, more than 50%
passes, so the soil is sand (S).
- As the fines present (fraction passing 75 μ) is less than 5% so it is clean sand.
- As Cu is not greater than 6 which is 5 provided, it violates the classification criteria for
well graded sand. So the soil can be classified as poorly graded sand with symbol as SP.

ii. - As soil passing 75 μ is greater than 50%, it is fine grained soil.

- In case of fine grained soil, the plasticity characteristics of fines governs whether soil is silt
or clay. The PI value on A-line for observed LL = 54% can be obtained through equation
of A-line which is PI = 0.73(LL-20).
 PI Value on A line for observed value LL = 0.73(54-20) = 24.8%
As the observed value of PI which is 23%<24.8% so plasticity plot lies below A-line. So
the soil is silt (M).
- As LL = 54% is greater than 50% so the silt lies on high plastic region. So soil can be
classified as inorganic silt of high plasticity. (MH)

iii. - As soil passing 75 μ is greater than 50%, it is fine grained soil.

- In case of fine grained soil, the plasticity characteristics of fines governs whether soil is silt
or clay. The PI value on A-line for observed LL = 33% can be obtained through equation
of A-line which is PI = 0.73(LL-20).
PI Value on A line for observed value LL = 0.73(33-20) = 9.5%
As the observed value of PI which is 28% > 9.5% so plasticity plot lies above A-line. So
the soil is clay (C).
- As LL = 33% is less than 50% so the silt lies on high plastic region. So soil can be classified
as inorganic clay of low plasticity. (CL)
a. Indian Soil Classification System (ISSCS)

Indian standard system classify soil similarly to USCS with basic difference only in classification of fine
grained soil. ISSCS classify coarser soil in exactly same manner as in USCS system. In case of fine grained
soil, ISSCS sub divide the plasticity chart in three category of low, intermediate and high compressibility
(plasticity).

Figure 8 Plasticit chart (ISSC)

The classification includes the classification of

a. Coarse gained soil, b. fined grained soil and highly Organic soil (peat) which can be seen below on
the flow chart shown.

Table 1Basic soil component in ISSCS system

Soil Soil components Symbol Particle size range and description

coarse Boulder None Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle with
grained average diameter more than 300 mm.
component
Cobble None Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle with
average diameter less than 300 mm and retained on
80mm IS sieve.

Gravel G Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle with

average diameter passing 80 mm IS sieveand retained
on 4.75mm IS sieve.

Coarse: 80mm to 20mm IS sieve.

Fine: 20 mm to 4.75 mm IS sieve.

Sand S Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle with

average Passing 4.75 mm IS sieve and retained on 75μ
IS sieve.

Coarse: 4.75mm to 2.0 mm IS sieve.

Medium: 2.00 mm to 425μ mm IS sieve.

Fine: 425μ to 75μ IS sieve.

Fine grained Silt M Particle smaller than 75μ identified by behavior that is
components slightly plastic or non-plastic regardless of moisture
and exhibit little or no strength when air dried.
Clay C Particle smaller than 75μ identified by behavior that is
highly plastic and exhibit considerable strength when
air dried.

Organic Matter O Organic matter in various size and stage of

decomposition.
OH
Dual symbol classification for ISSCS

Sometimes soil exhibit particle size distribution and plasticity characteristics of more than 1 group, in such
cases soil are not possible to classify by 18 groups provided by ISSCS. So boundary classification occurs
and dual symbol are used to classify soil.

a. Boundary classification in Coarse grained soil

- For fines between 5-12%, following classification is common.
GM-GC (for plasticity characteristics in hatched zone), GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, , SM-
SC (for plasticity characteristics in hatched zone), SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM
- For same gravel and sand fraction following boundary classification can be used.
GW-SW or GP-SP (for fines <5%), GM-SM or GC-SC (for fines >12%)
b. Boundary classification in Fine grained soil
- For soil lying on hatched zone ML-CL is used.
- For soil lying near to A-line, ML-CL, MI-CI, MH-CH, CL-OL, CI-OI, MH-OH are used.
[Note, silt is used before clay and clay used before organic soil.]
- Soil lying on boundary of different compressibility values dual symbols are used.
ML-MI, MI-MH, CL-CI, CI-CH, OL-OI, OI-OH
c. Boundary classification between coarse and fine grained soil for soil containing nearly equal
fraction of coarser and finer particles.
- SM-ML, SC-CL, GM-MI etc.
Numerical Example
The following data refers to classification test on cement clinker grinding unit. Classify soil as per ISSCS.

Sieve size % finer

Sample 1 Sample2 Sample 3

4.75 mm 100.00 100.00 100.00

2.00 mm 100.00 99.25 100.00

1.00 mm 99.80 98.75 99.90

450 micron 99.65 98.00 99.70

212micron 98.95 54.15 90.00

150 micron 97.55 7.60 81.50

75 micron 96.85 6.00 63.00

LL 23.00 - -

PL 16.77 - -

PI 6.23 Non plastic Non-plastic

Solution:
Sample 1
Since soil passing 75 micron is 96.85>50%, it is fine grained soil. So to further classify fine grained soil,
plotting its LL and PI value in plasticity chart give location on hatched zone. So it lies on boundary
classification of fine grained soil and classified as CL-ML.
Sample2
Since fraction passing 75 micron is only 6%< 50%, it is coarse grained soil.
As fraction passing 4.75 mm sieve is 100 %, so coarser fraction is sand.
As fine lies between 5-12% (6%), it again lies on boundary classification for coarse grained soil. Cu and
Cc values of coarser fraction should be calculated and LL and PI value of fine is required but fines is non-
plastic without value of LL and PI, so fines is of silty nature.
 GSD sample 2
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.01 0.1 1 10

Cu = D60/D10, and after plotting GSD for sample 2, we can find D30 = 0.19, D60 = 0.22 and D10 = 0.16, so Cu
= 1.38 < 6 and
Cc = D302/ (D60* D10) = 0.192/(0.22*0.16) = 1.03, lies between 1 and 3.
As Cu<6 soil is poorly graded. So soil can be classified as SP-SM.
Sample3
Soil is fine grained as more than 50% passes 75 micron sieve (63%). Further soil is non-plastic. So soil is
ML.

Example 2
Classify soil as per ISSCS on the basis of data provided and identify data required in case of insufficient
data.

soil LL PL % passing % gavel % sand

75μ >4.75mm (4.75mm -
75μ)

A 450 50 100 0 0

B 34 20 80 0 20

C 60 30 90 0 10

D - Non-plastic 100 0 0

E 35 20 20 60 20

F - Non-plastic 10 20 70
Solution:
Soil A: It is fine grained soil as % passing 75 micron is 100%>50%. As per its LL =450 and PI = 450-50 =
400, it lies above A – line and highly compressible region. So soil can be classified as inorganic clay of
high compressibility (CH). Usually this type of behavior is shown by Mexico City clay.
Soil B: It is fine grained soil as % passing 75 micron is 80%>50%. Plotting on plasticity chart for LL = 34
and PI = 34-20= 14 show it lies above A-line.
PI (for LL = 34) lying on A-line is 0.73(34-20) = 10.22 but observed PI = 34-20= 14 which is higher than
10.22 so lies above A-line, so it is inorganic clay.
While categorizing the compressibility, as LL =34 is near to 35% so it lies on boundary classification for
fine grained soil. So it identified as inorganic clay of low to intermediate compressibility (CL-CI).
Soil C: It is fine grained soil as % passing 75 micron is 90%>50%. Plotting on plasticity chart for LL = 60
and PI = 60-30= 30 show it lies nearly on A-line.
PI (for LL = 60) lying on A-line is 0.73(60-20) = 29.20 but observed PI = 60-30= 30 which is nearly equal
to 29.2 so lies on A-line, so it shows behavior of clay as well as silt.
While categorizing the compressibility, as LL =60 it lies on high compressible zone. So it identified as
classification for fine grained soil as CH-MH.
Soil D: It is fine grained soil as % passing 75 micron is 100%>50%. As plasticity characteristics are
unavailable, it is silt of low compressibility (ML).
Soil E: it is coarse grained soil as % passing on 75 micron sieve is only 20%<50%. The coarser fraction
present contains 60 % gravel size particles >50 % so soil as a whole is classified as gravel. As fines present
is greater than 12% (20%) for complete classification, nature of fines is to be identified based on LL and PI
values of fines.
PI (For LL = 35) lying o A-line is 0.73(35-20) = 10.95 < observed PI = 35-20 = 15. So fines present is clay.
So complete classification is clayey gravel (GC).
Soil F: it is coarse grained soil and soil is sand. The -75μ fraction is 10% that lies between 5 to 12% hence
classification lies on boarder line classification for coarse grained represented by dual symbol. As GSD
value is absent it is not possible to classify whether sand is well grade or poorly graded. Since fines present
is non-plastic it is silt. So completely soil can be classified as well graded sand and silty sand (SW-SM) or
poorly graded sand and silty sand (SP-SM).
To identify between Or’s we need Cu and Cc values of soil. (D60, D30 and D10)

AASHTO Soil Classification System

In the late 1920’s the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads (now the Federal Highway Administration) conducted
extensive research on the use of soils especially in local or secondary road construction, the so-called “farm-
to-market” roads. From that research the Public Roads Classification System was developed by
Hogentogler and Terzaghi (1929). The original system was based on the stability characteristics of soils
when used as a road surface or with a thin asphalt pavement. There are several revisions since 1929, and
the latest in 1945 is essentially the present AASHTO (1978) system.
In American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification, soil are
divided into 8 groups (A-1 to A-8). Group A-1 to A-3 represent coarser fraction, A-4 to A-7 represents finer
fraction and A-8 represent Organic soil.

A-1 and A-7 are further categorized into 2 category as A-1a and A-1b for A-1 and A-7-5 and A-7-6 for A-
7. A-2 is further categorized into 4 categories as A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6 and A-2-7.

It is also a classification system based on both particle size and plasticity characteristics of soil, so sieve
analysis and the Atterberg limit test are its fundamental tests. For classifying soil as per AASHTO after
knowing the values of particle size analysis, it is first categorized into coarse or fine fraction.

If more than 35% passes on sieve number 200 then it is fine grained soil. (It is not necessary to present finer
fraction greater than 50% to behave soil as fine grained soil which makes AASHTO different from USCS)
and if more than 65% retained on 200 number sieve then it is coarse grained soil.

For coarser fraction, check known values of particle size analysis, LL and PL values from extreme left
column i.e. A-1a. If know values satisfies A-1a then soil is classified as A-1a else parameters of next
successive column is checked until A-2-7 is reached.

For finer fraction start same procedure as coarse grained soil from A-4 up to A-7.

Soil with lowest number i.e. A-1 is most suitable as highway material as subgrade. Similarly A-2 is better
than A-3. (In classification system A-3 is placed forward of A-2. It does not indicate A-3 is better than A-
2). Similarly A-4 is better than A-5 and so on.

Fine grained soil are further related for their suitability for highways by Group Index (GI) values determined
as follows:

GI  ( F200  35)0.2  0.005( LL  40)  0.01( F200  15)( PI  10)

Where, F200 = percentage by mass passing American Sieve no. 200 (75μ) expressed as a whole number.

LL = liquid limit (%) expressed as whole number.

PI = plasticity index (%) expressed as whole number.

The first term within the braces is determined by LL and second term by PI. While calculating GI values
from above equation, if any term in the parentheses becomes negative, it is dropped and not given –ve
value. The maximum value of (F200-35) and (F200-15) is taken as 40 and that (LL-40) and (PI-10) as 20.
This equation can sometimes be found to be written in following form:
𝐺𝐼 = 0.2𝑎 + 0.005𝑎𝑐 + 0.01𝑏𝑑

Where, a = part of % passing sieve no. 200 greater than 35 and not exceeding 75 expressed as +ve whole
number (range 1 to 40) i.e [(F200-35) which cannot exceed 40]

b = = part of % passing sieve no. 200 greater than 15 and not exceeding 55 expressed as +ve whole number
(range 1 to 40) i.e. [(F200 – 15) which cannot exceed 40]

c = = part of % of LL greater than 40 and not exceeding 60 expressed as +ve whole number (range 1 to 20)
i.e.[(LL-40) which cannot exceed 20]

d = part of % of PI greater than 10 and not exceeding 30 expressed as +ve whole number (range 1 to 20)
i.e.[(PI-10) which cannot exceed 20].

The group index value so obtained is rounded off to nearest whole number. If computed value is –ve the GI
is reported as zero. The group index value is presented in parentheses along with the soil type. For example
if the soil type is A-6 and its GI value is 15 then it is presented as A-6 (15).

Lower the GI value better is the soil for its use in highway subgrade. For example soil with GI = 0 is far
better than soil with its GI = 20.

Comparision between AASHTO and USCS

AASHTO USCS

For soil to be fine grained, fines % should be For soil to be fine grained, fines % should be
greater than 35% greater than 50%

Sieve no. 10 i.e. 2mm divides soil into gravel and Sieve no. 4 i.e. 4.75mm divides soil into gravel and
sand fraction. sand fraction.

Gravelly and sandy soil are not clearly separated. Gravelly and sandy soil are clearly separated.
Only general classification A-2 has be done.

Symbols used are not clear and descriptive. Symbols used are clear and more descriptive.

Time consuming as process of elimination Easy and convenient to use.

required.
 No logical classification of organic soil which is Logical classification of organic soil.
classified only through visual examination

Approximate Equivalence of AASHTO and USCS

AASHTO USCS

A-1a GW, GP

A-1b SW, SM, GM, SP

A-2-4 GM, SM

A-2-5 GM,SM

A-2-6 GC, SC

A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC

A-3 SP

A-4 ML, OL, MH, OH

A-5 MH, OH, ML, OH

A-6 CL

A-7-5 OH, MH, CL, OL

A-7-6 CH, CL, OH

A-8 Pt

Example

Classify soil as per AASHTO for following information

Passing sieve no. 200 = 86%

LL of fraction passing sieve no, 40 = 70%

PI of fraction passing sieve no. 40 = 32%

Solution:

As soil passing sieve no. 200 > 35% it is fine grained soil. So we need to see columns for fine soil i.e. from
A-4 to A-7-6 only (not A-1 to A-2-7 as it is for coarse grained soil)

Seeing column A-4, it passes sieve analysis criteria as sieve passing no. 200 is 86% lies within 36%
minimum. Moving to plasticity characteristics, it fails on LL criteria as LL observed is 70 % but to be A-4
LL should be below 40 (40 max).

Moving to A-5, A-6 and A-7 simultaneously in similar approach performed for A-4, it is found that soil
passes both sieve analysis and plasticity characteristics of fraction passing sieve no.40 so soil is either A-
7-5 or A-7-6.

To categorize into A-7-5 and A-7-6, we have to check whether PI ≤ LL-30 or PI > LL -30. In this case as
PI = 32% and LL-30 = 70-30 =40 so lies on PI ≤ LL-30. So soil is classified as A-7-5 with GI values
required in parentheses.

GI  ( F200  35)0.2  0.005( LL  40)  0.01( F200  15)( PI  10)

= (86-35)[0.2 + 0.005(70-40)] + 0.01(86-15)(32-10)

= 40[0.2 + 0.005(20)] + 0.01(40)(20) = 20

Alternatively,
𝐺𝐼 = 0.2𝑎 + 0.005𝑎𝑐 + 0.01𝑏𝑑

a = 86 – 35 = 51 but it can’t exceed 40, so a=40

b = 86-15 = 71 but it can’t exceed 40, so b = 40

c = 70-40 = 30 but it can’t exceed 20, so c = 20

d = 32-10= 22 but it can’t exceed 20, so d = 20

Therefore,
𝐺𝐼 = 0.2𝑎 + 0.005𝑎𝑐 + 0.01𝑏𝑑 = 0.2 ∗ 40 + 0.005 ∗ 40 ∗ 20 + 0.01 ∗ 40 ∗ 20 = 20

So soil is A-7-5 (20)

British Standard Soil Classification System (BSSCS)

The system divides soil into two main categories. If at least 35% of a soil can pass through a 63 µm sieve
then it is a fine soil. Conversely, if the amount of soil that can pass through the 63 µm sieve is less than
35% then it is a coarse soil. Each category is divided into groups, depending upon the grading of the soil
particles not passing the 63 µm sieve and upon the plasticity characteristics of the soil particles passing the
425 µm sieve.

A summary of the BSCS is shown in Table below and its associated plasticity chart in Figure below. To
use the plasticity chart it is necessary to plot a point whose coordinates are the liquid limit and the plasticity
index of the soil to be identified. The soil is classified by observing the position of the point relative to the
sloping straight line drawn across the diagram.

This line, known as the A-line, is an empirical boundary between inorganic clays, whose points lie above
the line, and organic silts and clays whose points lie below. The A-line goes through the base line at Ip = 0,
WL= 20% so that its equation is:

Ip= 0. 73(WL -20%).

The main soil types are designated by capital letters:

G Gravel M Silt, M-soil

S Sand C Clay

F Fine soil, Fines Pt Peat

The classification ‘F’ is intended for use when there is difficulty in determining whether a soil is a silt or a
clay.
Originally all soils that plotted below the A-line of the plasticity charts were classified as silts. The term
‘M-soil’ has been introduced to classify soils that plot below the A-line but have particle size distributions
not wholly in the range of silt sizes.

Behind the letter designating the main soil type additional letters are added to further describe the soil and
to denote its grading and plasticity. These letters are:

W Well graded L Low plasticity (w < 35%)

P Poorly graded I Intermediate (35 ≤ wL≤ 70)

Pu Uniform H High plasticity (50 ≤w ≤ 70)

Pg Gap graded V Very high (70≤w≤90)

O Organic E Extremely high(wL> 90%)

The letter O is applied at the end of the group symbol for a soil, no matter what type, if the soil has a
significant amount of organic matter within it.

Examples of the use of the symbols are set out below.

Soil Description Group Symbol

Well graded silty sand SWM

Organic clay of high plasticity CHO

Sandy clay of intermediate plasticity CIS

Uniform clayey sand SPuF

Figure 9 Plasticity chart for BSCS

When classification tests are carried out on a stony soil sample any particles nominally greater than 60 mm
are removed by sieving (with a standard 63 mm sieve) and their percentage determined. The tests are then
carried out on the remaining soil. The material removed is classed as cobbles, 66 to 200 mm in size, with
symbol Cb, or boulders, greater than 200 mm in size, with the symbol B.

Fine and coarse soils that contain cobbles, or cobbles and boulders, are indicated in symbols by the use of
the addition sign. For instance, a well graded SAND with gravel and cobbles would have the group symbol
SWG + Cb.
Figure 10 BSCS as per BS 5930
Example

A set of particle size distribution analyses on three soil, A, B, C gave the following results:

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

Soil A Soil B Soil C

20 90 - -

10 56 - -

6.3 47 - -

2 44 - -

0.6 40 95 -

0.425 - 80 -

0.3 29 10 -

0.212 - 3 -

0.150 - - 100

0.063 5 1 91

In case of soil C as more than 10% passed 63μm sieve, a hydrometer analysis was performed. The results
obtained were:

% passing
Sieve Size (mm)
Soil C

0.04 78

0.02 61

0.006 47
 0.002 40

Soil C was found to have liquid limit of 48% and Plastic limit of 21%. Plot particle size distribution and
classify soil as per BSCS.

Solution:

120
GSD
100

80
% finer

60

40

Soil A
20
SoilB
SoilC
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
log10(Dmm)

Form gain size distribution plot of A, B, C, the D10, D30 and D60 value is obtained as follows:

Soil D10 (mm) D30 (mm) D60 (mm) Cu Cc

A 0.08 0.31 11 137.5 0.1

B 0.3 0.32 0.44 1.46 0.7

Soil A: From the grading curve it is seen that this soil consists of 56% gravel and 44% sand and is therefore
predominantly gravel. The curve has a horizontal portion indicating that the soil has only a small percentage
of soil particles within this range. It is therefore gap graded and also Cc<1. The soil is a gap graded sandy
GRAVEL. Group symbol GPS.

[Note:-it is named with fines as fines present is only 5%]

Soil B: From the grading curve it is immediately seen that this soil is a sand with most of its particles about
the same size and also Cu nearly equal to 1 also indicates soil is uniform. The soil is a uniformly graded
SAND. Group symbol SPu.

[Note:-it is named with fines as fines present is only 1%]

Soil C: It is interesting to note that, as the whole of soil C passed the 425 µm sieve, there would be no need
to remove any of the soil before subjecting it to the consistency limit tests. From the grading curve, by
considering particle sizes only, the soil is a mixture of 9% sand, 49% silt and 40% clay. The soil is
undoubtedly fine and the group symbol could be F, although, as the silt particles are more dominant than
the clay, it could be given the symbol MC. The liquid limit of the soil is 48% which, according to BS 5930,
indicates an intermediate plasticity. The group symbol of the soil could therefore be either FI or MCI.

However, for mixtures of fine soils BS 5930 suggests that classification is best carried out by the use of the
plasticity chart shown in Figure above. The liquid limit of the soil = 48% and the plasticity index,
(wL- wp) = 27%. Using plasticity chart it is seen that the British system classifies the soil as an inorganic
clay with the group symbol CI.