CE - 223 Unit 1 L 1 Introduction, Soil Formation

CE 223
Soil Mechanics
Dr. Manendra Singh
1 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

COURSE PLAN
Course No. : CE-223

Course Name: SOIL MECHANICS
Course Coordinator: Dr. Manendra Singh
Course Type: Core
Course Credits: 04
Contact Hours/Week: 3L + 1T

Course Objectives
 To impart knowledge about the engineering properties of

soils
 To introduce the fundamental concepts relevant to the
behaviour of soils
 To enable the students to understand the factors that control
the behaviour of the soils

Syllabus
UNIT-01 Soil properties- 8L

Soil mechanics, rock mechanics ,foundation engineering, soil
formation, soil structure, soil map of India.
Basic definitions, phase diagram, water content, specific
gravity, void ratio, porosity, unit weight,
weight volume relationships,
index properties of soil and their determination,
Soil classification

Syllabus
UNIT-02 Permeability, Seepage: 6L
 Darcy’s law and its validity, seepage velocity, discharge velocity,
 constant and variable head permea‐meter, pumping in & out
tests,
 permeability of stratified soils, factors affecting permeability,
laplace’s equation, flow potential flow net and its properties,
different methods of drawing flownets, seepage pressure, quick
sand, exit gradient, piping, design of filter,
 principle of total and effective stresses,
 capillarity conditions in soil, effective and pore pressures.

Syllabus
UNIT-03 Stress Distribution: 6L
 Effective and pore pressures, Effective stress principle.
 Stress distribution in soil, assumptions in elastic theories,
Boussinesq’s equation for point, line, circular and rectangular
loads, Westergaad’s formula for point load, comparison of
Boussinesq’s andWestergaard’s equation,
 concept and use of pressure bulbs,
 principle and use of New mark’s influence chart,
 contact pressure.

Syllabus
UNIT-04 Compaction: 4L
 Mechanism of compaction, objective of compaction,
measurement of compaction, factors affecting compaction,
 optimum moisture content, Standard Proctor test, Modified
Proctor test, effect of moisture content and compactive effort
on dry density, zero air void curve,
 compaction of cohesionless soils,
 field compaction, field control of compaction.

Syllabus
UNIT-05 Consolidation:
 Mechanism of consolidation, e‐log)p) curves, basic definitions,
estimation of pre consolidation pressure, normally
consolidation and over consolidation ratio,
 Terzaghi’s theory of one dimensional consolidation,
assumptions, governing equation, standard solution,
 laboratory determination of consolidation properties of soil,
magnitude and rate of consolidation,
 settlements, secondary consolidation, compression
characteristics of clays and settlement analysis

Syllabus
UNIT-06 Shear strength:
 Normal, shear and principal stresses,
 Columb’s equation, Mohr’s stress circle, Mohr‐Columb failure
criteria,
 laboratory determination of shear parameters of soil by direct
shear tests, triaxial test, unconfined compression test, Vane shear
test, Consolidated drained, consolidated undrained and
unconsolidated undrained shear test,
 pore pressure parameters,
 Lambe’s p‐q diagram

Text Books
 Basic and applied soil mechanics by Gopal

Ranjon & ASR Rao, New Age International Pvt
Ltd Publishers.
 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering by Brij
Mohan Das, CENGAGE Learning

Marks Distribution
Component Marks
Continuous Assignments 10
Semester Surprise tests 10
Assessment
(CSA)*
Mid Sem. Exam 30
End Sem. Exam 50
Total 100
*Additional marks in CSA will me added based on percentage of attendance but
maximum marks is 20.
% Attendance Marks
≥90 5
80 to 89 4
75-79 3
50-74 Marks will be deducted as per Clause
8.1 of Bachelor ordinance
11
<50 Detained from end sem. exam
Attendance Requirement
Clause 8.1 of Bachelor ordinance
 Attendance in all classes (lectures/tutorials, laboratories, etc.) is
compulsory. All B.Tech./B.Arch./Dual Degree students are normally
required to have full (100%) attendance in each theory/laboratory
course.
 However, a student having deficient attendance on account of illness,
participation in extra-curricular and co-curricular activities or any
other genuine ground, can be given attendance relaxation to the
maximum extent of 25%.
 If the attendance is less than 75%, then the marks obtained in
Continuous Semester Assessment (CSA) will be reduced in proportion
of deficient attendance less than 75%. Therefore, if the student has
secured Marks_CSA in Continuous Semester Assessment, his/her marks
shall be reduced to Marks_R.

Clause 8.1 of Bachelor ordinance
 Such attendance shortage cases (i.e. less than 75%) shall be
dealt as under:
 1. A student having attendance less than 75% but higher
than or equal to 50% in a course will be allowed to appear
in End Semester Examination of that course and his/her
reduced marks shall be computed as
 2. A student having attendance less than 50% in a course will not be

allowed to appear in End Semester Examination of that course and will
be declared fail in that course. However, the student may appear in the
next Supplementary Examination to be conducted by the Institute.
His/her reduced marks shall be computed as
13
 Deduction factor = 1- 2*(75-%Attendance)/100
 Example:1
CSA marks = 20
% Attendance = 50
Deduction factor = 0.5
Modified CSA = CSA marks * deduction factor
= 20 * 0.5 = 10
Example:2
CSA marks = 18
% Attendance = 60
Deduction factor = 0.7
Modified CSA = CSA marks * deduction factor
= 18 * 0.7 = 10.8
14
Grading Policy
• The students must secure a minimum 15

marks in the End Semester Exam in
addition to internal marks for passing the
subject.

Course Outcomes
 Upon successful completion of the course, the

students will be able to
 CO1: Identify index properties of soil and to classify
the soils
 CO2: Describe the behaviour of the soils
 CO3: Apply principles of soil mechanics to civil
engineering problem

Unit-01
Soil Formation

Introduction
 The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in
which it is being considered. It has originated from the LATIN word
“Solum”
 To a Pedologist ... Soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface,

which grows and develops plant life.
 To a Geologist ..... Soil is the material in the relative thin surface zone
within which roots occur, and all the rest of the crust is grouped under
the term ROCK irrespective of its hardness.
 To a Civil Engineer .... Soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits

of mineral and/or organic particles or fragments covering large portion
of the earth's crust.
Introduction
 For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the
uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed
organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles.
 Soil is used as a construction material in various civil
engineering projects, and it supports structural
foundations.
 Thus, civil engineers must study the: properties of soil,
such as its origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain
water, compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing
capacity.

Introduction
 Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the
study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of
soil masses subjected to various types of forces.
 Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil
mechanics to practical problems.
 Rock mechanics deals with the application of the principles
of mechanics to understand the behavior of rock mass.
 Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil
engineering that involves natural materials found close to
the surface of the earth. It includes the application of the
principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the
design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth
structures.

Introduction
Now a days Geotechnical Engineering contains:
 Soil Mechanics (Soil Properties and Behavior)
 Soil Dynamics (Dynamic Properties of Soils, Earthquake
Engineering, Machine Foundation)
 Foundation Engineering (Deep & Shallow Foundation)
 Pavement Engineering (Flexible & Rigid Pavement)
 Rock Mechanics (Rock Stability and Tunneling)
 Geosynthetics (Soil Improvement)

Introduction
“Soil Mechanics is one of the discipline of Civil

Engineering involving the study of soil, its behavior and
application as an engineering material”
*According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the

application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other
unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the mechanical and chemical
disintegration of rocks regardless of whether or not they
contain an admixture of organic constituent."

Introduction
Why do you need to learn about soils?

Almost all structures are either
constructed of soil, supported on soil, or
both.
Dr. Manendra Singh, 23

NITH
Introduction
Why do you need to learn about soils

Various reasons to study the properties of
Soil:
1.Foundation to support Structures and
Embankments
2.Construction Material
3.Slopes and Landslides
4.Earth Retaining Structures
5.Special Problems
NITH
Introduction
Who must be concerned with soils?

Civil engineers (structural, environmental
and geotechnical) must have basic
understanding of the soil properties in
order to use them effectively in
construction.

NITH
Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
❖Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength

capacity of soil!
Transcosna Grain Elevator, Canada Oct. 18, 1913

NITH
❖Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength

capacity of soil!

NITH
❖ Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear
strength capacity of soil!

NITH
❖ Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear
strength capacity of soil!

NITH
❖ Settlement
• Construction of the tower began in 1173
A.D. when the Republic of Pisa was
flourishing and continued in various
stages for over 200 years.
• The structure weighs about 15,700 metric
tons and is supported by a circular base
having a diameter of 20 m.
• The tower has tilted in the past to the east,
north, west, and, finally, to the south.
• Recent investigations showed that a weak
clay layer existed at a depth of about 11 m
below the ground surface compression of
which caused the tower to tilt. It became
more than 5 m out of plumb with the 54 m
height.
NITH Leaning Tower, Pisa
❖ Settlement
• The tower was closed in 1990 because it
was feared that it would either fall over or
collapse.
• It recently has been stabilized by
excavating soil from under the north side
of the tower.
• About 70 metric tons of earth were
removed in 41 separate extractions that
spanned the width of the tower.
• As the ground gradually settled to fill the
resulting space, the tilt of the tower eased.
• The tower now leans 5 degrees.
• The half-degree change is not noticeable,
but it makes the structure considerably
more stable
NITH Leaning Tower, Pisa
❖ Seepage Problems

NITH
Dam Failure - Seepage
Teton Dam Failure

NITH
Soil subjected to dynamic load

NITH
Soil Formation

Soil Formation
 Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition (Rock
weathering) of rocks through the action of physical
(or mechanical) and chemical agents which break them into smaller
and smaller particles.
 All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.
 Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of
rocks.
Rock Weathering : It is the process of disintegration and decomposition
of rocks and minerals at or near the earth’s surface through the
actions of mechanical and chemical agents into smaller and smaller
grains.
Factors affecting Weathering:
1. Changes in Temperature and Pressure
2. Erosion and transportation by wind, water and glaciers
3. Chemical action such as crystal groth, oxidation, hydration,
cabonation and leaching by water.
36
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
Soil Formation
1. Physical weathering
Involves reduction of size without any change in
the original composition of the parent rock.
The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, erosion, freezing, and thawing.
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on
the earth's surface include the actions of
water, frost, temperature changes, wind and
ice.
They cause disintegration and the products are
mainly coarse soils. 37
Soil Formation

NITH
Soil Formation
 FROST ACTION:
In areas where climate conditions are such that temperature often falls
below the freezing point of water during winter and where humidity is
high, freezing of water contained in cavities is a common phenomenon.
This process effects the rocks which are highly jointed or porous in
nature. Water trapped in the cracks, cavities of these rocks freezes and
expands during low temperature period thereby exerting a pushing
pressure on the sides of these openings which leads to widening of these
openings or cavities.
This freezing and thawing cycle will lead to partial or total disintegration
of the rock into smaller pieces.
These fragments are angular or sub angular in outline and may remain
over the rock from which they have been broken. But when the slope is
steeper and vegetation is less, these fragments roll down along the slope
and are deposited near the base.
Soil Formation
THERMAL EFFECTS:
The effect of change of temperature on rock is of
considerable importance in arid and semi-arid regions where
difference between day-time and night time temperatures is
often very high.
This temperature fluctuations produce physical
disintegration which breaks the rock into smaller pieces due
to stresses developing by expansion and contraction.

Soil Formation
2. Chemical weathering causes both reduction in
size and chemical alteration of the original
parent rock.
• The main agents responsible for chemical
weathering are hydration, carbonation, and
oxidation.
• Rain water that comes in contact with the rock
surface reacts to form hydrated oxides,
carbonates and sulphates.
• The results of chemical weathering are generally
fine soils with altered mineral grains.
41
Soil Formation
2. Chemical weathering

NITH
Soil Formation
Rock cycle

General Types of Soil
Residual Soils
Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain

in position at the place of origin. In that case these are
“residual soils”.
Residual soils tend to be more abundant in humid and warm
zones where conditions are favorable to chemical
weathering of rocks and have sufficient vegetation to keep
the products of weathering from being easily transported as
sediments.These soils have the following characteristics.
1.Sizes of grains are not definite because of the partially
disintegrated condition.
2.Grains may break into smaller grains with the application
of little pressure.

Transported Soils
The soils which are transported from the place of origin by
various agencies such as wind, water, ice, gravity etc. and
get deposited when favorable conditions like a decrease of
velocity occur. These soils have the following
characteristics.
1.High degree of alteration of particle shape, size and
texture
2.High degree of smoothness and fineness of individual
grains.

Transported soils are further subdivided into the following types.
1. Alluvial Soils: Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are
called alluvial deposits such as sedimentary clays.
 This is generally found along the banks of rivers (Northern India).
2. Lacustrine soils. : Soils that are deposited by flowing water or
surface runoff while entering a lake are called lacustrine deposits as
Lacustrine silts and clays.
3. Marine Soils: If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water,
they are called marine deposits such as marine silt and clay. Marine
deposits contain both particulate material brought from the shore as
well as organic remnants of marine life forms.
4. Aeolian Soil: Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently
deposited are known as Aeolian deposits such as Loess.
5. Glacial soils. Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all
the materials scoured by it leading to formation ofglacial deposits
such as : Glacial till.
Glacial soil
Aeolian soil Marine soil

Broad classification of soils
Broad classification of soils may be:

1. Coarse-grained soils, with average grain-size greater than
0.075 mm, e.g., gravels and sands.
2. Fine-grained soils, with average grain-size less than 0.075 mm,
e.g., silts and clays.
 These exhibit different properties and behaviour but certain
general conclusions are possible even with this
categorisation. For example, fine-grained soils exhibit the
property of ‘cohesion’—bonding caused by inter-molecular
attraction while coarse-grained soils do not.
 Thus, the former may be said to be cohesive and the latter
non-cohesive or cohesionless.

Some commonly used soils
Bentonite: Decomposed volcanic ash containing high
percentage of clay mineral such as montmorillonite. It
exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling.
Black Cotton Soil: Black soil containing high percentage of
montmorillonite and colloidal material exhibits high
shrinkage and swelling.
Glacial Till or Boulder Clay: Glacial clay containing all sizes of
rocks fragments from boulders down to clay materials.
Calche: Soil conglomerate of gravel, sand and clay cemented by
calcium carbonate.
Hard Pan: Densely cemented soil which remains hard when wet
(Glacial Till)

Laterite Soils: Deep brown soil of cellular structure, easy to
excavate but gets hardened on exposure to air owing to the
formation of hydrated iron oxides.
Loam: It is a mixture of silt, sand and clay size particles in equal
proportions.
Loess: Uniform wind blown yellowish brown silt or silty clay
Marl: Mixtures of calcareous sands or clays or loam; clay
content not more than 75 % and lime content not less than 15
%.
Moorum: Gravel mixed with red clay.
Top-Soil: Surface material which supports plant life.
Peat Soil: It is highly organic soil that almost entirely consists of
vegetative matter in different stages of decomposition. Its
color varies from black to dark brown and it possesses
organic matter. This soil is highly fibrous and possess high
50 compressibility. It is formed to chemical weathering.
Muck Soil: It is fine particle mixture of inorganic soil

and black decomposed organic soil. It is generally
found in the area having indeficient sewerage
facilities or may be observed after over-flooding of
the river. It is formed to chemical weathering.
 Mixure of peat soil and muck soil is termed as
Cumulose Soil.

Soil Map of India
1.Black cotton Soils: Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, parts of Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. On account of high
swelling and shrinkage potential these are
difficult soils to deal with in foundation
design.
2.Marine Soils: Occurring in a narrow belt all
along the coast, in Runn of Kutch. It possess
low strength and high compressibility.
3.Desert Soils: Occurring in Rajasthan. These
are wind blown deposits and are uniformly
graded.
4.Alluvial Soils: Occurring in Indo-Gangetic
Plain north of Vindhyachal Ranges.
5.Laterite Soils: Occurring in Kerala, South
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa and West
52
Bengal.
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
Thank You

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CE 223

Dr. Manendra Singh

1 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Course No. : CE-223

2 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 To impart knowledge about the engineering properties of

3 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

UNIT-01 Soil properties- 8L

4 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

5 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

6 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

7 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

8 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

9 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Basic and applied soil mechanics by Gopal

10 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

12 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 2. A student having attendance less than 50% in a course will not be

• The students must secure a minimum 15

15 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Upon successful completion of the course, the

16 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

17 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 To a Pedologist ... Soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface,

 To a Civil Engineer .... Soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits

19 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

20 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

21 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

“Soil Mechanics is one of the discipline of Civil

*According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the

22 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Why do you need to learn about soils?

Dr. Manendra Singh, 23

Why do you need to learn about soils

Who must be concerned with soils?

Dr. Manendra Singh, 25

❖Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength

Transcosna Grain Elevator, Canada Oct. 18, 1913

❖Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength

Dr. Manendra Singh, 27

Dr. Manendra Singh, 28

Dr. Manendra Singh, 29

Dr. Manendra Singh, 32

Teton Dam Failure

Soil subjected to dynamic load

Dr. Manendra Singh, 34

35 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Dr. Manendra Singh, 38

40 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Dr. Manendra Singh, 42

43 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain

44 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

45 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Aeolian soil Marine soil

Broad classification of soils may be:

48 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

49 Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Muck Soil: It is fine particle mixture of inorganic soil